1
|
Schaffer A, Widdig A, Holland R, Amici F. Evidence of object permanence, short-term spatial memory, causality, understanding of object properties and gravity across five different ungulate species. Sci Rep 2024; 14:13718. [PMID: 38877059 PMCID: PMC11178844 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-64396-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024] Open
Abstract
In their natural environment, animals face a variety of ecological and social challenges, which might be linked to the emergence of different cognitive skills. To assess inter-specific variation in cognitive skills, we used ungulates as a study model, testing a total of 26 captive individuals across 5 different species (i.e., dwarf goats, Capra aegagrus hircus, llamas, Lama glama, guanacos, Lama guanicoe, zebras, Equus grevyi, and rhinos, Diceros bicornis michaeli). Across species, we used the same well-established experimental procedures to test individuals' performance in naïve physics tasks, i.e. object permanence, short-term spatial memory, causality, understanding of object properties, and gravity. Our results revealed that study subjects showed object permanence, were able to remember the position of hidden food after up to 60 s, and inferred the position of hidden food from the sound produced or not produced when shaking containers. Moreover, they showed an understanding of basic object properties, being able to locate objects hidden behind occluders based on their size and inclination, and could reliably follow the trajectory of falling objects across different conditions. Finally, inter-specific differences were limited to the understanding of object properties, and suggest that domesticated species as goats might perform better than non-domesticated ones in tasks requiring these skills. These results provide new information on the cognitive skills of a still understudied taxon and confirm ungulates as a promising taxon for the comparative study of cognitive evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alina Schaffer
- Behavioral Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Anja Widdig
- Behavioral Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Federica Amici
- Research Group Human Biology and Primate Cognition, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
“Dropping” in male horses during training: Part 1. Perceptions from horse trainers. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2023.105896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
|
3
|
Janczarek I, Stachurska A, Pieszka M, Dracz K, Tkaczyk E, Kędzierski W, Łuszczyński J. Effect of fearfulness and cortisol reactivity to stress on the spatial learning performance in mountain primitive horses. J Vet Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2022.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
4
|
Testing individual variations of horses’ tactile reactivity: when, where, how? Naturwissenschaften 2022; 109:41. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-022-01811-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
5
|
Nawroth C, Rosenberger K, Keil NM, Langbein J. Goats ( Capra hircus) From Different Selection Lines Differ in Their Behavioural Flexibility. Front Psychol 2022; 12:796464. [PMID: 35178010 PMCID: PMC8844551 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.796464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Given that domestication provided animals with more stable environmental conditions, artificial selection by humans has likely affected animals' ability to learn novel contingencies and their ability to adapt to changing environments. In addition, the selection for specific traits in domestic animals might have an additional impact on subjects' behavioural flexibility, but also their general learning performance, due to a re-allocation of resources towards parameters of productivity. To test whether animals bred for high productivity would experience a shift towards lower learning performance, we compared the performance of dwarf goats (not selected for production, 15 subjects) and dairy goats (selected for high milk yield, 18 subjects) in a visual discrimination learning and reversal learning task. Goats were tested individually in a test compartment and were rewarded by choosing either a white or a black cup presented by the experimenter on a sliding board behind a crate. Once they reached a designated learning criterion in the initial learning task, they were transferred to the reversal learning task. To increase the heterogeneity of our test sample, data was collected by two experimenters at two research stations following a similar protocol. Goats of both selection lines did not differ in the initial discrimination learning task in contrast to the subsequent reversal learning task. Dairy goats reached the learning criterion slower compared to dwarf goats (dairy goats = 9.18 sessions; dwarf goats = 7.74 sessions; P = 0.016). Our results may indicate that the selection for milk production might have affected behavioural flexibility in goats. These differences in adapting to changing environmental stimuli might have an impact on animal welfare e.g., when subjects have to adapt to new environments or changes in housing and management routines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Nawroth
- Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Institute of Behavioural Physiology, Dummerstorf, Germany
| | - Katrina Rosenberger
- Swiss Food Safety and Veterinary Office, Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Agroscope Tanikon, Ettenhausen, Switzerland
| | - Nina M Keil
- Swiss Food Safety and Veterinary Office, Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Agroscope Tanikon, Ettenhausen, Switzerland
| | - Jan Langbein
- Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Institute of Behavioural Physiology, Dummerstorf, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
The effect of stress and exercise on the learning performance of horses. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1918. [PMID: 35121736 PMCID: PMC8816904 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03582-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Domestic horses are widely used for physically demanding activities but the effect of exercise on their learning abilities has not been explored. Horses are also frequently exposed to stressors that may affect their learning. Stress and exercise result in the release of glucocorticoids, noradrenaline and other neurotransmitters that can influence learning. It is not currently possible to directly measure concentrations of neurotransmitters in the brains of behaving horses, however the inference of neurobiological processes from peripheral markers have been widely used in studies of human cognition. We assigned 41 horses to either ridden exercise, uncontrollable stress or inactivity and evaluated their acquisition of an industry-style aversive instrumental learning task. Exercised horses achieved the learning criterion in the fewest number of trials compared to the stressed and inactive horses whose performance did not differ. The exercised horses’ salivary cortisol concentrations decreased during learning whereas the concentrations of the other groups increased. Spearman’s correlations revealed that horses with the highest cortisol concentrations required the most trials to reach the criterion. We present novel data that exercise prior to learning may enhance the acquisition of learning in horses. Conversely, activities that expose horses to uncontrollable stressors causing strong cortisol release may impair learning. It is proposed that these effects may be due to the influence of neurotransmitters such as cortisol and noradrenaline on brain regions responsible for learning.
Collapse
|
7
|
Olczak K, Klocek C, Christensen JW. Hucul horses’ learning abilities in different learning tests and ue the association with behaviour, food motivation and fearfulness. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
8
|
Christensen JW, Ahrendt LP, Malmkvist J, Nicol C. Exploratory behaviour towards novel objects is associated with enhanced learning in young horses. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1428. [PMID: 33446827 PMCID: PMC7809405 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-80833-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying individual variation in learning are key to understanding the development of cognitive abilities. In humans and primates, curiosity has been suggested as an important intrinsic factor that enhances learning, whereas in domesticated species research has primarily identified factors with a negative effect on cognitive abilities, such as stress and fearfulness. This study presents the first evidence of a link between object-directed curiosity and learning performance in young horses in two very different learning tasks (visual discrimination and pressure-release). We exposed young horses (n = 44) to standardised novel object tests at 5 months and 1 year of age and found consistency in responses. Standard indicators of fearfulness (e.g. heart rate and alertness) were unrelated to learning performance, whereas exploratory behaviour towards the novel objects correlated to performance in both learning tasks. Exploratory behaviour was unreinforced in the novel object tests and likely reflects the animal’s intrinsic motivation (i.e. curiosity), suggesting that this trait is favourable for learning performance. In addition to the insights that these results provide into cognition in a domesticated species, they also raise questions in relation to fostering of curiosity in animals and the impact that such manipulation may have on cognitive abilities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jens Malmkvist
- Department of Animal Science, Aarhus University, Blichers Allé 20, 8830, Tjele, Denmark
| | - Christine Nicol
- Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Ln, Brookmans Park, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, UK
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Burattini B, Fenner K, Anzulewicz A, Romness N, McKenzie J, Wilson B, McGreevy P. Age-Related Changes in the Behaviour of Domestic Horses as Reported by Owners. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10122321. [PMID: 33297447 PMCID: PMC7762420 DOI: 10.3390/ani10122321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Some treatments for common problem behaviours in domestic horses can compromise horse welfare. Such behaviours can be the manifestation of pain, confusion and conflict. In contrast, among the desirable attributes in horses, boldness and independence are two important behavioural traits that affect the fearfulness, assertiveness and sociability of horses when interacting with their environment, objects, conspecifics and humans. Shy and socially dependent horses are generally more difficult to manage and train than their bold and independent counterparts. Previous studies have shown how certain basic temperament traits predict the behavioural output of horses, but few have investigated how the age of the horse and the age it was when started being trained under saddle affect behaviour. Using 1940 responses to the Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ), the current study explored the behavioural evidence of boldness and independence in horses and how these related to the age of the horse. Results revealed age-related effects on boldness and independence of horses. Older horses were bolder than younger horses, but horses started under saddle at an older age were less bold and independent than those started at a younger age. Additionally, significant differences in boldness and independence relating to specific breeds and primary equestrian disciplines also emerged. Finally, riders with eight or more years of riding experience reported having more independent horses than those who had ridden their whole lives. Understanding how horses’ ages affect behavioural traits can improve horse–rider matching and potentially also optimise welfare. Abstract The broad traits of boldness and independence in domestic horses can affect their usefulness and, indirectly, their welfare. The objective of the current study was to explore associations between attributes that reflect equine boldness and independence with both the age of horses and the age at which they were started under saddle, as well as other variables including breed, colour and primary equestrian discipline. All data were sourced from responses (n = 1940) to the 97-question online Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ). Twenty E-BARQ items from the dataset were selected to reflect boldness and independence and were tested for univariate significance at p < 0.2. Multivariable modelling of the effect of age on remaining traits was assessed by an ordinal logistic regression, using a cumulative log odds model. This revealed that older horses were bolder (p = 0.012). However, horses started under saddle at an older age were less bold and less independent (p = 0.040 and p = 0.010, respectively). Australian Stock Horses were bolder and more independent (p = 0.014 and p = 0.007, respectively) than crossbreed horses. Horses used for breeding conformation (p = 0.039), working equitation (p = 0.045), eventing (p = 0.044) and traditional working horses (p = 0.034) were bolder than those used for other disciplines. Dressage (p = 0.039) and therapy (p = 0.040) horses were less bold than horses used for other disciplines. Stallions were bolder (p = −0.034) than geldings. Brown (p = 0.049) and chestnut (p = 0.027) horses were less bold than bay horses. Compared to crossbreed horses, Thoroughbreds (p = 0.000) and companion horses (p = 0.017) were less bold whilst heavy horses (p = 0.029) and ponies (p = 0.044) were bolder. Compared to pleasure horses, mounted games horses (p = 0.033) were less independent whereas working equitation horses (p = 0.020) were more independent. Riders with more than eight years’ experience reported more independence in their horses (p = 0.015) than those who had ridden their whole lives. The study findings suggest that boldness and independence are separate traits and only boldness was associated with the age of the horse. Factors that relate to desirable boldness and independence are important in ridden horses because they can affect rider safety. Results from this study should improve horse–rider matching and thereby potentially enhance horse welfare.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bibiana Burattini
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia; (K.F.); (A.A.); (N.R.); (B.W.); (P.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-409-326-343
| | - Kate Fenner
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia; (K.F.); (A.A.); (N.R.); (B.W.); (P.M.)
| | - Ashley Anzulewicz
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia; (K.F.); (A.A.); (N.R.); (B.W.); (P.M.)
| | - Nicole Romness
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia; (K.F.); (A.A.); (N.R.); (B.W.); (P.M.)
| | - Jessica McKenzie
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Bethany Wilson
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia; (K.F.); (A.A.); (N.R.); (B.W.); (P.M.)
| | - Paul McGreevy
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia; (K.F.); (A.A.); (N.R.); (B.W.); (P.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Briefer Freymond S, Beuret S, Ruet A, Zuberbühler K, Bachmann I, Briefer E. Stereotypic behaviour in horses lowers stress but not spatial learning performance. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
|
11
|
Trösch M, Flamand A, Chasles M, Nowak R, Calandreau L, Lansade L. Horses Solve Visible but Not Invisible Displacement Tasks in an Object Permanence Paradigm. Front Psychol 2020; 11:562989. [PMID: 33117229 PMCID: PMC7552213 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.562989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A key question in the field of animal cognition is how animals comprehend their physical world. Object permanence is one of the fundamental features of physical cognition. It is the ability to reason about hidden objects and to mentally reconstruct their invisible displacements. This cognitive skill has been studied in a wide range of species but never directly in the horse (Equus caballus). In this study, we therefore assessed the understanding of visible and invisible displacements in adult Welsh mares in two complementary experiments, using different horses. In experiment 1, visible displacement was investigated using two tasks adapted from the Uzgiris and Hunt scale 1. Invisible displacement was assessed using a transposition task, in which food was first hidden in one of two containers and the location of the containers was then switched. In experiment 2, we further investigated horses’ understanding of visible and invisible displacements using an easier procedure designed to avoid potentially confounding factors. In both experiments, horses successfully completed the tasks involving visible displacement with two or three possible hiding places. However, in both experiments, horses failed the transposition tasks, suggesting that they may not be able to track the displacement of an object that is not directly perceived (i.e., invisible displacement). These results bring new insights into object permanence in horses and how they represent their physical world.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miléna Trösch
- UMR Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportement (PRC), Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut Français du Cheval et de l'Equitation (IFCE), Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Anna Flamand
- UMR Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportement (PRC), Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut Français du Cheval et de l'Equitation (IFCE), Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Manon Chasles
- UMR Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportement (PRC), Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut Français du Cheval et de l'Equitation (IFCE), Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Raymond Nowak
- UMR Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportement (PRC), Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut Français du Cheval et de l'Equitation (IFCE), Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Ludovic Calandreau
- UMR Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportement (PRC), Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut Français du Cheval et de l'Equitation (IFCE), Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Léa Lansade
- UMR Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportement (PRC), Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut Français du Cheval et de l'Equitation (IFCE), Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Lormant F, Ferreira VHB, Meurisse M, Lemarchand J, Constantin P, Morisse M, Cornilleau F, Parias C, Chaillou E, Bertin A, Lansade L, Leterrier C, Lévy F, Calandreau L. Emotionality modulates the impact of chronic stress on memory and neurogenesis in birds. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14620. [PMID: 32884096 PMCID: PMC7471904 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71680-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic stress is a strong modulator of cognitive processes, such as learning and memory. There is, however, great within-individual variation in how an animal perceives and reacts to stressors. These differences in coping with stress modulate the development of stress-induced memory alterations. The present study investigated whether and how chronic stress and individual emotionality interrelate and influence memory performances and brain neurogenesis in birds. For that, we used two lines of Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) with divergent emotionality levels. Highly (E+) and less (E-) emotional quail were submitted to chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) for 3 weeks and trained in a spatial task and a discrimination task, a form of cue-based memory. E + and E- birds were also used to assess the impact of CUS and emotionality on neurogenesis within the hippocampus and the striatum. CUS negatively impacted spatial memory, and cell proliferation, and survival in the hippocampus. High emotionality was associated with a decreased hippocampal neurogenesis. CUS improved discrimination performances and favored the differentiation of newborn cells into mature neurons in the striatum, specifically in E+ birds. Our results provide evidence that CUS consequences on memory and neural plasticity depends both on the memory system and individual differences in behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Flore Lormant
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Vitor Hugo Bessa Ferreira
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Yncréa Hauts-de-France, ISA Lille, 48 bd Vauban, 59046, Lille Cedex, France
| | - Maryse Meurisse
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Julie Lemarchand
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Paul Constantin
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Mélody Morisse
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Fabien Cornilleau
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Céline Parias
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Elodie Chaillou
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Aline Bertin
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Léa Lansade
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Christine Leterrier
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Frédéric Lévy
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France.,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France.,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Ludovic Calandreau
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, 37380, Nouzilly, France. .,CNRS, UMR 7247, 37380, Nouzilly, France. .,Université François Rabelais, 37041, Tours, France. .,IFCE, 37380, Nouzilly, France.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Sauer FJ, Hermann M, Ramseyer A, Burger D, Riemer S, Gerber V. Effects of breed, management and personality on cortisol reactivity in sport horses. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0221794. [PMID: 31790402 PMCID: PMC6886778 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0221794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sport horses need to fulfill high physical and psychological requirements during training and competition. These as well as certain conditions of modern husbandry may affect their wellbeing. Here we aimed to (1) evaluate effects of demographic and management factors as well as personality traits on stress reactivity of sport horses, (2) investigate if elite sport horses have elevated stress levels compared to amateur sport horses, and (3) assess whether different equestrian disciplines differentially influence equine adrenal cortex responsiveness. For this purpose, we visited 149 healthy elite (n = 94) and amateur (n = 54) sport horses in Switzerland and performed an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test. Additionally, a person who was familiar with the horse completed a questionnaire about demographic and management factors and their horses' personality traits. Linear models were calculated to assess associations between the questionnaire data and salivary cortisol 60 (T60) and 90 (T90) minutes after ACTH stimulation. While the model at T90 was not significant, post-stimulatory cortisol after 60 minutes appears most informative in line with a previous study and was significantly affected by the breed and by three management factors: "number of riders", "hours spent outside" and "group housing" (adjusted r2 = 15%, p<0.001). Thoroughbred and Warmblood horses displayed an increased adrenal response compared to Franches-Montagnes horses. Horses with several riders had a less pronounced reaction than horses with one rider, and horses that spent more time outside had a decreased response compared to horses that were stabled most of the time. Horses living in groups showed higher post-stimulatory cortisol values than horses that were housed singly. However, no significant associations of cortisol responsiveness with personality traits were found, and neither the use as elite or as amateur sport horses nor the discipline had an effect on the cortisol response. This suggests that optimizing husbandry conditions may be more important for improving equine welfare than changing their use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fay J. Sauer
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Swiss Institute for Equine Medicine (ISME), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, and Agroscope, Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marco Hermann
- Pferdemedizin Hermann GmbH, Niederlenz, Aargau, Switzerland
| | - Alessandra Ramseyer
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Swiss Institute for Equine Medicine (ISME), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, and Agroscope, Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Dominik Burger
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Swiss Institute for Equine Medicine (ISME), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, and Agroscope, Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Stefanie Riemer
- Division of Animal Welfare, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Vinzenz Gerber
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Swiss Institute for Equine Medicine (ISME), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, and Agroscope, Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
|
15
|
Hausberger M, Stomp M, Sankey C, Brajon S, Lunel C, Henry S. Mutual interactions between cognition and welfare: The horse as an animal model. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:540-559. [PMID: 31491471 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 08/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Research in cognitive psychology has repeatedly shown how much cognition and emotions are mutually related to one another. Psychological disorders are associated with cognitive (attention, memory and judgment) biases and chronic pain may affect attention, learning or memory. Laboratory studies have provided useful insights about the processes involved but observations about spontaneous animal models, living in different stress/welfare conditions may help understand further how cognition and welfare are interrelated in the « real world ». Domestic horses constitute such a model as they live in a variety of conditions that impact differently their welfare state. In the present review, we try and provide an overview of the scientific literature on cognition and welfare of domestic horses and their interrelationship. We address how emotions and welfare may affect cognitive processes in horses and impact the way they perceive their environment (including work). We propose new methods for assessing the relationship between welfare and cognition and open up the discussion on the evolution of the brain and the part domestication may have played.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Hausberger
- CNRS, Laboratoire d'Ethologie animale et humaine, UMR6552, Université de Rennes, Université de Caen-Normandie, Campus de Beaulieu, Avenue du Général Leclerc, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France.
| | - M Stomp
- Université de Rennes, Laboratoire d'Ethologie animale et humaine, UMR 6552, CNRS, Université de Caen-Normandie, Station Biologique, 35380 Paimpont, France
| | - C Sankey
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut de Psychologie, Laboratoire de Psychopathologie et Processus de Santé (EA 4057), France
| | - S Brajon
- Université Laval, Départment des Sciences Animales, Ville de Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - C Lunel
- IGEPP, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Université de Rennes, Université Bretagne-Loire, Rennes, France
| | - S Henry
- Université de Rennes, Laboratoire d'Ethologie animale et humaine, UMR 6552, CNRS, Université de Caen-Normandie, Station Biologique, 35380 Paimpont, France
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Fenner K, Freire R, McLean A, McGreevy P. Behavioral, demographic, and management influences on equine responses to negative reinforcement. J Vet Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
17
|
Sackman JE, Houpt KA. Equine Personality: Association With Breed, Use, and Husbandry Factors. J Equine Vet Sci 2018; 72:47-55. [PMID: 30929783 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Temperament can be defined as innate properties of the nervous system, whereas personality includes the complex behavioral traits acquired through life. Association between personality and behavior is important for breeding, selection, and training of horses. For the first time, we evaluated if equine personality components previously identified in Japan and Europe were consistent when applied to American horses. We examined the association of personality with breed, age, sex, management, training, stereotypies, and misbehaviors. The owner directed personality survey consisted of 25 questions. An online version of the survey was created. The principal component analysis method was used to associate behavioral traits with personality components. Factor analysis with orthogonal transformation was performed on scores for personality-related questions. A total of 847 survey responses were used. Quarter Horses, "other" breed, and Thoroughbred were the most common breeds. Three principal personality components were extracted as each behavioral trait belonged to one of these three components. Arabians, Thoroughbreds, Saddlebreds, and Walking horses were the most nervous and Quarter Horses, and Paints, Appaloosas, and Drafts were the least nervous. No trained discipline was significantly associated with any personality component. There were no significant associations between stereotypies and misbehaviors and nervous or curious personality. For the first time in predominantly American horses, we have evaluated personality components and their association with breed, age, sex, training discipline, and stereotypies. We refute links between personality and trained discipline and confirm the lack of association between nervous personality and stereotypies and misbehaviors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jill E Sackman
- Exponent, Farmington Hills, MI; Behavior Medicine Service, Blue Pearl Veterinary Partners, Southfield, MI.
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Stereotypic horses (Equus caballus) are not cognitively impaired. Anim Cogn 2018; 22:17-33. [PMID: 30328528 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-018-1217-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Stereotypies in animals are thought to arise from an interaction between genetic predisposition and sub-optimal housing conditions. In domestic horses, a well-studied stereotypy is crib-biting, an abnormal behaviour that appears to help individuals to cope with stressful situations. One prominent hypothesis states that animals affected by stereotypies are cognitively less flexible compared to healthy controls, due to sensitization of a specific brain area, the basal ganglia. The aim of this study was to test this hypothesis in crib-biting and healthy controls, using a cognitive task, reversal learning, which has been used as a diagnostic for basal ganglia dysfunction. The procedure consisted of exposing subjects to four learning tasks; first and second acquisition, and their reversals. For each task, we measured the number of trials to reach criterion and heart rate and heart-rate variability. Importantly, we did not try to prevent crib-biters from executing their stereotypic behaviour. We found that the first reversal learning task required the largest number of trials, confirming its challenging nature. Interestingly, the second reversal learning task required significantly fewer trials to reach criterion, suggesting generalisation learning. However, we did not find any performance differences across groups; both stereotypic and control animals required a similar numbers of trials and did not differ in their physiological responses. Our results thus challenge the widely held belief that crib-biting horses, and stereotypic animals more generally, are cognitively impaired. We conclude that cognitive underperformance may occur in stereotypic horses if they are prevented from crib-biting to cope with experienced stress.
Collapse
|
19
|
Olczak K, Winther Christensen J, Klocek C. Food motivation in horses appears stable across different test situations. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
20
|
Coutant T, Bagur S, Gilbert C. Development of an observational quantitative temperament test in three common parrot species. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2018.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
|
21
|
Stress affects instrumental learning based on positive or negative reinforcement in interaction with personality in domestic horses. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170783. [PMID: 28475581 PMCID: PMC5419560 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study investigated how stress affects instrumental learning performance in horses (Equus caballus) depending on the type of reinforcement. Horses were assigned to four groups (N = 15 per group); each group received training with negative or positive reinforcement in the presence or absence of stressors unrelated to the learning task. The instrumental learning task consisted of the horse entering one of two compartments at the appearance of a visual signal given by the experimenter. In the absence of stressors unrelated to the task, learning performance did not differ between negative and positive reinforcements. The presence of stressors unrelated to the task (exposure to novel and sudden stimuli) impaired learning performance. Interestingly, this learning deficit was smaller when the negative reinforcement was used. The negative reinforcement, considered as a stressor related to the task, could have counterbalanced the impact of the extrinsic stressor by focusing attention toward the learning task. In addition, learning performance appears to differ between certain dimensions of personality depending on the presence of stressors and the type of reinforcement. These results suggest that when negative reinforcement is used (i.e. stressor related to the task), the most fearful horses may be the best performers in the absence of stressors but the worst performers when stressors are present. On the contrary, when positive reinforcement is used, the most fearful horses appear to be consistently the worst performers, with and without exposure to stressors unrelated to the learning task. This study is the first to demonstrate in ungulates that stress affects learning performance differentially according to the type of reinforcement and in interaction with personality. It provides fundamental and applied perspectives in the understanding of the relationships between personality and training abilities.
Collapse
|
22
|
|
23
|
Lansade L, Marchand AR, Coutureau E, Ballé C, Polli F, Calandreau L. Personality and predisposition to form habit behaviours during instrumental conditioning in horses (Equus caballus). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0171010. [PMID: 28158199 PMCID: PMC5291538 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationship between personality and learning abilities has become a growing field of interest. Studies have mainly focused on the relationship with performance, such as the speed of acquisition. In this study, we hypothesised that personality could in part also be related to a certain predisposition of an individual to switch more easily from a goal-directed process to a habit process during learning. To identify these processes, we conducted a contingency degradation protocol. This study investigated 1/ whether in general horses are able to adjust their response according to the contingency between their action and the reward, 2/ whether there are any relationships between certain personality profiles and a predisposition to switch more rapidly to habitual processes, and 3/ whether emotional states experienced during the learning procedure play a role in this switching. Personality tests were conducted on 29 horses, followed by a degradation contingency protocol. Overall, results show that horses were sensitive to contingency degradation between their action and the reward. Nevertheless, there was inter-individual variability: the horses presenting high fearfulness, and to a lesser extent low sensory sensitivity and low gregariousness were less sensitive to the degradation, demonstrating that they were more likely to switch to a habitual process. Contrary to our expectations, the emotional state experienced during the procedure did not seem to explain this switching. We conclude that personality is not only related to learning performance, but also in part to the process involved during learning, independently of the emotion experienced during the process. This study provides new theoretical knowledge on cognitive skills in ungulates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Léa Lansade
- PRC, INRA, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Alain R. Marchand
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d’Aquitaine (INCIA), Université de Bordeaux, Talence, France
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d’Aquitaine (INCIA), CNRS, UMR 5287, Talence, France
| | - Etienne Coutureau
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d’Aquitaine (INCIA), Université de Bordeaux, Talence, France
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d’Aquitaine (INCIA), CNRS, UMR 5287, Talence, France
| | - Cyrielle Ballé
- PRC, INRA, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | - Floriane Polli
- PRC, INRA, CNRS, IFCE, Université de Tours, Nouzilly, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Klemme I, Karvonen A. Learned parasite avoidance is driven by host personality and resistance to infection in a fish-trematode interaction. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 283:20161148. [PMID: 27605504 PMCID: PMC5031654 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.1148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive abilities related to the assessment of risk improve survival. While earlier studies have examined the ability of animals to learn to avoid predators, learned parasite avoidance has received little interest. In a series of behavioural trials with the trematode parasite Diplostomum pseudospathaceum, we asked whether sea trout (Salmo trutta trutta) hosts show associative learning in the context of parasitism and if so, whether learning capacity is related to the likelihood of infection mediated through host personality and resistance. We show that animals are capable of learning to avoid visual cues associated with the presence of parasites. However, avoidance behaviour ceased after the likely activation of host resistance following consecutive exposures during learning, suggesting that resistance to infection outweighs avoidance. Further, we found a positive relationship between learning ability and boldness, suggesting a compensation of risky lifestyles through increased investment in cognitive abilities. By contrast, an increased risk of infection due to low resistance was not balanced by learning ability. Instead, these traits were positively related, which may be explained by inherent physiological qualities controlling both traits. Overall, the results demonstrate that parasitism, in addition to other biological interactions such as predation, is an important selective factor in the evolution of animal cognition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ines Klemme
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyvaskyla, PO Box 35, 40014 University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Anssi Karvonen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyvaskyla, PO Box 35, 40014 University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
A desired profile of horse personality – A survey study of Polish equestrians based on a new approach to equine temperament and character. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2016.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
26
|
Brajon S, Laforest JP, Schmitt O, Devillers N. A preliminary study of the effects of individual response to challenge tests and stress induced by humans on learning performance of weaned piglets (Sus scrofa). Behav Processes 2016; 129:27-36. [PMID: 27246576 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated whether individual behavioural characteristics of piglets and stress induced by experience with humans can influence learning performance. After weaning, piglets received a chronic experience with humans to modulate their emotional state: rough (ROU), gentle (GEN), or minimal (MIN) experience. Simultaneously, they were trained on a discrimination task. Afterward, their behaviour during challenge tests was assessed. The first learning step of the task involved associating a positive sound cue with a response (approach a trough) and success of piglets depended mostly on motivation to seek for reward. Although the experience with humans did not have direct effect, the degree of fear of handler, measured based on their reactivity to a human approach test, was related to motivation to seek rewards and learning speed of this first step in stressed ROU piglets, but not in MIN and GEN piglets. In contrast, the second learning step was more cognitively challenging, since it involved discrimination learning, including negative cues during which piglets had to learn to avoid the trough. Locomotion activity, measured during an open-field test, was associated with performance of the discrimination learning. To conclude, fearfulness towards humans and locomotion activity are linked with learning performance in relation to task complexity, highlighting the necessity to take into account these factors in animal research and management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Brajon
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Dairy and Swine Research and Development Centre, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada; Université Laval, Department of Animal Science, Quebec city, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jean-Paul Laforest
- Université Laval, Department of Animal Science, Quebec city, Quebec, Canada
| | - Océane Schmitt
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Dairy and Swine Research and Development Centre, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nicolas Devillers
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Dairy and Swine Research and Development Centre, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Brubaker L, Udell MA. Cognition and learning in horses (Equus caballus): What we know and why we should ask more. Behav Processes 2016; 126:121-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
|
28
|
Development of personality tests to use in the field, stable over time and across situations, and linked to horses' show jumping performance. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2016.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
29
|
|
30
|
Briard L, Dorn C, Petit O. Personality and Affinities Play a Key Role in the Organisation of Collective Movements in a Group of Domestic Horses. Ethology 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Léa Briard
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique; Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien; Strasbourg France
- Université de Strasbourg; Strasbourg France
- Service d'Écologie Sociale; Université Libre de Bruxelles; Bruxelles Belgium
| | | | - Odile Petit
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique; Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien; Strasbourg France
- Université de Strasbourg; Strasbourg France
- Service d'Écologie Sociale; Université Libre de Bruxelles; Bruxelles Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Morand-Ferron J, Cole EF, Quinn JL. Studying the evolutionary ecology of cognition in the wild: a review of practical and conceptual challenges. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2015; 91:367-89. [PMID: 25631282 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Revised: 12/11/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cognition is defined as the processes by which animals collect, retain and use information from their environment to guide their behaviour. Thus cognition is essential in a wide range of behaviours, including foraging, avoiding predators and mating. Despite this pivotal role, the evolutionary processes shaping variation in cognitive performance among individuals in wild populations remain very poorly understood. Selection experiments in captivity suggest that cognitive traits can have substantial heritability and can undergo rapid evolution. However only a handful of studies have attempted to explore how cognition influences life-history variation and fitness in the wild, and direct evidence for the action of natural or sexual selection on cognition is still lacking, reasons for which are diverse. Here we review the current literature with a view to: (i) highlighting the key practical and conceptual challenges faced by the field; (ii) describing how to define and measure cognitive traits in natural populations, and suggesting which species, populations and cognitive traits might be examined to greatest effect; emphasis is placed on selecting traits that are linked to functional behaviour; (iii) discussing how to deal with confounding factors such as personality and motivation in field as well as captive studies; (iv) describing how to measure and interpret relationships between cognitive performance, functional behaviour and fitness, offering some suggestions as to when and what kind of selection might be predicted; and (v) showing how an evolutionary ecological framework, more generally, along with innovative technologies has the potential to revolutionise the study of cognition in the wild. We conclude that the evolutionary ecology of cognition in wild populations is a rapidly expanding interdisciplinary field providing many opportunities for advancing the understanding of how cognitive abilities have evolved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Morand-Ferron
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, Gendron Hall, room 160, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Ella F Cole
- Edward Grey Institute, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, U.K
| | - John L Quinn
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Distillery Fields, North Mall, Cork, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Bulens A, Sterken H, Van Beirendonck S, Van Thielen J, Driessen B. The use of different objects during a novel object test in stabled horses. J Vet Behav 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2014.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
33
|
Behavioral and Transcriptomic Fingerprints of an Enriched Environment in Horses (Equus caballus). PLoS One 2014; 9:e114384. [PMID: 25494179 PMCID: PMC4262392 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of environmental enrichment (EE) has grown in popularity over decades, particularly because EE is known to promote cognitive functions and well-being. Nonetheless, little is known about how EE may affect personality and gene expression. To address this question in a domestic animal, 10-month-old horses were maintained in a controlled environment or EE for 12 weeks. The control horses (n = 9) lived in individual stalls on wood shaving bedding. They were turned out to individual paddocks three times a week and were fed three times a day with pellets or hay. EE-treated horses (n = 10) were housed in large individual stalls on straw bedding 7 hours per day and spent the remainder of the time together at pasture. They were fed three times a day with flavored pellets, hay, or fruits and were exposed daily to various objects, odors, and music. The EE modified three dimensions of personality: fearfulness, reactivity to humans, and sensory sensitivity. Some of these changes persisted >3 months after treatment. These changes are suggestive of a more positive perception of the environment and a higher level of curiosity in EE-treated horses, explaining partly why these horses showed better learning performance in a Go/No-Go task. Reduced expression of stress indicators indicated that the EE also improved well-being. Finally, whole-blood transcriptomic analysis showed that in addition to an effect on the cortisol level, the EE induced the expression of genes involved in cell growth and proliferation, while the control treatment activated genes related to apoptosis. Changes in both behavior and gene expression may constitute a psychobiological signature of the effects of enrichment and result in improved well-being. This study illustrates how the environment interacts with genetic information in shaping the individual at both the behavioral and molecular levels.
Collapse
|