Proteostasis in Parkinson's disease: Recent development and possible implication in diagnosis and therapeutics

Inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome ameliorates LPS-induced neuroinflammatory injury in mice via PINK1/Parkin pathway

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the severe loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, leading to motor dysfunction. The onset of PD is often accompanied by neuroinflammation and α-Synuclein aggregation, and extensive research has focused on the activation of microglial NLRP3 inflammasomes in PD, which promotes the death of dopaminergic neurons. In this study, a model of cerebral inflammatory response was constructed in wild-type and Parkin＋/－ mice through bilateral intraventricular injection of LPS. LPS-induced activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in wild-type mice promotes the progression of PD. The use of MCC950 in wild mice injected with LPS induces activation of Parkin/PINK and improves autophagy, which in turn improves mitochondrial turnover. It also inhibits LPS-induced inflammatory responses, improves motor function, protects dopaminergic neurons, and inhibits microglia activation. Furthermore, Parkin＋/－ mice exhibited motor dysfunction, loss of dopaminergic neurons, activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and α-Synuclein aggregation beginning at an early age. Parkin ± mice exhibited more pronounced microglia activation, greater NLRP3 inflammasome activation, more severe autophagy dysfunction, and more pronounced motor dysfunction after LPS injection compared to wild-type mice. Notably, the use of MCC950 in Parkin ± mice did not ameliorate NLRP3 inflammasome activation, autophagy dysfunction, or α-synuclein aggregation. Thus, MCC950 can only exert its effects in the presence of Parkin/PINK1, and targeting Parkin-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome activation is expected to be a potential therapeutic strategy for Parkinson's disease.

Ageing, proteostasis, and the gut: Insights into neurological health and disease

Recent research has illuminated the profound bidirectional communication between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain, furthering our understanding of neurological ailments facilitating possible therapeutic strategies. Technological advancements in high-throughput sequencing and multi-omics have unveiled significant alterations in gut microbiota and their metabolites in various neurological disorders. This review provides a thorough analysis of the role of microbiome-gut-brain axis in neurodegenerative disease pathology, linking it to reduced age-associated proteostasis. We discuss evidences that substantiate the existence of a gut-brain cross talk ranging from early clinical accounts of James Parkinson to Braak's hypothesis. In addition to understanding of microbes, the review particularly entails specific metabolites which are altered in neurodegenerative diseases. The regulatory effects of microbial metabolites on protein clearance mechanisms, proposing their potential therapeutic implications, are also discussed. By integrating this information, we advocate for a combinatory therapeutic strategy that targets early intervention, aiming to restore proteostasis and ameliorate disease progression. This approach not only provides a new perspective on the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases but also highlights innovative strategies to combat the increasing burden of these age-related disorders.

Podocyte Death in Diabetic Kidney Disease: Potential Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targets

Cell deaths maintain the normal function of tissues and organs. In pathological conditions, the abnormal activation or disruption of cell death often leads to pathophysiological effects. Diabetic kidney disease (DKD), a significant microvascular complication of diabetes, is linked to high mortality and morbidity rates, imposing a substantial burden on global healthcare systems and economies. Loss and detachment of podocytes are key pathological changes in the progression of DKD. This review explores the potential mechanisms of apoptosis, necrosis, autophagy, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, cuproptosis, and podoptosis in podocytes, focusing on how different cell death modes contribute to the progression of DKD. It recognizes the limitations of current research and presents the latest basic and clinical research studies targeting podocyte death pathways in DKD. Lastly, it focuses on the future of targeting podocyte cell death to treat DKD, with the intention of inspiring further research and the development of therapeutic strategies.

Neuroprotective role of Carvacrol via Nrf2/HO-1/NLRP3 axis in Rotenone-induced PD mice model

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder whose cause is unclear. Neuroinflammation is recognized as one of the major pathogenic mechanisms involved in the development and progression of PD. NLRP3 inflammasome is the most widely studied inflammatory mediator in various diseases including PD. Several phytoconstituents have shown neuroprotective role in PD. Carvacrol is a phenolic monoterpene commonly found in the essential oils derived from plants belonging to Lamiaceae family. It is well known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties and has been widely explored in several diseases. In this study, we explored the role of Carvacrol in suppressing neuroinflammation by regulating NLRP3 inflammasome through Nrf2/HO-1 axis and subsequently, inflammatory cytokines like IL-1β, IL-18 in Rotenone induced PD mice model. Three doses (25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg p.o.) of Carvacrol were administered to, respectively, three groups (LD, MD, HD), one hour after administration of Rotenone (1.5 mg/kg, i.p.), every day, for 21 days. Treatment with Carvacrol ameliorated the motor impairment caused by Rotenone. It alleviated neurotoxicity and reduced inflammatory cytokines. Further, Carvacrol also alleviated oxidative stress and increased antioxidant enzymes. From these results, we show that Carvacrol exerts neuroprotective effects in PD via anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms and could be a potential therapeutic option in PD.

Usp14 deficiency removes α-synuclein by regulating S100A8/A9 in Parkinson's disease

Ubiquitin-proteasome system dysfunction triggers α-synuclein aggregation, a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the crosstalk between deubiquitinating enzyme (DUBs) and α-synuclein pathology remains unclear. In this study, we observed a decrease in the level of ubiquitin-specific protease 14 (USP14), a DUB, in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of PD patients, particularly females. Moreover, CSF USP14 exhibited a dual correlation with α-synuclein in male and female PD patients. To investigate the impact of USP14 deficiency, we crossed USP14 heterozygous mouse (USP14+/-) with transgenic A53T PD mouse (A53T-Tg) or injected adeno-associated virus (AAV) carrying human α-synuclein (AAV-hα-Syn) in USP14+/- mice. We found that Usp14 deficiency improved the behavioral abnormities and pathological α-synuclein deposition in female A53T-Tg or AAV-hα-Syn mice. Additionally, Usp14 inactivation attenuates the pro-inflammatory response in female AAV-hα-Syn mice, whereas Usp14 inactivation demonstrated opposite effects in male AAV-hα-Syn mice. Mechanistically, the heterodimeric protein S100A8/A9 may be the downstream target of Usp14 deficiency in female mouse models of α-synucleinopathies. Furthermore, upregulated S100A8/A9 was responsible for α-synuclein degradation by autophagy and the suppression of the pro-inflammatory response in microglia after Usp14 knockdown. Consequently, our study suggests that USP14 could serve as a novel therapeutic target in PD.

Mitochondrial homeostasis regulation: A promising therapeutic target for Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and the presence of Lewy bodies (LBs) or Lewy neurites (LNs) which consist of α-synuclein (α-syn) and a complex mix of other biomolecules. Mitochondrial dysfunction is widely believed to play an essential role in the pathogenesis of PD and other related neurodegenerative diseases. But mitochondrial dysfunction is subject to complex genetic regulation. There is increasing evidence that PD-related genes directly or indirectly affect mitochondrial integrity. Therefore, targeted regulation of mitochondrial function has great clinical application prospects in the treatment of PD. However, lots of PD drugs targeting mitochondria have been developed but their clinical therapeutic effects are not ideal. This review aims to reveal the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases based on the mitochondrial structure and function, which may highlight potential interventions and therapeutic targets for the development of PD drugs to recover mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases.

Protein translation: biological processes and therapeutic strategies for human diseases

Protein translation is a tightly regulated cellular process that is essential for gene expression and protein synthesis. The deregulation of this process is increasingly recognized as a critical factor in the pathogenesis of various human diseases. In this review, we discuss how deregulated translation can lead to aberrant protein synthesis, altered cellular functions, and disease progression. We explore the key mechanisms contributing to the deregulation of protein translation, including functional alterations in translation factors, tRNA, mRNA, and ribosome function. Deregulated translation leads to abnormal protein expression, disrupted cellular signaling, and perturbed cellular functions- all of which contribute to disease pathogenesis. The development of ribosome profiling techniques along with mass spectrometry-based proteomics, mRNA sequencing and single-cell approaches have opened new avenues for detecting diseases related to translation errors. Importantly, we highlight recent advances in therapies targeting translation-related disorders and their potential applications in neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, infectious diseases, and cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, the growing interest lies in targeted therapies aimed at restoring precise control over translation in diseased cells is discussed. In conclusion, this comprehensive review underscores the critical role of protein translation in disease and its potential as a therapeutic target. Advancements in understanding the molecular mechanisms of protein translation deregulation, coupled with the development of targeted therapies, offer promising avenues for improving disease outcomes in various human diseases. Additionally, it will unlock doors to the possibility of precision medicine by offering personalized therapies and a deeper understanding of the molecular underpinnings of diseases in the future.

Dimethyl Fumarate Exerts a Neuroprotective Effect by Enhancing Mitophagy via the NRF2/BNIP3/PINK1 Axis in the MPP+ Iodide-Induced Parkinson's Disease Mice Model

Background

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder linked to the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Mitophagy, mitochondrial selective autophagy, is critical in maintaining mitochondrial and subsequently neuronal homeostasis. Its impairment is strongly implicated in PD and is associated with accelerated neurodegeneration.

Objective

To study the positive effect of dimethyl fumarate (DMF) on mitophagy via the NRF2/BNIP3/PINK1 axis activation in PD disease models.

Methods

The neuroprotective effect of DMF was explored in in vitro and in vivo PD models. MTT assay was performed to determine the DMF dose followed by JC-1 assay to study its mitoprotective effect in MPP+ exposed SHSY5Y cells. For the in vivo study, C57BL/6 mice were divided into six groups: Normal Control (NC), Disease Control (DC), Sham (Saline i.c.v.), Low Dose (MPP+ iodide+DMF 15 mg/kg), Mid Dose (MPP+ iodide+DMF 30 mg/kg), and High Dose (MPP+ iodide+DMF 60 mg/kg). The neuroprotective effect of DMF was assessed by performing rotarod, open field test, and pole test, and biochemical parameter analysis using immunofluorescence, western blot, and RT-PCR.

Results

DMF treatment significantly alleviated the loss of TH positive dopaminergic neurons and enhanced mitophagy by increasing PINK1, Parkin, BNIP3, and LC3 levels in the MPP+ iodide-induced PD mice model. DMF treatment groups showed good locomotor activity and rearing time when compared to the DC group.

Conclusions

DMF confers neuroprotection by activating the BNIP3/PINK1/Parkin pathway, enhancing the autophagosome formation via LC3, and improving mitophagy in PD models, and could be a potential therapeutic option in PD.

Network Analysis Performed on Transcriptomes of Parkinson's Disease Patients Reveals Dysfunction in Protein Translation

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra region of the brain. The hallmark pathological feature of PD is the accumulation of misfolded proteins, leading to the formation of intracellular aggregates known as Lewy bodies. Recent data evidenced how disruptions in protein synthesis, folding, and degradation are events commonly observed in PD and may provide information on the molecular background behind its etiopathogenesis. In the present study, we used a publicly available transcriptomic microarray dataset of peripheral blood of PD patients and healthy controls (GSE6613) to investigate the potential dysregulation of elements involved in proteostasis-related processes at the transcriptomic level. Our bioinformatics analysis revealed 375 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), of which 281 were down-regulated and 94 were up-regulated. Network analysis performed on the observed DEGs highlighted a cluster of 36 elements mainly involved in the protein synthesis processes. Different enriched ontologies were related to translation initiation and regulation, ribosome structure, and ribosome components nuclear export. Overall, this data consistently points to a generalized impairment of the translational machinery and proteostasis. Dysregulation of these mechanics has been associated with PD pathogenesis. Understanding the precise regulation of such processes may shed light on the molecular mechanisms of PD and provide potential data for early diagnosis.

The Role of Methionine-Rich Diet in Unhealthy Cerebrovascular and Brain Aging: Mechanisms and Implications for Cognitive Impairment

As aging societies in the western world face a growing prevalence of vascular cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease (AD), understanding their underlying causes and associated risk factors becomes increasingly critical. A salient concern in the western dietary context is the high consumption of methionine-rich foods such as red meat. The present review delves into the impact of this methionine-heavy diet and the resultant hyperhomocysteinemia on accelerated cerebrovascular and brain aging, emphasizing their potential roles in cognitive impairment. Through a comprehensive exploration of existing evidence, a link between high methionine intake and hyperhomocysteinemia and oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, and accelerated epigenetic aging is drawn. Moreover, the microvascular determinants of cognitive deterioration, including endothelial dysfunction, reduced cerebral blood flow, microvascular rarefaction, impaired neurovascular coupling, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, are explored. The mechanisms by which excessive methionine consumption and hyperhomocysteinemia might drive cerebromicrovascular and brain aging processes are elucidated. By presenting an intricate understanding of the relationships among methionine-rich diets, hyperhomocysteinemia, cerebrovascular and brain aging, and cognitive impairment, avenues for future research and potential therapeutic interventions are suggested.

Chronic inflammation and the hallmarks of aging

BACKGROUND

Recently, the hallmarks of aging were updated to include dysbiosis, disabled macroautophagy, and chronic inflammation. In particular, the low-grade chronic inflammation during aging, without overt infection, is defined as "inflammaging," which is associated with increased morbidity and mortality in the aging population. Emerging evidence suggests a bidirectional and cyclical relationship between chronic inflammation and the development of age-related conditions, such as cardiovascular diseases, neurodegeneration, cancer, and frailty. How the crosstalk between chronic inflammation and other hallmarks of aging underlies biological mechanisms of aging and age-related disease is thus of particular interest to the current geroscience research.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

This review integrates the cellular and molecular mechanisms of age-associated chronic inflammation with the other eleven hallmarks of aging. Extra discussion is dedicated to the hallmark of "altered nutrient sensing," given the scope of Molecular Metabolism. The deregulation of hallmark processes during aging disrupts the delicate balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory signaling, leading to a persistent inflammatory state. The resultant chronic inflammation, in turn, further aggravates the dysfunction of each hallmark, thereby driving the progression of aging and age-related diseases.

MAIN CONCLUSIONS

The crosstalk between chronic inflammation and other hallmarks of aging results in a vicious cycle that exacerbates the decline in cellular functions and promotes aging. Understanding this complex interplay will provide new insights into the mechanisms of aging and the development of potential anti-aging interventions. Given their interconnectedness and ability to accentuate the primary elements of aging, drivers of chronic inflammation may be an ideal target with high translational potential to address the pathological conditions associated with aging.

The proteomic effects of ketone bodies: implications for proteostasis and brain proteinopathies

A growing body of evidence supports the beneficial effects of the ketone bodies (KBs), acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), on diverse physiological processes and diseases. Hence, KBs have been suggested as therapeutic tools for neurodegenerative diseases. KBs are an alternative fuel during fasting and starvation as they can be converted to Ac-CoA to produce ATP. A ketogenic diet (KD), enriched in fats and low in carbohydrates, induces KB production in the liver and favors their use in the brain. BHB is the most abundant KB in the circulation; in addition to its role as energy fuel, it exerts many actions that impact the set of proteins in the cell and tissue. BHB can covalently bind to proteins in lysine residues as a new post-translational modification (PTM) named β-hydroxybutyrylation (Kbhb). Kbhb has been identified in many proteins where Kbhb sites can be critical for binding to other proteins or cofactors. Kbhb is mostly found in proteins involved in chromatin structure, DNA repair, regulation of spliceosome, transcription, and oxidative phosphorylation. Histones are the most studied family of proteins with this PTM, and H3K9bhb is the best studied histone mark. Their target genes are mainly related to cell metabolism, chromatin remodeling and the control of circadian rhythms. The role of Kbhb on physiological processes is poorly known, but it might link KB metabolism to cell signaling and genome regulation. BHB also impacts the proteome by influencing proteostasis. This KB can modulate the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) and autophagy, two processes involved in the maintenance of protein homeostasis through the clearance of accumulated unfolded and damaged proteins. BHB can support proteostasis and regulate the UPR to promote metabolism adaptation in the liver and prevent cell damage in the brain. Also, BHB stimulates autophagy aiding to the degradation of accumulated proteins. Protein aggregation is common to proteinopathies like Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's (PD) diseases, where the KD and BHB treatment have shown favorable effects. In the present review, the current literature supporting the effects of KBs on proteome conformation and proteostasis is discussed, as well as its possible impact on AD and PD.

Gut microbes influence the development of central nervous system disorders through epigenetic inheritance

Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and Alzheimer's disease (AD), affect quality of life of patients and pose significant economic and social burdens worldwide. Due to their obscure and complex pathogeneses, current therapies for these diseases have limited efficacy. Over the past decade, the gut microbiome has been shown to exhibit direct and indirect influences on the structure and function of the CNS, affecting multiple pathological pathways. In addition to the direct interactions between the gut microbiota and CNS, the gut microbiota and their metabolites can regulate epigenetic processes, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and regulation of non-coding RNAs. In this review, we discuss the tripartite relationship among gut microbiota, epigenetic inheritance, and CNS disorders. We suggest that gut microbes and their metabolites influence the pathogenesis of CNS disorders at the epigenetic level, which may inform the development of effective therapeutic strategies for CNS disorders.

New Pieces for an Old Puzzle: Approaching Parkinson's Disease from Translatable Animal Models, Gut Microbiota Modulation, and Lipidomics

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a severe neurodegenerative disease characterized by disabling motor alterations that are diagnosed at a relatively late stage in its development, and non-motor symptoms, including those affecting the gastrointestinal tract (mainly constipation), which start much earlier than the motor symptoms. Remarkably, current treatments only reduce motor symptoms, not without important drawbacks (relatively low efficiency and impactful side effects). Thus, new approaches are needed to halt PD progression and, possibly, to prevent its development, including new therapeutic strategies that target PD etiopathogeny and new biomarkers. Our aim was to review some of these new approaches. Although PD is complex and heterogeneous, compelling evidence suggests it might have a gastrointestinal origin, at least in a significant number of patients, and findings in recently developed animal models strongly support this hypothesis. Furthermore, the modulation of the gut microbiome, mainly through probiotics, is being tested to improve motor and non-motor symptoms and even to prevent PD. Finally, lipidomics has emerged as a useful tool to identify lipid biomarkers that may help analyze PD progression and treatment efficacy in a personalized manner, although, as of today, it has only scarcely been applied to monitor gut motility, dysbiosis, and probiotic effects in PD. Altogether, these new pieces should be helpful in solving the old puzzle of PD.

Dimethyl fumarate ameliorates Parkinsonian pathology by modulating autophagy and apoptosis via Nrf2-TIGAR-LAMP2/Cathepsin D axis

Mounting evidence suggests a role for oxidative stress and accumulation of dysfunctional organelle and misfolded proteins in PD. Autophagosomes mediate the clearance of these cytoplasmic proteins via delivery to lysosomes to form autophagolysosomes, followed by degradation of the protein by lysosomal enzymes. In PD, autophagolysosome accumulation occurs initiating a plethora of events resulting in neuronal death by apoptosis. This study evaluated the effect of Dimethylfumarate (DMF), an Nrf2 activator in the rotenone-induced mouse PD model. In PD mice, there was decreased expression of LAMP2 and LC3, which resulted in inhibition of autophagic flux and increased expression of cathepsin D, which mediated apoptosis. The role of Nrf2 activation in alleviating oxidative stress is well known. Our study elucidated the novel mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effect of DMF. The loss of dopaminergic neurons induced by rotenone was lessened to a significant extent by pre-treatment with DMF. DMF promoted autophagosome formation and inhibited apoptosis by removing the inhibitory effect of p53 on TIGAR. TIGAR expression upregulated LAMP2 expression and downregulated Cathepsin D, promoting autophagy and inhibiting apoptosis. Thus, it was proved that DMF confers neuroprotection against rotenone-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration and could be used as a potential therapeutic agent for PD and its progression.

Involvement of miRNA on Epigenetics landscape of Parkinson's disease: From pathogenesis to therapeutics

The development of novel therapeutics for the effective management of Parkinson's disease (PD) is undertaken seriously by the scientific community as the burden of PD continues to increase. Several molecular pathways are being explored to identify novel therapeutic targets. Epigenetics is strongly implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) including PD. Several epigenetic mechanisms were found to dysregulated in various studies. These mechanisms are regulated by several miRNAs which are associated with a variety of pathogenic mechanisms in PD. This concept is extensively investigated in several cancers but not well documented in PD. Identifying the miRNAs with dual role i.e., regulation of epigenetic mechanisms as well as modulation of proteins implicated in the pathogenesis of PD could pave way for the development of novel therapeutics to target them. These miRNAs could also serve as potential biomarkers and can be useful in the early diagnosis or assessment of disease severity. In this article we would like to discuss about various epigenetic changes operating in PD and how miRNAs are involved in the regulation of these mechanisms and their potential to be novel therapeutic targets in PD.

Identification of PLOD3 and LRRN3 as potential biomarkers for Parkinson's disease based on integrative analysis

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent movement disorders and its diagnosis relies heavily on the typical clinical manifestations in the late stages. This study aims to screen and identify biomarkers of PD for earlier intervention. We performed a differential analysis of postmortem brain transcriptome studies. Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) was used to identify biomarkers related to Braak stage. We found 58 genes with significantly different expression in both PD brain tissue and blood samples. PD gene signature and risk score model consisting of nine genes were constructed using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression (LASSO) and logistic regression. PLOD3 and LRRN3 in gene signature were identified to serve as key genes as well as potential risk factors in PD. Gene function enrichment analysis and evaluation of immune cell infiltration revealed that PLOD3 was implicated in suppression of cellular metabolic function and inflammatory cell infiltration, whereas LRRN3 exhibited an inverse trend. The cellular subpopulation expression of the PLOD3 and LRRN3 has significant distributional variability. The expression of PLOD3 was more enriched in inflammatory cell subpopulations, such as microglia, whereas LRRN3 was more enriched in neurons and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells clusters (OPC). Additionally, the expression of PLOD3 and LRRN3 in Qilu cohort was verified to be consistent with previous results. Collectively, we screened and identified the functions of PLOD3 and LRRN3 based the integrated study. The combined detection of PLOD3 and LRRN3 expression in blood samples can improve the early detection of PD.

Microtubule acetylation dyshomeostasis in Parkinson's disease

The inter-neuronal communication occurring in extensively branched neuronal cells is achieved primarily through the microtubule (MT)-mediated axonal transport system. This mechanistically regulated system delivers cargos (proteins, mRNAs and organelles such as mitochondria) back and forth from the soma to the synapse. Motor proteins like kinesins and dynein mechanistically regulate polarized anterograde (from the soma to the synapse) and retrograde (from the synapse to the soma) commute of the cargos, respectively. Proficient axonal transport of such cargos is achieved by altering the microtubule stability via post-translational modifications (PTMs) of α- and β-tubulin heterodimers, core components constructing the MTs. Occurring within the lumen of MTs, K40 acetylation of α-tubulin via α-tubulin acetyl transferase and its subsequent deacetylation by HDAC6 and SIRT2 are widely scrutinized PTMs that make the MTs highly flexible, which in turn promotes their lifespan. The movement of various motor proteins, including kinesin-1 (responsible for axonal mitochondrial commute), is enhanced by this PTM, and dyshomeostasis of neuronal MT acetylation has been observed in a variety of neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease (PD). PD is the second most common neurodegenerative condition and is closely associated with impaired MT dynamics and deregulated tubulin acetylation levels. Although the relationship between status of MT acetylation and progression of PD pathogenesis has become a chicken-and-egg question, our review aims to provide insights into the MT-mediated axonal commute of mitochondria and dyshomeostasis of MT acetylation in PD. The enzymatic regulators of MT acetylation along with their synthetic modulators have also been briefly explored. Moving towards a tubulin-based therapy that enhances MT acetylation could serve as a disease-modifying treatment in neurological conditions that lack it.

GSK-3β: An exuberating neuroinflammatory mediator in Parkinson's disease

Neuroinflammation is a critical degradative condition affecting neurons in the brain. Progressive neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease (PD) have been strongly linked to neuroinflammation. The trigger point for inflammatory conditions in the cells and body is the physiological immune system. The immune response mediated by glial cells and astrocytes can rectify the physiological alterations occurring in the cell for the time being but prolonged activation leads to pathological progression. The proteins mediating such an inflammatory response, as per the available literature, are undoubtedly GSK-3β, NLRP3, TNF, PPARγ, and NF-κB, along with a few other mediatory proteins. NLRP3 inflammasome is undeniably a principal instigator of the neuroinflammatory response, but the regulatory pathways controlling its activation are still unclear, besides less clarity for the interplay between different inflammatory proteins. Recent reports have suggested the involvement of GSK-3β in regulating NLRP3 activation, but the exact mechanistic pathway remains vague. In the current review, we attempt to provide an elaborate description of crosstalk between inflammatory markers and GSK-3β mediated neuroinflammation progression, linking it to regulatory transcription factors and posttranslational modification of proteins. The recent clinical therapeutic advances targeting these proteins are also discussed in parallel to provide a comprehensive view of the progress made in PD management and lacunas still existing in the field.

Integration of miRNA's Theranostic Potential with Nanotechnology: Promises and Challenges for Parkinson's Disease Therapeutics

Despite the wide research going on in Parkinson's disease (PD), the burden of PD still remains high and continues to increase. The current drugs available for the treatment of PD are only aimed at symptomatic control. Hence, research is mainly focused on identifying the novel therapeutic targets that can be effectively targeted in order to slow down or culminate the disease progression. Recently the role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in the regulation of various pathological mechanisms of PD has been thoroughly explored and many of them were found to be dysregulated in the biological samples of PD patients. These miRNAs can be used as diagnostic markers and novel therapeutic options to manage PD. The delivery of miRNAs to the target site in brain is a challenging job owing to their nature of degradability by endonucleases as well as poor blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Nanoparticles appear to be the best solution to effectively encase the miRNA in their core as well as cross the BBB to deliver them into brain. Functionalisation of these nanoparticles further enhances the site-specific delivery.