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Zacco E, Broglia L, Kurihara M, Monti M, Gustincich S, Pastore A, Plath K, Nagakawa S, Cerase A, Sanchez de Groot N, Tartaglia GG. RNA: The Unsuspected Conductor in the Orchestra of Macromolecular Crowding. Chem Rev 2024; 124:4734-4777. [PMID: 38579177 PMCID: PMC11046439 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
This comprehensive Review delves into the chemical principles governing RNA-mediated crowding events, commonly referred to as granules or biological condensates. We explore the pivotal role played by RNA sequence, structure, and chemical modifications in these processes, uncovering their correlation with crowding phenomena under physiological conditions. Additionally, we investigate instances where crowding deviates from its intended function, leading to pathological consequences. By deepening our understanding of the delicate balance that governs molecular crowding driven by RNA and its implications for cellular homeostasis, we aim to shed light on this intriguing area of research. Our exploration extends to the methodologies employed to decipher the composition and structural intricacies of RNA granules, offering a comprehensive overview of the techniques used to characterize them, including relevant computational approaches. Through two detailed examples highlighting the significance of noncoding RNAs, NEAT1 and XIST, in the formation of phase-separated assemblies and their influence on the cellular landscape, we emphasize their crucial role in cellular organization and function. By elucidating the chemical underpinnings of RNA-mediated molecular crowding, investigating the role of modifications, structures, and composition of RNA granules, and exploring both physiological and aberrant phase separation phenomena, this Review provides a multifaceted understanding of the intriguing world of RNA-mediated biological condensates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Zacco
- RNA
Systems Biology Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
| | - Laura Broglia
- RNA
Systems Biology Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
| | - Misuzu Kurihara
- RNA
Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Michele Monti
- RNA
Systems Biology Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
| | - Stefano Gustincich
- Central
RNA Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- UK
Dementia Research Institute at the Maurice Wohl Institute of King’s
College London, London SE5 9RT, U.K.
| | - Kathrin Plath
- Department
of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School
of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Shinichi Nagakawa
- RNA
Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Andrea Cerase
- Blizard
Institute,
Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, U.K.
- Unit
of Cell and developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Università di Pisa, 56123 Pisa, Italy
| | - Natalia Sanchez de Groot
- Unitat
de Bioquímica, Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia
Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de
Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gian Gaetano Tartaglia
- RNA
Systems Biology Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
- Catalan
Institution for Research and Advanced Studies, ICREA, Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
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2
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DasGupta A, Lee TL, Li C, Saltzman AL. Emerging Roles for Chromo Domain Proteins in Genome Organization and Cell Fate in C. elegans. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:590195. [PMID: 33195254 PMCID: PMC7649781 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.590195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In most eukaryotes, the genome is packaged with histones and other proteins to form chromatin. One of the major mechanisms for chromatin regulation is through post-translational modification of histone proteins. Recognition of these modifications by effector proteins, often dubbed histone “readers,” provides a link between the chromatin landscape and gene regulation. The diversity of histone reader proteins for each modification provides an added layer of regulatory complexity. In this review, we will focus on the roles of chromatin organization modifier (chromo) domain containing proteins in the model nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. An amenability to genetic and cell biological approaches, well-studied development and a short life cycle make C. elegans a powerful system to investigate the diversity of chromo domain protein functions in metazoans. We will highlight recent insights into the roles of chromo domain proteins in the regulation of heterochromatin and the spatial conformation of the genome as well as their functions in cell fate, fertility, small RNA pathways and transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. The spectrum of different chromatin readers may represent a layer of regulation that integrates chromatin landscape, genome organization and gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhimanyu DasGupta
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Tammy L Lee
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Chengyin Li
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Arneet L Saltzman
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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3
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Balaji S, Napolitano T, Silvano S, Friano ME, Garrido-Utrilla A, Atlija J, Collombat P. Epigenetic Control of Pancreatic Regeneration in Diabetes. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:genes9090448. [PMID: 30205460 PMCID: PMC6162679 DOI: 10.3390/genes9090448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes are conditions that are associated with the loss of insulin-producing β-cells within the pancreas. An active research therefore aims at regenerating these β-cells with the hope that they could restore euglycemia. The approaches classically used consist in mimicking embryonic development, making use of diverse cell sources or converting pre-existing pancreatic cells. Despite impressive progresses and promising successes, it appears that we still need to gain further insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying β-cell development. This becomes even more obvious with the emergence of a relatively new field of research, epigenetics. The current review therefore focuses on the latest advances in this field in the context of β-cell (neo-)genesis research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Balaji
- Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, Inserm, CNRS, iBV, FR-06100 Nice, France.
| | - Tiziana Napolitano
- Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, Inserm, CNRS, iBV, FR-06100 Nice, France.
| | - Serena Silvano
- Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, Inserm, CNRS, iBV, FR-06100 Nice, France.
| | - Marika Elsa Friano
- Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, Inserm, CNRS, iBV, FR-06100 Nice, France.
| | | | - Josipa Atlija
- Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, Inserm, CNRS, iBV, FR-06100 Nice, France.
| | - Patrick Collombat
- Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, Inserm, CNRS, iBV, FR-06100 Nice, France.
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4
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Mittal A, Hobor F, Zhang Y, Martin SR, Gamblin SJ, Ramos A, Wilson JR. The structure of the RbBP5 β-propeller domain reveals a surface with potential nucleic acid binding sites. Nucleic Acids Res 2018; 46:3802-3812. [PMID: 29897600 PMCID: PMC6283417 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gky199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2017] [Revised: 03/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The multi-protein complex WRAD, formed by WDR5, RbBP5, Ash2L and Dpy30, binds to the MLL SET domain to stabilize the catalytically active conformation required for histone H3K4 methylation. In addition, the WRAD complex contributes to the targeting of the activated complex to specific sites on chromatin. RbBP5 is central to MLL catalytic activation, by making critical contacts with the other members of the complex. Interestingly its only major structural domain, a canonical WD40 repeat β-propeller, is not implicated in this function. Here, we present the structure of the RbBP5 β-propeller domain revealing a distinct, feature rich surface, dominated by clusters of Arginine residues. Our nuclear magnetic resonance binding data supports the hypothesis that in addition to the role of RbBP5 in catalytic activation, its β-propeller domain is a platform for the recruitment of the MLL complexes to chromatin targets through its direct interaction with nucleic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fruzsina Hobor
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6XA, UK
| | - Ying Zhang
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Stephen R Martin
- Structural Biology Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | | | - Andres Ramos
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6XA, UK
| | - Jon R Wilson
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
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5
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Shirai A, Kawaguchi T, Shimojo H, Muramatsu D, Ishida-Yonetani M, Nishimura Y, Kimura H, Nakayama JI, Shinkai Y. Impact of nucleic acid and methylated H3K9 binding activities of Suv39h1 on its heterochromatin assembly. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28760201 PMCID: PMC5538823 DOI: 10.7554/elife.25317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
SUV39H is the major histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9)-specific methyltransferase that targets pericentric regions and is crucial for assembling silent heterochromatin. SUV39H recognizes trimethylated H3K9 (H3K9me3) via its chromodomain (CD), and enriched H3K9me3 allows SUV39H to target specific chromosomal regions. However, the detailed targeting mechanisms, especially for naïve chromatin without preexisting H3K9me3, are poorly understood. Here we show that Suv39h1’s CD (Suv39h1-CD) binds nucleic acids, and this binding is important for its function in heterochromatin assembly. Suv39h1-CD had higher binding affinity for RNA than DNA, and its ability to bind nucleic acids was independent of its H3K9me3 recognition. Suv39h1 bound major satellite RNAs in vivo, and knockdown of major satellite RNAs lowered Suv39h1 retention on pericentromere. Suv39h1 mutational studies indicated that both the nucleic acid–binding and H3K9me–binding activities of Suv39h1-CD were crucial for its pericentric heterochromatin assembly. These results suggest that chromatin-bound RNAs contribute to creating SUV39H’s target specificity. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25317.001 Plants, animals and fungi store much of their DNA tightly packed with proteins in a form named heterochromatin. This arrangement helps to inactivate genes that are not needed in specific cells or at specific times, and provides a way to protect the genetic material from damage. Heterochromatin tends to form when an enzyme called a lysine methyltransferase chemically modifies some of the proteins associated with the DNA, which are known as histones. This enzyme modifies only some of the histones to get the process started, while a second protein then binds to the modified histones and causes more of the DNA to become packaged up as heterochromatin. In 2012, researchers reported that the version of the lysine methyltransferase enzyme from yeast binds to RNA molecules via a portion known as its chromodomain. Moreover, the enzyme needed to bind to RNA to help heterochromatin to form. A similar mechanism also occurs in fruit flies, another organism that is commonly studied in the laboratory. However, it was not clear if it happened in mammals like mice and humans. Now, Shirai, Kawaguchi et al. – who include many of the researchers involved in the 2012 study – report that the corresponding enzyme from mice can also bind to RNA molecules via its chromodomain. Further experiments showed that this activity was closely linked with the enzyme’s ability to target the correct histones and efficiently form heterochromatin. The first experiments were conducted using purified enzymes in the laboratory, while follow-up experiments looked at the enzyme’s activity within mouse cells. Other studies have previously reported that mutant mice lacking the lysine methyltransferase enzyme have defective heterochromatin, tend to die young and have genetic instabilities that are associated with an increased risk of tumors and male infertility. The new findings of Shirai, Kawaguchi et al. reveal that the mechanism behind the establishment of heterochromatin has mostly likely been conserved over a billion years of evolution, which is when yeast and mammals last shared a common ancestor. By revealing more about how mammalian cells can protect their DNA, these new findings could also mark an important step toward understanding and preventing birth defects that are caused when an embryo’s genetic material becomes damaged. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25317.002
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Takayuki Kawaguchi
- Division of Chromatin Regulation, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Japan.,Graduate School of Natural Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Hideaki Shimojo
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
| | | | | | - Yoshifumi Nishimura
- Graduate School of Medical Life Science, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kimura
- Cell Biology Unit, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Jun-Ichi Nakayama
- Division of Chromatin Regulation, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Japan.,Graduate School of Natural Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan
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6
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Mumtaz PT, Bhat SA, Ahmad SM, Dar MA, Ahmed R, Urwat U, Ayaz A, Shrivastava D, Shah RA, Ganai NA. LncRNAs and immunity: watchdogs for host pathogen interactions. Biol Proced Online 2017; 19:3. [PMID: 28465674 PMCID: PMC5406993 DOI: 10.1186/s12575-017-0052-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Immune responses combat various infectious agents by inducing inflammatory responses, antimicrobial pathways and adaptive immunity. The polygenic responses to these external stimuli are temporally and coordinately regulated. Specific lncRNAs are induced to modulate innate and adaptive immune responses which can function through various target interactions like RNA-DNA, RNA-RNA, and RNA-protein interaction and hence affect the immunogenic regulation at various stages of gene expression. LncRNA are found to be present in various immune cells like monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, T cells and B cells. They have been shown to be involved in many biological processes, including the regulation of the expression of genes, the dosage compensation and genomics imprinting, but the knowledge how lncRNAs are regulated and how they alter cell differentiation/function is still obscure. Further dysregulation of lncRNA has been seen in many diseases, but as yet very less research has been carried out to understand the role of lncRNAs in regulation during host-pathogens interactions. In this review, we summarize the functional developments and mechanism of action of lncRNAs, in immunity and defense of host against pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peerzada Tajamul Mumtaz
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-K, Shuhama, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir India
- School of Life Sciences Jaipur National University, Jaipur, Rajasthan India
| | - Shakil Ahmad Bhat
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-K, Shuhama, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir India
| | - Syed Mudasir Ahmad
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-K, Shuhama, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir India
| | - Mashooq Ahmad Dar
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-K, Shuhama, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir India
| | - Raashid Ahmed
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-K, Shuhama, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir India
| | - Uneeb Urwat
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-K, Shuhama, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir India
| | - Aadil Ayaz
- Division of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-K, Shuhama, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir India
| | - Divya Shrivastava
- School of Life Sciences Jaipur National University, Jaipur, Rajasthan India
| | - Riaz Ahmad Shah
- Division of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-K, Shuhama, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir India
| | - Nazir Ahmad Ganai
- Division of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-K, Shuhama, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir India
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7
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Abstract
Precise and dynamic regulation of gene expression is a key feature of immunity. In recent years, rapid advances in transcriptome profiling analysis have led to recognize long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) as an additional layer of gene regulation context. In the immune system, lncRNAs are found to be widely expressed in immune cells including monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells (DC), neutrophils, T cells and B cells during their development, differentiation and activation. However, the functional importance of immune-related lncRNAs is just emerging to be characterized. In this review, we discuss the up-to-date knowledge of lncRNAs in immune regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Geng
- Center for Intestinal and Liver Inflammation Research, Stanley Manne Children's Research Institute, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Xiao-Di Tan
- Center for Intestinal and Liver Inflammation Research, Stanley Manne Children's Research Institute, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
- Corresponding author. Center for Intestinal and Liver Inflammation Research, Stanley Manne Children's Research Institute, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, 225 E. Chicago Avenue, Box 217, Chicago, IL 60611, USA. Tel.: +1 (773) 755 6380; fax: +1 (773) 755 6581.
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8
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Panzeri I, Rossetti G, Abrignani S, Pagani M. Long Intergenic Non-Coding RNAs: Novel Drivers of Human Lymphocyte Differentiation. Front Immunol 2015; 6:175. [PMID: 25926836 PMCID: PMC4397839 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon recognition of a foreign antigen, CD4(+) naïve T lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into subsets with distinct functions. This process is fundamental for the effective immune system function, as CD4(+) T cells orchestrate both the innate and adaptive immune response. Traditionally, this differentiation event has been regarded as the acquisition of an irreversible cell fate so that memory and effector CD4(+) T subsets were considered terminally differentiated cells or lineages. Consequently, these lineages are conventionally defined thanks to their prototypical set of cytokines and transcription factors. However, recent findings suggest that CD4(+) T lymphocytes possess a remarkable phenotypic plasticity, as they can often re-direct their functional program depending on the milieu they encounter. Therefore, new questions are now compelling such as which are the molecular determinants underlying plasticity and stability and how the balance between these two opposite forces drives the cell fate. As already mentioned, in some cases, the mere expression of cytokines and master regulators could not fully explain lymphocytes plasticity. We should consider other layers of regulation, including epigenetic factors such as the modulation of chromatin state or the transcription of non-coding RNAs, whose high cell-specificity give a hint on their involvement in cell fate determination. In this review, we will focus on the recent advances in understanding CD4(+) T lymphocytes subsets specification from an epigenetic point of view. In particular, we will emphasize the emerging importance of non-coding RNAs as key players in these differentiation events. We will also present here new data from our laboratory highlighting the contribution of long non-coding RNAs in driving human CD4(+) T lymphocytes differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Panzeri
- Integrative Biology Unit, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico , Milano , Italy
| | - Grazisa Rossetti
- Integrative Biology Unit, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico , Milano , Italy
| | - Sergio Abrignani
- Integrative Biology Unit, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico , Milano , Italy
| | - Massimiliano Pagani
- Integrative Biology Unit, Istituto Nazionale Genetica Molecolare "Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi", IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico , Milano , Italy ; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano , Milano , Italy
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9
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Abstract
Histone modifiers like acetyltransferases, methyltransferases, and demethylases are critical regulators of most DNA-based nuclear processes, de facto controlling cell cycle progression and cell fate. These enzymes perform very precise post-translational modifications on specific histone residues, which in turn are recognized by different effector modules/proteins. We now have a better understanding of how these enzymes exhibit such specificity. As they often reside in multisubunit complexes, they use associated factors to target their substrates within chromatin structure and select specific histone mark-bearing nucleosomes. In this review, we cover the current understanding of how histone modifiers select their histone targets. We also explain how different experimental approaches can lead to conflicting results about the histone specificity and function of these enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Eve Lalonde
- St-Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec-Axe Oncologie, Hôtel-Dieu de Québec, Quebec City, Quebec G1R 2J6, Canada
| | - Xue Cheng
- St-Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec-Axe Oncologie, Hôtel-Dieu de Québec, Quebec City, Quebec G1R 2J6, Canada
| | - Jacques Côté
- St-Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec-Axe Oncologie, Hôtel-Dieu de Québec, Quebec City, Quebec G1R 2J6, Canada
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