The UP & DOWN Study

A comprehensive study of the academic benefits and practical recommendations to include resistance training programs in institutional education

The connection between physical activity and cognitive function has become a focus of attention in educational research in recent years. Regular exercise has been shown to have significant positive effects on physical health, but it also appears to have a significant impact on cognitive function and academic performance. Of all the exercise modalities, resistance training has drawn interest for its ability to improve cerebral abilities in addition to physical well-being. However, there is limited available knowledge exploring the relationship between resistance training regimens and academic performance. This narrative review aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms linking resistance training to academic performance. Firstly, we will examine the biological mechanisms and psychosocial links that potentially connect resistance training to academic performance to find and describe the different mechanisms by which resistance training improves academic performance. In the next part of the work, we delve into the existing observational and intervention studies that have explored the relationship between resistance training and academic performance. Lastly, we provide practical recommendations for including resistance training in institutional education settings, emphasizing the need of dispelling myths and addressing barriers to increase participation as well as the relevance of considering key training variables and adaptation of protocols to developmental stages, always guided by a properly trained professional. Overall, the available evidence supports that resistance training provides potential benefits to the academic performance of youth students with many biological and psychosocial factors that explain this relationship. However, most of the studies are observational, and broader interventional studies are needed to understand and maximize the benefits of this type of physical exercise.

Emotional symptoms and inflammatory biomarkers in childhood: Associations in two Australian birth cohorts

BACKGROUND

An increasing body of evidence supports associations between inflammation and mental health difficulties, but the onset and directionality of these relationships are unclear.

METHODS

Data sources: Barwon Infant Study (BIS; n = 500 4-year-olds) and Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC; n = 1099 10-13-year-olds).

MEASURES

Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire emotional symptoms at 4, 10-11 and 12-13 years, and circulating levels of two inflammatory biomarkers, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) and glycoprotein acetyls (GlycA), at 4 and 11-12 years.

ANALYSIS

Adjusted quantile regression models examining cross-sectional associations between emotional symptoms and inflammation in 4-year-olds (BIS), and cross-lagged associations in 10-13-year-olds (LSAC).

RESULTS

We identified a small association between higher emotional symptoms at 10-11 years and higher GlycA levels a year later (standardised coefficient β = 0.09; 95%CI: 0.02 to 0.15). Sex-stratified analyses revealed this association was stronger for boys (β = 0.13; 95%CI: 0.04 to 0.21) than girls (β = 0.01; 95%CI: -0.09 to 0.11). These associations were not observed for hsCRP. There was little evidence of an association between higher GlycA or hsCRP at 11-12 years and emotional symptoms a year later, or cross-sectional associations between emotional symptoms and hsCRP or GlycA at 4 years.

LIMITATIONS

A single time-point of biomarker collection in late childhood precluded adjustment for baseline inflammatory biomarkers.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the direction of association from emotional symptoms to inflammation in late childhood, with potential sex differences. This adds to the body of evidence that addressing emotional symptoms in childhood is a major priority in optimising overall health throughout the life course.

Cardiorespiratory fitness as a mediator between body fat rate and executive function in college students

Purpose

To examine whether body fat rate (BF%) is associated with cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and whether cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) mediates the association between BF% and Executive function (EF) in young adults.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study, 226 college students were recruited from an university. Flanker, 2-back, and odder and shifting tasks were used to assess EF. The incremental cardiopulmonary exercise tests were performed, and maximal oxygen consumption was recorded during test. The body composition measuring instrument was used to evaluate the participants' BF%.

Results

The BF% of college students was negatively correlated with each EF, BF% was negatively correlated with CRF, and CRF was negatively correlated with EF (P< 0.001). Structural equation modeling (SEM) and simultaneous analysis of several groups were used to construct mediator model. The CRF of college students plays a partial mediating role between BF% and EF, and the mediating effect accounts for 48.8% of the total effect value. Sex has no moderate effect on the relationship between BF%, CRF, and EF.

Conclusions

College students with high BF% can improve their CRF by strengthening physical exercise, thereby indirectly improving their EF. Therefore, college students who have a higher body fat percentage should be compensated for engaging in physical exercise in order to enhance their CRF and mitigate the detrimental effects of obesity and overweight on EF.

Placental inflammatory cytokines mRNA expression and preschool children's cognitive performance: a birth cohort study in China

BACKGROUND

The immunologic milieu at the maternal-fetal interface has profound effects on propelling the development of the fetal brain. However, accessible epidemiological studies concerning the association between placental inflammatory cytokines and the intellectual development of offspring in humans are limited. Therefore, we explored the possible link between mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines in placenta and preschoolers' cognitive performance.

METHODS

Study subjects were obtained from the Ma'anshan birth cohort (MABC). Placental samples were collected after delivery, and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was utilized to measure the mRNA expression levels of IL-8, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, CRP, IFN-γ, IL-10, and IL-4. Children's intellectual development was assessed at preschool age by using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). Multiple linear regression and restricted cubic spline models were used for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 1665 pairs of mother and child were included in the analysis. After adjusting for confounders and after correction for multiple comparisons, we observed that mRNA expression of IL-8 (β =  - 0.53; 95% CI, - 0.92 to - 0.15), IL-6 (β =  - 0.58; 95% CI, - 0.97 to - 0.19), TNF-α (β =  - 0.37; 95% CI, - 0.71 to - 0.02), and IFN-γ (β =  - 0.31; 95% CI, - 0.61 to - 0.03) in the placenta was negatively associated with preschoolers' full scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ). Both higher IL-8 and IL-6 were associated with lower children's low fluid reasoning index (FRI), and higher IFN-γ was associated with lower children's working memory index (WMI). After further adjusting for confounders and children's age at cognitive testing, the integrated index of six pro-inflammatory cytokines (index 2) was found to be significantly and negatively correlated with both the FSIQ and each sub-dimension (verbal comprehension index (VCI), visual spatial index (VSI), FRI, WMI, processing speed index (PSI)). Sex-stratified analyses showed that the association of IL-8, IFN-γ, and index 2 with children's cognitive development was mainly concentrated in boys.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence of an association between low cognitive performance and high expression of placental inflammatory cytokines (IL-8, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ) was found, highlighting the potential importance of intrauterine placental immune status in dissecting offspring cognitive development.

IL-6, sTNF-R2, and CRP in the context of sleep, circadian preference, and health in adolescents with eveningness chronotype: Cross-sectional and longitudinal treatment effects

BACKGROUND

Inflammation-related processes have emerged as a biological pathway related to adolescent development. This study examined cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of baseline inflammatory markers with sleep, circadian preference, and health at baseline and following treatment.

METHODS

Participants included 165 adolescents (58.2% female, mean age 14.7 years, 42.4% taking medication) "at-risk" in at least one domain (emotional, cognitive, behavioral, social, and physical health) who received a sleep-based intervention. Self-reported eveningness as well as total sleep time (TST) and bedtime from sleep diary were assessed at baseline and following treatment. Baseline soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor-2 (sTNF-R2) and interleukin (IL)-6 were assayed from oral mucosal transudate. Baseline C-reactive protein (CRP) was assayed from saliva.

RESULTS

At baseline, shorter TST was associated with more emotional risk among adolescents with higher CRP (b = -0.014, p = 0.007). Greater eveningness was related to more behavioral risk in the context of lower IL-6 (b = -0.142, p = 0.005). Following treatment, lower baseline IL-6 was associated with reduced behavioral risk (Χ² = 8.06, p = 0.045) and lower baseline CRP was related to reduced physical health risk (Χ² = 9.34, p = 0.025). Baseline inflammatory markers were not significantly associated with sleep, circadian, or other health domain change following treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

There was cross-sectional evidence that sleep and circadian dysfunction differentially relate to emotional and behavioral health risk for high and low levels of inflammatory markers. Longitudinal analyses indicated that lower levels of baseline inflammatory markers may be related to better treatment response to a sleep-based intervention.

Circulating inflammatory biomarkers and academic performance in adolescents: DADOS study

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed (1) to examine the association between circulating inflammatory biomarkers and academic performance in adolescents, and (2) to identify the ability of circulating inflammatory biomarkers to predict low academic performance.

METHODS

A total of 244 adolescents (13.9±0.3 years, 112 girls) from the DADOS study were included in the analysis. Four inflammatory biomarkers were quantified: white blood cell (WBC) count, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and C-reactive protein (CRP). Academic performance was assessed through academic grades and the Spanish version of the Science Research Associates Test of Educational Abilities.

RESULTS

TNF-α was inversely associated with math, Spanish and grade point average (β ranging from -0.166 to -0.124; all p<0.05), while CRP was inversely associated with verbal ability (β = -0.128; p<0.05). Overall, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves analyses showed discriminatory ability of WBC and TNF-α in identifying low academic performance (all p<0.05). Moreover, logistic regression analyses indicated that students with levels of WBC and TNF-α above the ROC cut-offs values showed between 78% to 87% increased likelihood of lower academic performance (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested that some circulating inflammatory biomarkers were associated with academic performance in adolescents. Further larger longitudinal and interventional studies are needed to clarify the short-term and long-term relationship between inflammation and academic performance in youths.

Inflammatory biomarkers and brain health indicators in children with overweight and obesity: The ActiveBrains project

INTRODUCTION

Chronic inflammation plays an important role on the pathogenesis of several cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, as well as on brain function and behaviour. The aim of the present study was to examine the associations between inflammatory biomarkers and a wide range of brain health indicators (i.e., academic performance, executive function, behavioural and emotional functioning, and brain volume) in children with overweight/obesity.

METHODS

A total of 107 children (10.0 ± 1.1 years, 41% girls) from the ActiveBrains project were included in the analysis. Five inflammatory biomarkers were analysed in plasma: white blood cell (WBC) count, interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and C-reactive protein (CRP). Academic performance was assessed by Woodcock-Muñoz Tests of Achievement. Executive function was assessed through the Design Fluency Test for cognitive flexibility, the Stroop test for cognitive inhibition, and the Delayed Non-Match-to-Sample task for working memory. Behavioural and emotional functioning was evaluated through the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) questionnaire. Total and regional brain volume was assessed by magnetic resonance imaging.

RESULTS

IL-6 was inversely associated with adaptive skills (β = -0.228; p = 0.030), while TNF-α was related to mathematics (β = -0.198; p = 0.034). In addition, CRP was positively associated with externalizing (β = 0.246; p = 0.046) and internalizing problems (β = 0.234; p = 0.039), as well as the behavioural symptoms index (β = 0.236; p = 0.047). However, these significant associations disappeared after multiple comparisons correction. Inflammatory biomarkers were not associated with executive function and total brain volumes. Regarding regional brain analyses, WBC was positively associated with gray matter volume in the left middle temporal gyrus (β = 0.387; p < 0.001, k = 44), and CRP was positively associated with gray matter volume in the right superior temporal gyrus (β = 0.439; p < 0.001, k = 29). Additionally, when adjusting by total brain volume, CRP was positively associated with gray matter volume in the right supplementary motor cortex (β = 0.453; p < 0.001, k = 51). Moreover, both, IL-6 (β = 0.366; p < 0.001, k = 81) and TNF-α (β = 0.368; p < 0.001, k = 62) were positively associated with white matter volume around the right inferior frontal gyrus pars opercularis, while CRP was inversely associated with white matter volume around the left superior frontal gyrus (β = -0.482; p < 0.001, k = 82). After adjusting by total brain volume, CRP was also inversely associated with white matter volume in 3 additional clusters (β ranging from -0.473 to -0.404; p < 0.001, k = 87).

CONCLUSIONS

Inflammation was slightly associated with brain health (i.e., academic performance, behavioural and emotional functioning and regional brain volume) in children with overweight or obesity. Further larger longitudinal and interventional studies are warranted to elucidate the short-term and long-term effect of systemic low-grade inflammation on children's brain health.

Physical Fitness, Grit, School Attendance, and Academic Performance among Adolescents

Objective

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of grit as a construct representing perseverance to overcoming barriers and the total number of school absences to academic performance (AP) while controlling for sociodemographics, fitness (i.e., PACER), and Body Mass Index (BMI).

Methods

Adolescents (N = 397, SD = 1.85; 80.9% females; 77.1% Hispanic) from an urban, minority-majority city in the Southern United States completed the FitnessGram® assessment of physical fitness (e.g., aerobic capacity and Body Mass Index (BMI)) and the valid and reliable short grit survey. The schools provided sociodemographics, attendance, and AP data for the adolescents.

Results

Adolescents with higher grit scores (r_s = 0.21, P < 0.001) and less total absences (r_s = −0.35, P < 0.001) performed better on AP. Hierarchical multiple regression indicated that grit and absences were associated with AP (β = 0.13, P < 0.01 and β = −0.35, P < 0.001, resp.).

Conclusions

Grit and a total number of absences are significant contributors to academic success, particularly among Hispanic adolescents. Further, grit and school attendance may serve as a better measure of protective factors over proximal health measures of cardiovascular health and BMI.