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Nassar A, Kodi T, Satarker S, Gurram PC, Fayaz SM, Nampoothiri M. Astrocytic transcription factors REST, YY1, and putative microRNAs in Parkinson's disease and advanced therapeutic strategies. Gene 2024; 892:147898. [PMID: 37832803 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2023.147898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Transcription factors (TF) and microRNAs are regulatory factors in astrocytes and are linked to several Parkinson's disease (PD) progression causes, such as disruption of glutamine transporters in astrocytes and concomitant disrupted glutamine uptake and inflammation. REST, a crucial TF, has been documented as an epigenetic repressor that limits the expression of neuronal genes in non-neural cells. REST activity is significantly linked to its corepressors in astrocytes, specifically histone deacetylases (HDACs), CoREST, and MECP2. Another REST-regulating TF, YY1, has been studied in astrocytes, and its interaction with REST has been investigated. In this review, the molecular processes that support the astrocytic control of REST and YY1 in terms of the regulation of glutamate transporter EAAT2 were addressed in a more detailed and comprehensive manner. Both TFs' function in astrocytes and how astrocyte abnormalities cause PD is still a mystery. Moreover, microRNAs (short non-coding RNAs) are key regulators that have been correlated to the expression and regulation of numerous genes linked to PD. The identification of numerous miRs that are engaged in astrocyte dysfunction that triggers PD has been shown. The term "Gut-brain axis" refers to the two systems' mutual communication. Gut microbial dysbiosis, which mediates an imbalance of the gut-brain axis, might contribute to neurodegenerative illnesses through altered astrocytic regulation. New treatment approaches to modify the gut-brain axis and prevent astrocytic repercussions have also been investigated in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajmal Nassar
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Triveni Kodi
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Sairaj Satarker
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Prasada Chowdari Gurram
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - S M Fayaz
- Department of Biotechnology, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Madhavan Nampoothiri
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
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Katzengruber L, Sander P, Laufer S. MKK4 Inhibitors-Recent Development Status and Therapeutic Potential. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087495. [PMID: 37108658 PMCID: PMC10144091 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
MKK4 (mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 4; also referred to as MEK4) is a dual-specificity protein kinase that phosphorylates and regulates both JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) and p38 MAPK (p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase) signaling pathways and therefore has a great impact on cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Overexpression of MKK4 has been associated with aggressive cancer types, including metastatic prostate and ovarian cancer and triple-negative breast cancer. In addition, MKK4 has been identified as a key regulator in liver regeneration. Therefore, MKK4 is a promising target both for cancer therapeutics and for the treatment of liver-associated diseases, offering an alternative to liver transplantation. The recent reports on new inhibitors, as well as the formation of a startup company investigating an inhibitor in clinical trials, show the importance and interest of MKK4 in drug discovery. In this review, we highlight the significance of MKK4 in cancer development and other diseases, as well as its unique role in liver regeneration. Furthermore, we present the most recent progress in MKK4 drug discovery and future challenges in the development of MKK4-targeting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Katzengruber
- Department of Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Tuebingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Pascal Sander
- Department of Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Tuebingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Laufer
- Department of Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Tuebingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence iFIT (EXC 2180) 'Image-Guided & Functionally Instructed Tumor Therapies', Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Tübingen Center for Academic Drug Discovery, Auf der Morgenstelle 8, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
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Kwong AJ, Pham TND, Oelschlager HE, Munshi HG, Scheidt KA. Rational Design, Optimization, and Biological Evaluation of Novel MEK4 Inhibitors against Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. ACS Med Chem Lett 2021; 12:1559-1567. [PMID: 34676038 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.1c00376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Growth, division, and development of healthy cells relies on efficient response to environmental survival cues. The conserved mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family of pathways interface extracellular stimuli to intracellular processes for this purpose. Within these pathways, the MEK family has been identified as a target of interest due to its clinical relevance. Particularly, MEK4 has drawn recent attention for its indications in pancreatic and prostate cancers. Here, we report two potent MEK4 inhibitors demonstrating significant reduction of phospho-JNK and antiproliferative properties against pancreatic cancer cell lines. Furthermore, molecular inhibition of MEK4 pathway activates the MEK1/2 pathway, with the combination of MEK1/2 and MEK4 inhibitors demonstrating synergistic effects against pancreatic cancer cells. Our inhibitors provided insight into the crosstalk between MAPK pathways and new tools for elucidating the roles of MEK4 in disease states, findings which will pave the way for better understanding of the MAPK pathways and development of additional probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ada J. Kwong
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Thao N. D. Pham
- Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 303 E. Superior Street, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Hannah E. Oelschlager
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Hidayatullah G. Munshi
- Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 303 E. Superior Street, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Karl A. Scheidt
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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Bai Y, Su X, Piao L, Jin Z, Jin R. Involvement of Astrocytes and microRNA Dysregulation in Neurodegenerative Diseases: From Pathogenesis to Therapeutic Potential. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:556215. [PMID: 33815055 PMCID: PMC8010124 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.556215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are the most widely distributed and abundant glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS). Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are a class of diseases with a slow onset, progressive progression, and poor prognosis. Common clinical NDDs include Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Huntington’s disease (HD). Although these diseases have different etiologies, they are all associated with neuronal loss and pathological dysfunction. Accumulating evidence indicates that neurotransmitters, neurotrophic factors, and toxic metabolites that are produced and released by activated astrocytes affect and regulate the function of neurons at the receptor, ion channel, antigen transfer, and gene transcription levels in the pathogenesis of NDDs. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a group of small non-coding RNAs that play a wide range of biological roles by regulating the transcription and post-transcriptional translation of target mRNAs to induce target gene expression and silencing. Recent studies have shown that miRNAs participate in the pathogenesis of NDDs by regulating astrocyte function through different mechanisms and may be potential targets for the treatment of NDDs. Here, we review studies of the role of astrocytes in the pathogenesis of NDDs and discuss possible mechanisms of miRNAs in the regulation of astrocyte function, suggesting that miRNAs may be targeted as a novel approach for the treatment of NDDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Bai
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xing Su
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Lianhua Piao
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zheng Jin
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Rihua Jin
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Ogura M, Endo K, Suzuki T, Homma Y. Prenylated quinolinecarboxylic acid compound-18 prevents sensory nerve fiber outgrowth through inhibition of the interleukin-31 pathway. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246630. [PMID: 33539470 PMCID: PMC7861556 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-31 (IL-31) is involved in excessive development of cutaneous sensory nerves in atopic dermatitis (AD), leading to severe pruritus. We previously reported that PQA-18, a prenylated quinolinecarboxylic acid (PQA) derivative, is an immunosuppressant with inhibition of p21-activated kinase 2 (PAK2) and improves skin lesions in Nc/Nga mice as an AD model. In the present study, we investigate the effect of PQA-18 on sensory nerves in lesional skin. PQA-18 alleviates cutaneous nerve fiber density in the skin of Nc/Nga mice. PQA-18 also inhibits IL-31-induced sensory nerve fiber outgrowth in dorsal root ganglion cultures. Signaling analysis reveals that PQA-18 suppresses phosphorylation of PAK2, Janus kinase 2, and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), activated by IL-31 receptor (IL-31R), resulting in inhibition of neurite outgrowth in Neuro2A cells. Gene silencing analysis for PAK2 confirms the requirement for STAT3 phosphorylation and neurite outgrowth elicited by IL-31R activation. LC/MS/MS analysis reveals that PQA-18 prevents the formation of PAK2 activation complexes induced by IL-31R activation. These results suggest that PQA-18 inhibits the IL-31 pathway through suppressing PAK2 activity, which suppresses sensory nerve outgrowth. PQA-18 may be a valuable lead for the development of a novel drug for pruritus of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Ogura
- Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Kumiko Endo
- Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Yoshimi Homma
- Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
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Melatonin Promotes Neuroprotection of H2O2-induced Neural Stem Cells via lncRNA MEG3/miRNA-27a-3p/MAP2K4 axis. Neuroscience 2020; 446:69-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Kwong AJ, Scheidt KA. Non-'classical' MEKs: A review of MEK3-7 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127203. [PMID: 32389527 PMCID: PMC7299838 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The MAPK pathways are an enduring area of interest due to their essential roles in cell processes. Increased expression and activity can lead to a multitude of diseases, sparking research efforts in developing inhibitors against these kinases. Though great strides have been made in developing MEK1/2 inhibitors, there is a notable lack of chemical probes for MEK3-7, given their central role in stimuli response, cell growth, and development. This review summarizes the progress that has been made on developing small molecule probes for MEK3-7, the specific disease states in which they have been studied, and their potential to become novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ada J Kwong
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Molecular Innovation and Drug Discovery, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, United States
| | - Karl A Scheidt
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Molecular Innovation and Drug Discovery, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, United States.
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Shakespear N, Ogura M, Yamaki J, Homma Y. Astrocyte-Derived Exosomal microRNA miR-200a-3p Prevents MPP +-Induced Apoptotic Cell Death Through Down-Regulation of MKK4. Neurochem Res 2020; 45:1020-1033. [PMID: 32016794 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-020-02977-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Astrocytes release exosomes that regulate neuronal cell function. 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) is a well-known neurotoxin used to induce cell death in in vitro Parkinson's disease models, and microRNA (miRNA) transferred by released exosomes can regulate its mechanisms. Here, we demonstrated that exosomes released from normal astrocytes (ADEXs), but not exosomes derived from MPP+-stimulated astrocytes (MPP+-ADEXs), significantly attenuate MPP+-induced cell death in SH-SY5Y cells and primary mesencephalic dopaminergic neuron cultures, and reduce expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 4 (MKK4), an important upstream kinase in the c-Jun N-terminal kinase cell death pathway. Similar neuroprotective results were obtained from primary hippocampal neuron cultures, an in vitro glutamate excitotoxicity model. Through small-RNA sequencing of exosomal miRNA, we identified miR-200a-3p as the most down-regulated miRNA expressed in MPP+-ADEXs. miRNA target analysis and reporter assay confirmed that miR-200a-3p targets MKK4 through binding to two independent sites on the 3'-UTR of Map2k4/MKK4 mRNA. Treatment with miR-200a-3p mimic suppressed both MKK4 mRNA and protein expressions, and attenuated cell death in MPP+-treated SH-SY5Y cells and glutamate-treated hippocampal neuron cultures. Our results suggest that normal astrocytes release miR-200a-3p which exhibits a neuroprotective effect through down-regulation of MKK4.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Masato Ogura
- Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan
| | - Junko Yamaki
- Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan
| | - Yoshimi Homma
- Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, 960-1295, Japan.
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Kubohara Y, Kikuchi H. Dictyostelium: An Important Source of Structural and Functional Diversity in Drug Discovery. Cells 2018; 8:E6. [PMID: 30583484 PMCID: PMC6356392 DOI: 10.3390/cells8010006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum is an excellent model organism for the study of cell and developmental biology because of its simple life cycle and ease of use. Recent findings suggest that Dictyostelium and possibly other genera of cellular slime molds, are potential sources of novel lead compounds for pharmacological and medical research. In this review, we present supporting evidence that cellular slime molds are an untapped source of lead compounds by examining the discovery and functions of polyketide differentiation-inducing factor-1, a compound that was originally isolated as an inducer of stalk-cell differentiation in D. discoideum and, together with its derivatives, is now a promising lead compound for drug discovery in several areas. We also review other novel compounds, including secondary metabolites, that have been isolated from cellular slime molds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzuru Kubohara
- Laboratory of Health and Life Science, Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Inzai, Chiba 270-1695, Japan.
| | - Haruhisa Kikuchi
- Laboratory of Natural Product Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aza-aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan.
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