Selection as a domain-general evolutionary process

Reconceptualizing the Interaction of Behavior and Environment

The concept of response strength and the process of strengthening by reinforcement are controversial in terms of their explanatory power. We clarify potential theoretical misconceptions following from a strength-based account such as essentialist thinking and circular reasoning. These problems also arise in the practice of latent variable modeling in psychometrics. To solve these conceptual problems, we discuss the Multilevel Model of Behavioral Selection (MLBS; Borgstede & Eggert, 2021) as an alternative theoretical framework. We use blocking from Pavlovian conditioning as an example to demonstrate how the MLBS framework prevents misconceptions arising from strength-based accounts and how it provides a more parsimonious and coherent explanation of the phenomenon. We illustrate the need for precisely defined and theoretically meaningful concepts and offer a reinterpretation of "strengthening by reinforcement." The reconceptualization in terms of the MLBS renders the concept of response strength superfluous. We conclude by highlighting the importance of theoretical reconsideration, putting aside difficulties that arise when attempting to validate strength by empirical means.

Model-based estimates for operant selection

We present a new methodology to partition different sources of behavior change within a selectionist framework based on the Price equation-the multilevel model of behavioral selection. The multilevel model of behavioral selection provides a theoretical background to describe behavior change in terms of operant selection. Operant selection is formally captured by the covariance-based law of effect and accounts for all changes in individual behavior that involve a covariance between behavior and predictors of evolutionary fitness (e.g., food). In this article, we show how the covariance-based law of effect may be applied to different components of operant behavior (e.g., allocation, speed, and accuracy of responding), thereby providing quantitative estimates for various selection effects affecting behavior change using data from a published learning experiment with pigeons.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms link gout with health-related lifestyle factors in Korean cohorts

Gout-a very painful inflammatory arthritis caused by the deposition of monosodium urate crystals in the joints-is influenced by several factors. We identified the association of single- nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that link gout with health-related lifestyle factors using genomic data from the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study. We conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) on 18,927 samples of 438 Korean patients with gout and 18,489 controls for the discovery stage. For the replication stage, another batch containing samples of 326 patients with gout and 2,737 controls were analyzed. Lastly, a meta-analysis was performed using these two cohorts. We analyzed the effects of health-related lifestyle factors, including eating habits, physical activity, drinking behavior, and smoking behavior, on gout. After identifying the association between GWAS-derived SNPs and health-related lifestyle factors, we confirmed the interaction between the polygenic risk score (PRS) and health-related lifestyle factors. We identified 15 SNPs related to gout, among which rs1481012 of ABCG2 located on chromosome 4 has been newly discovered (P = 2.46e-11). On examining the interaction between SNPs and health-related lifestyles, rs3109823-located in ABCG2-was found to be associated with smoking status. In addition, rs11936395-located in SLC2A9-was significantly associated with the average momentum of exercise per session, whereas rs11066325 located in PTPN11, showed a significant association with the number of exercise sessions per week, smoking status, drinking status, and amount of soju drink per session. rs9421589-located in FAM35A-was significantly associated with the duration of smoking. In addition, we verified that the association between PRS and duration of smoking affects gout. Thus, in this study, we identified novel SNPs that link gout with health-related lifestyle factors in the Korean population.

The formal foundation of an evolutionary theory of reinforcement

Reinforcement learning is often described by analogy to natural selection. However, there is no coherent theory relating reinforcement learning to evolution within a single formal model of selection. This paper provides the formal foundation of such a unified theory. The model is based on the most general description of natural selection as given by the Price equation. We extend the Price equation to cover reinforcement learning as the result of a behavioral selection process within individuals and relate it to the principle of natural selection via the concept of statistical fitness predictors by means of a multilevel model of behavioral selection. The main result is the covariance-based law of effect, which describes reinforcement learning on a molar level by means of the covariance between behavioral allocation and a statistical fitness predictor. We further demonstrate how this abstract principle can be applied to derive theoretical explanations of various empirical findings, like conditioned reinforcement, blocking, matching and response deprivation. Our model is the first to apply the abstract principle of selection to derive a unified description of reinforcement learning and natural selection within a single model. It provides a general analytical tool for behavioral psychology in a similar way that the theory of natural selection does for evolutionary biology. We thus lay the formal foundation of a general theory of reinforcement as the result of behavioral selection on multiple levels.

On the "Strength" of Behavior

The place of the concept of response strength in a natural science of behavior has been the subject of much debate. This article reconsiders the concept of response strength for reasons linked to the foundations of a natural science of behavior. The notion of response strength is implicit in many radical behaviorists' work. Palmer (2009) makes it explicit by applying the response strength concept to three levels: (1) overt behavior, (2) covert behavior, and (3) latent or potential behavior. We argue that the concept of response strength is superfluous in general, and an explication of the notion of giving causal status to nonobservable events like latent behavior or response strength is harmful to a scientific endeavor. Interpreting EEG recordings as indicators of changes in response strength runs the risk of reducing behavior to underlying mechanisms, regardless of whether such suggestions are accompanied by behavioral observations. Many radical behaviorists understand behavior as a discrete unit, inviting conceptual mistakes reflected in the notion of response strength. A molar view is suggested as an alternative that accounts for the temporally extended nature of behavior and avoids the perils of a response-strength based approach.

Dugnad: A Fact and a Narrative of Norwegian Prosocial Behavior

Evolved mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity, which are evolutionary processes in their own right, enable species to respond adaptively to their environments. The Scandinavian countries, and Norway in particular, have for many years scored exceptionally high on lists of life quality, economic indicators, and measures of happiness. We propose that learning prosocial and cooperative behavior, which is central in a particular Norwegian cultural practice, dugnad, plays a role in the country's success story. Dugnad is a Norwegian term for a type of voluntary work carried out as a community or collective and traditionally involving a social gathering. Dugnad has a long history in Norway, and it is a well-established cultural practice that has led to and still maintains significant social benefits. Dugnad is arranged in virtually all communities such as kindergartens, neighborhoods, schools, and organizations. Participation in dugnad gatherings is generally expected. Children from a young age are involved in dugnad. Dugnad activities are based on cooperation and can include anything from arranging a spring cleaning in the local community to building a club house for your children's sports club. This paper discusses dugnad as a cultural practice that creates an environment that nurtures prosocial and cooperative activities. From a behavior analytic, selectionist perspective, we propose a non-domain-specific learning mechanism for dugnad-typical prosocial and cooperative behavior analogous to the phylogenetic evolutionary mechanism of group selection. Contingencies can lead to and maintain dugnad activities when extended behavioral patterns are selected as wholes.