Horseradish peroxidase-catalyzed synthesis of poly(thiophene-3-boronic acid) biocomposites for mono-/bi-enzyme immobilization and amperometric biosensing

Colorimetric Immunoassays with Boronic Acid-Decorated, Peroxidase-like Metal-Organic Frameworks as the Carriers of Antibodies and Enzymes

The sensitivity of immunoassays is generally limited by the low signal reporter/recognition element ratio. Nanomaterials serving as the carriers can enhance the loading number of signal reporters, thus improving the detection sensitivity. However, the general immobilization strategies, including direct physical adsorption and covalent coupling, may cause the random orientation and conformational change in proteins, partially or completely suppressing the enzymatic activity and the molecular recognition ability. In this work, we proposed a strategy to load recognition elements of antibodies and enzyme labels using boronic acid-modified metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as the nanocarriers for signal amplification. The conjugation strategy was proposed based on the boronate ester interactions between the carbohydrate moieties in antibodies and enzymes and the boronic acid moieties on MOFs. Both enzymes and MOFs could catalyze the oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) by H2O2, therefore achieving dual signal amplification. To indicate the feasibility and sensitivity of the strategy, colorimetric immunoassays of prostate specific antigen (PSA) were performed with boronic acid-modified Cu-MOFs as peroxidase mimics to catalyze TMB oxidation and nanocarriers to load antibody and enzyme (horseradish peroxidase, HRP). According to the change in the absorbance intensity of the oxidized TMB (oxTMB), PSA at the concentration range of 1~250 pg/mL could be readily determined. In addition, this work presented a site-specific and oriented conjugation strategy for the modification of nanolabels with recognition elements and signal reporters, which should be valuable for the design of novel biosensors with high sensitivity and selectivity.

Multi-enzyme co-immobilized nano-assemblies: Bringing enzymes together for expanding bio-catalysis scope to meet biotechnological challenges

Co-immobilization of multi-enzymes has emerged as a promising concept to design and signify bio-catalysis engineering. Undoubtedly, the existence and importance of basic immobilization methods such as encapsulation, covalent binding, cross-linking, or even simple adsorption cannot be ignored as they are the core of advanced co-immobilization strategies. Different strategies have been developed and deployed to green the twenty-first century bio-catalysis. Moreover, co-immobilization of multi-enzymes has successfully resolved the limitations of individual enzyme loaded constructs. With an added value of this advanced bio-catalysis engineering platform, designing, and fabricating co-immobilized enzymes loaded nanostructure carriers to perform a particular set of reactions with high catalytic turnover is of supreme interest. Herein, we spotlight the emergence of co-immobilization strategies by bringing multi-enzymes together with various types of nanocarriers to expand the bio-catalysis scope. Following a brief introduction, the first part of the review focuses on multienzyme co-immobilization strategies, i.e., random co-immobilization, compartmentalization, and positional co-immobilization. The second part comprehensively covers four major categories of nanocarriers, i.e., carbon based nanocarriers, polymer based nanocarriers, silica-based nanocarriers, and metal-based nanocarriers along with their particular examples. In each section, several critical factors that can affect the performance and successful deployment of co-immobilization of enzymes are given in this work.

An Electrochemical Evaluation of Novel Ferrocene Derivatives for Glutamate and Liver Biomarker Biosensing

Here, we present an evaluation of two new monosubstituted ferrocene (Fc) derivatives, 3-(1H-pyrrol-1-yl)propanamidoferrocene and 1-hydroxy-2-[2-(thiophen-3-yl)-ethylamino]ethylferrocene, as glutamate oxidase mediators, together with their preparation and characterisation. Taking into consideration the influence of the electronic effects of substituents on the redox potentials of the Fc species, two candidates with pyrrole or thiophene moieties were proposed for investigation. Film studies involved potential sweeping in the presence of pyrrole or 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene monomers resulting in stable electroactive films with % signal loss upon cycling ranging from 1 to 7.82% and surface coverage (Γ) 0.47-1.15 × 10-9 mol/cm2 for films formed under optimal conditions. Construction of a glutamate oxidase modified electrode resulted in second-generation biosensing with the aid of both cyclic voltammetry and hydrodynamic amperometry, resulting in glutamate sensitivity of 0.86-1.28 μA/mM and Km (app) values over the range 3.67-5.01 mM. A follow-up enzyme assay for liver biomarker γ-glutamyl transpeptidase realised unmediated and mediated measurement establishing reaction and incubation time investigations and a realising response over <100 U/L γ-glutamyl transpeptidase with a sensitivity of 5 nA/UL-1.

A Facile Strategy for Immobilizing GOD and HRP onto Pollen Grain and Its Application to Visual Detection of Glucose

Pollen grain was explored as a new carrier for enzyme immobilization. After being modified with boric acid-functionalized titania, the pollen grain was able to covalently immobilize glycosylated enzymes by boronate affinity interaction under very mild experimental conditions (e.g., pH 7.0, ambient temperature and free of organic solvent). The glucose oxidase and horse radish peroxidase-immobilized pollen grain became a bienzyme system. The pollen grain also worked as an indicator of the cascade reaction by changing its color. A rapid, simple and cost-effective approach for the visual detection of glucose was then developed. When the glucose concentration exceeded 0.5 mM, the color change was observable by the naked eye. The assay of glucose in body fluid samples exhibited its great potential for practical application.

Immobilization of Multi-Enzymes on Support Materials for Efficient Biocatalysis

Multi-enzyme biocatalysis is an important technology to produce many valuable chemicals in the industry. Different strategies for the construction of multi-enzyme systems have been reported. In particular, immobilization of multi-enzymes on the support materials has been proved to be one of the most efficient approaches, which can increase the enzymatic activity via substrate channeling and improve the stability and reusability of enzymes. A general overview of the characteristics of support materials and their corresponding attachment techniques used for multi-enzyme immobilization will be provided here. This review will focus on the materials-based techniques for multi-enzyme immobilization, which aims to present the recent advances and future prospects in the area of multi-enzyme biocatalysis based on support immobilization.

A simple electrochemical biosensor based on AuNPs/MPS/Au electrode sensing layer for monitoring carbamate pesticides in real samples

A simple electrochemical biosensor for quantitative determination of carbamate pesticide was developed based on a sensing interface of citrate-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)/(3-mercaptopropyl)-trimethoxysilane (MPS)/gold electrode (Au). The biosensor was fabricated by firstly assembling three-dimensional (3D) MPS networks on Au electrode and subsequently assembling citrate-capped AuNPs on 3D MPS network via AuS bond. The interface of AuNPs/MPS/Au was negatively charged originating from the citrate coated on AuNPs that would repulse the negatively charged ferricyanide ([Fe(CN)6](3-/4-)) to produce a negative response. In the presence of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and acetylthiocholine (ATCl), the AChE catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATCl into positively charged thiocholine which would replace the citrate on AuNPs through the strong AuS bond and convert the negative charged surface to be positively charged. The resulted positively charged AuNPs/MPS/Au then attracted the [Fe(CN)6](3-/4-) to produce a positive response. Based on the inhibition of carbamate pesticides on the activity of AChE, the pesticide could be quantitatively determined at a very low potential. The linear range was from 0.003 to 2.00 μM. The sensing platform was also proved to be suitable for carbamate pesticides detection in practical sample.

Horseradish peroxidase-catalyzed polymerization of L-DOPA for mono-/bi-enzyme immobilization and amperometric biosensing of H2O2 and uric acid

Horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-catalyzed polymerization of L-DOPA (vs. dopamine) in the presence of H2O2 (and uricase (UOx)) was exploited to immobilize mono-/bi-enzymes for hydroquinone-mediated amperometric biosensing of H2O2 and uric acid (UA). The relevant polymeric biocomposites (PBCs) were prepared in phosphate buffer solution containing HRP and L-DOPA (or plus UOx) after adding H2O2. The mono-/bi-enzyme amperometric biosensors were prepared simply by casting some of the PBCs on Au-plated Au (Au(plate)/Au) electrodes, followed by coating with an outer-layer chitosan (CS) film for each. UV-vis spectrophotometry, scanning electron microscopy, cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were used for film characterization and/or process monitoring. The HRP immobilized by enzyme catalysis well preserved its bioactivity, as confirmed by UV-vis spectrophotometry. Under optimized conditions, the monoenzyme CS/HRP-poly(L-DOPA) (PD)/Au(plate)/Au electrode potentiostated at -0.1V responded linearly to H2O2 concentration from 0.001 to 1.25mM with a sensitivity of 700μA mM(-1)cm(-2) and a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.1μM, and the bienzyme CS/UOx-HRP-PD/Au(plate)/Au electrode at -0.1V responded linearly to UA concentration from 0.001 to 0.4mM with a sensitivity of 349μA mM(-1)cm(-2) and a LOD of 0.1μM. The mono-/bi-enzyme biosensors based on biosynthesized PD performed better than many reported analogues and those based on similarly biosynthesized polydopamine.

A nanoaggregate-on-mirror platform for molecular and biomolecular detection by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

A nanoaggregate-on-mirror (NAOM) structure has been developed for molecular and biomolecular detection using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). The smooth surface of the gold mirror allows for simple and homogeneous functionalization, while the introduction of the nanoaggregates enhances the Raman signal of the molecule(s) in the vicinity of the aggregate-mirror junction. This is evidenced by functionalizing the gold mirror with 4-nitrothiophenol, and the further addition of gold nanoaggregates promotes local SERS activity only in the areas with the nanoaggregates. The application of the NAOM platform for biomolecular detection is highlighted using glucose and H2O2 as molecules of interest. In both cases, the gold mirror is functionalized with 4-mercaptophenylboronic acid (4-MPBA). Upon exposure to glucose, the boronic acid moiety of 4-MPBA forms a cyclic boronate ester. Once the nanoaggregates are added to the surface, detection of glucose is possible without the use of an enzyme. This method of indirect detection provides a limit of detection of 0.05 mM, along with a linear range of detection from 0.1 to 15 mM for glucose, encompassing the physiological range of blood glucose concentration. The detection of H2O2 is achieved with optical inspection and SERS. The H2O2 interferes with the coating of the gold mirror, enabling qualitative detection by visual inspection. Simultaneously, the H2O2 reacts with the boronic acid to form a phenol, a change that is detected by SERS.

Porous polystyrene-block-poly(acrylic acid)/hemoglobin membrane formed by dually driven self-assembly and electrochemical application

This study demonstrated a facile method to form a porous polymeric membrane, immobilizing a biocatalyst. A polyelectrolyte-based amphiphilic diblock copolymer, i.e., polystyrene-block-poly(acrylic acid) (PS-b-PAA), self-assembled with hemoglobin (Hb) dually driven by charge and amphiphilicity during solution-casting and evaporation. XPS and contact angle measurements suggested that the PS block enriched on the membrane surface. The PAA block pointed toward the internal membrane as well as ordered the Hb arrangement at the interface of the polymer and electrode. The obtained PS-b-PAA/Hb electrode showed a remarkably enhanced direct electron transfer (ET), which was revealed to be a surface-controlled process accompanied by single-proton transfer. The membrane was tested to catalyze the reduction of hydrogen peroxide, and exhibited an excellent reproducibility and stability. This method with a charge and amphiphilicity dually driven (CADD) self-assembly opened up a new way to construct a third-generation electrochemical biosensor.

Boronic acids for sensing and other applications - a mini-review of papers published in 2013

Boronic acids are increasingly utilised in diverse areas of research. Including the interactions of boronic acids with diols and strong Lewis bases as fluoride or cyanide anions, which leads to their utility in various sensing applications. The sensing applications can be homogeneous assays or heterogeneous detection. Detection can be at the interface of the sensing material or within the bulk sample. Furthermore, the key interaction of boronic acids with diols allows utilisation in various areas ranging from biological labelling, protein manipulation and modification, separation and the development of therapeutics. All the above uses and applications are covered by this mini-review of papers published during 2013.

Non-covalent functionalization of carbon nanotubes with boronic acids for the wiring of glycosylated redox enzymes in oxygen-reducing biocathodes

Easy covalent binding and efficient electrical wiring of enzymes onto carbon nanotube deposits by pyrene-boronic acid derivatives.