Implementation of cognitive therapy for PTSD in routine clinical care: effectiveness and moderators of outcome in a consecutive sample

Integrating digital and in-person therapy for PTSD: feasibility and acceptability of blended trauma-focused cognitive therapy in routine care

Introduction

Access to evidence-based psychological therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is limited. Blended Trauma-focused Cognitive Therapy (bTF-CT), merging internet-modules with a few therapy sessions, may be a pathway to enhance treatment access while maintaining the benefits of face-to-face therapy.

Objectives

This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary effectiveness of bTF-CT for PTSD in routine care, as well as the feasibility of assessments and data collection.

Method

A single-arm design was adopted. bTF-CT was provided to 17 participants across two psychiatric and one primary care clinic. Assessments were conducted pre, during, post and 6-months following treatment. We assessed feasibility and acceptability via self-report questionnaires, retention, and attrition rates. To estimate preliminary treatment effectiveness the PTSD Symptom Checklist (PCL-5) was used to assess PTSD symptom severity.

Results

Treatment satisfaction was high with a mean score of 28.7 out of 32 on the Client Satisfaction Questionnaire (SD = 3.5). The dropout rate was low, with 88% treatment retention. Program adherence was satisfactory, with scores ranging from 2.13 to 3.13 out of 4 on the internet intervention patient adherence scale. On the PCL-5, 88% made a reliable change, 64% demonstrated a clinically significant change, and the mean change from pre to post was 24 points (d = 2.13). Some negative effects were reported, such as unpleasant memories, feelings, and disrupted sleep, but these were temporary according to symptom scales.

Conclusions

bTF-CT appears to be acceptable, feasible, and potentially effective when delivered in routine care. A large-scale non-inferiority trial to assess effectiveness compared to a gold-standard treatment is warranted.

Clinical Trial Registration

Clinicaltrials.gov, identifier NCT04881643.

Clinicians' perspectives on retraumatisation during trauma-focused interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder: A survey of UK mental health professionals

Concerns regarding retraumatisation have been identified as a barrier to delivering trauma-focused therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We explored clinicians' understanding of what constitutes potential signs of retraumatisation (PSoR), reported incidences of witnessing retraumatisation, use of (and confidence in) therapies for PTSD, fear of retraumatisation during therapy for PTSD, and whether having witnessed retraumatisation was associated with these variables. We surveyed 348 clinicians. There was variation in what clinicians viewed as PSoR. Retraumatisation was reported by clinicians in 3.4 % of patients undergoing trauma-focused therapy for PTSD. A variety of trauma-focused and non-trauma-focused therapies were routinely used, yet 14.4 % reported not using trauma-focused therapy. There was a significant negative correlation between participants' highest reported confidence in trauma-focused therapy and endorsement of PSoR (r = -.25) and fear of retraumatisation (r = -.28). Mean fear of retraumatisation was 30.3 (SD=23.4; a score we derived from asking participants out of 100 how much they worry about trauma-focused therapy being harmful in its own right/leading to a worsening of PTSD symptoms). Participants who had witnessed retraumatisation reported significantly greater endorsement of PSoR (d=.69 [95 % CI .37, 1.02]) and fear of retraumatisation (d=.94 [95 % CI .61, 1.26]). Confidence in using therapies for PTSD was varied and related to how clinicians understood retraumatisation. Retraumatisation is uncommon, but there is variability in clinicians' interpretation of what retraumatisation is, and its utility warrants research.

Psychological intervention in women victims of childhood sexual abuse: a randomized controlled clinical trial comparing EMDR psychotherapy and trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy

Introduction

Childhood sexual abuse persists as a painful societal reality, necessitating responses from institutions and healthcare professionals to prevent and address its severe long-term consequences in victims. This study implements an intervention comprising two psychotherapeutic approaches recommended by the WHO and international clinical guidelines for addressing short-, medium-, and long-term posttraumatic symptomatology: Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR). Both approaches are adapted from group formats for implementation in small online groups via Zoom.

Methods

The impact of both therapeutic approaches on trauma improvement was assessed in a sample of 19 women who were victims of childhood sexual abuse through a Randomized Clinical Trial comparing EMDR Psychotherapy and Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy after a baseline period. Intra and inter comparison were made using statistics appropriate to the sample.

Results

Both therapeutic approaches significantly reduced symptomatology across various evaluated variables, suggesting their efficacy in improving the quality of life for these individuals. Following CBT-FT treatment, patients exhibited enhanced emotional regulation, reduced reexperiencing, and avoidance. The EMDR group, utilizing the G-TEP group protocol, significantly improved dissociation, along with other crucial clinical variables and the perception of quality of life.

Discussion

Although the limitations of this study must be taken into account due to the size of the sample and the lack of long-term follow-up, the results align with existing scientific literature, underscoring the benefits of trauma-focused psychological treatments. The online group format appears promising for enhancing the accessibility of psychological treatment for these women. Furthermore, the differential outcomes of each treatment support recent research advocating for the inclusion of both approaches for individuals with trauma-related symptomatology.

Ethics and dissemination

The study has been approved by the Ethics Committee of the Valencian International University (VIU) (Valencia, Spain) (Ref. CEID2021_07). The results will be submitted for publication in peer-reviewed journals and disseminated to the scientific community.

Clinical trial registration

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04813224, identifier NCT04813224.

Self-rated personality disorder symptoms do not predict treatment outcome for posttraumatic stress disorder in routine clinical care

OBJECTIVE

To test the hypothesis that self-rated personality disorder (PD) symptoms are a significant and clinically relevant predictor of treatment outcomes in a naturalistic treatment setting specialized in trauma-focused treatment using a single-group pretest-posttest design.

METHOD

Treatment-seeking patients reporting clinical levels of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms filled out questionnaires at intake and after treatment. The primary outcome was change in PTSD severity after treatment, measured by the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). PD symptoms were measured with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 Screening Personality Questionnaire (SCID-5-SPQ). Secondary outcomes were general mental health problems, treatment response, number of sessions and dropout.

RESULTS

N = 1174 patients (59% female, baseline PCL-5 score M [SD] = 53.0 [10.8]) were included for the primary analysis. Regression analysis revealed that PD symptoms explained 0.4% of variance in PTSD symptom change (p = .066). After controlling for baseline PTSD symptoms, PD symptoms explained 0.0% of variance (p = .311). The fully adjusted model including baseline PTSD symptom severity, age, gender, cumulative exposure to potentially traumatic experiences, PD symptoms, and number of sessions together explained 5% of the observed variance in PTSD symptom change. Baseline PTSD severity was the only significant predictor and negatively predicted outcome. Sensitivity analyses with imputed data from N = 2694 cases yielded comparable results. Finally, secondary analyses showed that PD symptoms did not predict significant or clinically relevant changes in treatment response status, general mental health problems, dropout rates or number of sessions.

CONCLUSION

The findings provide no evidence that self-rated PD symptoms predict treatment outcomes for patients suffering from clinical levels of PTSD symptoms in a naturalistic treatment setting specializing in trauma-focused treatment. Self-report screening for these symptoms to inform clinicians about expected effects of PTSD treatment is not supported by the evidence.

Changes in cognitive processes and coping strategies precede changes in symptoms during cognitive therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder

Theories of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) highlight the role of cognitive and behavioral factors in its development, maintenance, and treatment. This study investigated the relationship between changes in factors specified in Ehlers and Clark's (2000) model of PTSD and PTSD symptom change in 217 patients with PTSD who were treated with cognitive therapy for PTSD (CT-PTSD) in routine clinical care. Bivariate latent change score models (LCSM) of session-by-session changes in self-report measures showed that changes in PTSD symptoms were preceded by changes in negative appraisals, flashback characteristics of unwanted memories, safety behaviours, and unhelpful responses to intrusions, but not vice versa. For changes in trauma memory disorganization and PTSD symptoms we found a bidirectional association. This study provides evidence that cognitive and behavioral processes proposed in theoretical models of PTSD play a key role in driving symptom improvement during CT-PTSD.

Moving forward with the loss of a loved one: treating PTSD following traumatic bereavement with cognitive therapy

Traumatic loss is associated with high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and appears to inhibit the natural process of grieving, meaning that patients who develop PTSD after loss trauma are also at risk of experiencing enduring grief. Here we present how to treat PTSD arising from traumatic bereavement with cognitive therapy (CT-PTSD; Ehlers et al., 2005). The paper describes the core components of CT-PTSD for bereavement trauma with illustrative examples, and clarifies how the therapy differs from treating PTSD associated with trauma where there is no loss of a significant other. A core aim of the treatment is to help the patient to shift their focus from loss to what has not been lost, from a focus on their loved one being gone to considering how they may take their loved one forward in an abstract, meaningful way to achieve a sense of continuity in the present with what has been lost in the past. This is often achieved with imagery transformation, a significant component of the memory updating procedure in CT-PTSD for bereavement trauma. We also consider how to approach complexities, such as suicide trauma, loss of a loved one in a conflicted relationship, pregnancy loss and loss of life caused by the patient.

Key learning aims

To be able to apply Ehlers and Clark's (2000) cognitive model to PTSD arising from bereavement trauma.To recognise how the core treatment components differ for PTSD associated with traumatic bereavement than for PTSD linked to trauma where there is no loss of life.To discover how to conduct imagery transformation for the memory updating procedure in CT-PTSD for loss trauma.

Systematic review of training in cognitive-behavioral therapy: Summarizing effects, costs and techniques

With the steadily growing importance of psychotherapeutic care, there is also an increasing need for high-quality training. We analyze the literature published between 2009 and 2022 on the effectiveness of training in cognitive behavioral therapy. The review addresses current gaps in the literature by focusing on the description of specific training components and their associated costs, as well as examining therapist-level predictors of training effectiveness. Our findings confirm the effect of additional supervision on both therapist competence and patient outcomes. Instructor-led training and self-guided web-based training seem to moderately increase competence, especially when targeting specific and highly structured treatments or skills. The level of prior training and experience of a therapist appears to predict the strength of training-related gains in competence. Few studies analyzed the differential effect of certain elements of training (e.g., the amount of active learning strategies) and training costs were generally not reported. Future studies should replicate or expand the existing evidence on active ingredients and therapist-level predictors of training effectiveness. Costs should be systematically reported to enhance the comparability of different training strategies.

The effectiveness of trauma-focused psychotherapy for complex post-traumatic stress disorder: A retrospective study

OBJECTIVE

We retrospectively evaluated the effectiveness of trauma-focused psychotherapy (TF-P) versus stabilization and waiting in a civilian cohort of patients with an 11th version of the international classification of disease (ICD-11) diagnosis of complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD).

METHODS

We identified patients with CPTSD treated at a specialist trauma service over a 3-year period by triangulating evidence from self-report questionnaires, file review, and expert-clinician opinion. Patients completed a phase-based treatment: stabilization consisting of symptom management and establishing safety, followed by waiting for treatment (phase 1); individual TF-P in the form of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT), or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) or TF-CBT plus EMDR (phase 2). Our primary outcome was PTSD symptoms during phase 2 versus phase 1. Secondary outcomes included depressive symptoms, functional impairment, and a proxy CPTSD measure. Exploratory analysis compared outcomes between treatments. Adverse outcomes were recorded.

RESULTS

Fifty-nine patients were included. Compared to receiving only phase 1, patients completing TF-P showed statistically significant reductions in PTSD [t(58) = -3.99, p < 0.001], depressive symptoms [t(58) = -4.41, p < 0.001], functional impairment [t(58) = -2.26, p = 0.028], and proxy scores for CPTSD [t(58) = 4.69, p < 0.001]. There were no significant differences in outcomes between different treatments offered during phase 2. Baseline depressive symptoms were associated with higher PTSD symptoms and functional impairment.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that TF-P effectively improves symptoms of CPTSD. However, prospective research with validated measurements is necessary to evaluate current and new treatments and identify personal markers of treatment effectiveness for CPTSD.

Enhancing the quality of cognitive behavioral therapy in community mental health through artificial intelligence generated fidelity feedback (Project AFFECT): a study protocol

BACKGROUND

Each year, millions of Americans receive evidence-based psychotherapies (EBPs) like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for the treatment of mental and behavioral health problems. Yet, at present, there is no scalable method for evaluating the quality of psychotherapy services, leaving EBP quality and effectiveness largely unmeasured and unknown. Project AFFECT will develop and evaluate an AI-based software system to automatically estimate CBT fidelity from a recording of a CBT session. Project AFFECT is an NIMH-funded research partnership between the Penn Collaborative for CBT and Implementation Science and Lyssn.io, Inc. ("Lyssn") a start-up developing AI-based technologies that are objective, scalable, and cost efficient, to support training, supervision, and quality assurance of EBPs. Lyssn provides HIPAA-compliant, cloud-based software for secure recording, sharing, and reviewing of therapy sessions, which includes AI-generated metrics for CBT. The proposed tool will build from and be integrated into this core platform.

METHODS

Phase I will work from an existing software prototype to develop a LyssnCBT user interface geared to the needs of community mental health (CMH) agencies. Core activities include a user-centered design focus group and interviews with community mental health therapists, supervisors, and administrators to inform the design and development of LyssnCBT. LyssnCBT will be evaluated for usability and implementation readiness in a final stage of Phase I. Phase II will conduct a stepped-wedge, hybrid implementation-effectiveness randomized trial (N = 1,875 clients) to evaluate the effectiveness of LyssnCBT to improve therapist CBT skills and client outcomes and reduce client drop-out. Analyses will also examine the hypothesized mechanism of action underlying LyssnCBT.

DISCUSSION

Successful execution will provide automated, scalable CBT fidelity feedback for the first time ever, supporting high-quality training, supervision, and quality assurance, and providing a core technology foundation that could support the quality delivery of a range of EBPs in the future.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov; NCT05340738 ; approved 4/21/2022.

Personalized attention control therapy for PTSD: effectiveness and moderators of outcome in a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Previous randomized controlled trials (RCTs) suggest that attention control therapy (ACT), targeting aberrant fluctuations of attention toward and away from threats in patients with PTSD, may be effective in reducing symptoms. The current RCT examined whether the use of personalized-trauma stimuli enhances ACT efficacy in patients with PTSD. Additional moderators of treatment outcome were tested on an exploratory basis.

METHODS

Sixty patients with PTSD were randomly assigned to either personalized ACT, non-personalized ACT, or a control condition. Changes in symptoms were examined across pre-treatment, post-treatment, and a 3-month follow-up. Attentional interference was examined pre- and post-treatment. Baseline clinical and cognitive indices as well as the time elapsed since the trauma were tested as potential moderators of treatment outcome.

RESULTS

A significant reduction in clinical symptoms was noted for all three conditions with no between-group differences. Attention bias variability decreased following ACT treatment. Personalized ACT was more effective relative to the control condition when less time had elapsed since the trauma. Baseline clinical and cognitive indices did not moderate treatment outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

In this RCT of patients with PTSD, ACT was no more effective in reducing PTSD symptoms than a control condition. The data also suggest a potential benefit of personalized ACT for patients who experienced their trauma more recently.

Ten misconceptions about trauma-focused CBT for PTSD

Therapist cognitions about trauma-focused psychological therapies can affect our implementation of evidence-based therapies for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), potentially reducing their effectiveness. Based on observations gleaned from teaching and supervising one of these treatments, cognitive therapy for PTSD (CT-PTSD), ten common 'misconceptions' were identified. These included misconceptions about the suitability of the treatment for some types of trauma and/or emotions, the need for stabilisation prior to memory work, the danger of 'retraumatising' patients with memory-focused work, the risks of using memory-focused techniques with patients who dissociate, the remote use of trauma-focused techniques, and the perception of trauma-focused CBT as inflexible. In this article, these misconceptions are analysed in light of existing evidence and guidance is provided on using trauma-focused CT-PTSD with a broad range of presentations.

Evaluation of a standardized posttraumatic stress disorder treatment framework in routine mental health care: Effectiveness and predictors of treatment outcome in a consecutive sample

The primary aim of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of standardized care package (CP) treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a Danish sample of adult psychiatric outpatients (N = 948). Secondary aims were to identify baseline predictors of treatment outcomes and investigate between-group differences in outcomes with regard to sex and treatment modality (i.e., group vs. individual therapy). The naturalistic, nonrandomized study followed a pre-post design. Patient data from five psychiatric outpatient clinics were collected between March 2011 and November 2017. Data were drawn from self-report questionnaires (i.e., SCL-90-R, WHO-5, BHS) and therapist-reported measures (i.e., GAF-S, GAF-F) administered at baseline and posttreatment. Between-group effects for sex and therapy modality (group vs. individual) were analyzed using analyses of variance, and possible predictors of outcomes were selected through LASSO regression and analyzed via hierarchical regression. Pre-post effects were small to moderate, ds = 0.39-0.69. No differences emerged regarding treatment modality, but women had significantly better outcomes than men. Aside from sex, only baseline symptom severity predicted outcomes. The effectiveness of the CP treatment was generally limited, indicating the need to implement improved therapeutic practices, such as the use of evidence-based treatments, and to provide better training to mental health clinicians. The findings underscore the need for further comparisons of group and individual treatment modalities using evidence-based therapies as well as the need to investigate factors that may affect treatment outcome.

Diverse therapeutic developments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicate common mechanisms of memory modulation

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), characterized by abnormally persistent and distressing memories, is a chronic debilitating condition in need of new treatment options. Current treatment guidelines recommend psychotherapy as first line management with only two drugs, sertraline and paroxetine, approved by U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of PTSD. These drugs have limited efficacy as they only reduce symptoms related to depression and anxiety without producing permanent remission. PTSD remains a significant public health problem with high morbidity and mortality requiring major advances in therapeutics. Early evidence has emerged for the beneficial effects of psychedelics particularly in combination with psychotherapy for management of PTSD, including psilocybin, MDMA, LSD, cannabinoids, ayahuasca and ketamine. MDMA and psilocybin reduce barrier to therapy by increasing trust between therapist and patient, thus allowing for modification of trauma related memories. Furthermore, research into the memory reconsolidation mechanisms has allowed for identification of various pharmacological targets to disrupt abnormally persistent memories. A number of pre-clinical and clinical studies have investigated novel and re-purposed pharmacological agents to disrupt fear memory in PTSD. Novel therapeutic approaches like neuropeptide Y, oxytocin, cannabinoids and neuroactive steroids have also shown potential for PTSD treatment. Here, we focus on the role of fear memory in the pathophysiology of PTSD and propose that many of these new therapeutic strategies produce benefits through the effect on fear memory. Evaluation of recent research findings suggests that while a number of drugs have shown promising results in preclinical studies and pilot clinical trials, the evidence from large scale clinical trials would be needed for these drugs to be incorporated in clinical practice.

Praxisorientierte Forschung in der Psychotherapie

Zusammenfassung. In den letzten Jahrzehnten hat sich durch randomisiert-kontrollierte Studien (RCTs) eine breite Evidenzbasis von Psychotherapie mit mittleren bis großen Effekten für verschiedene psychische Störungen gebildet. Neben der Bestimmung dieser Wirksamkeit („Efficacy“) ebneten Studien zur Wirksamkeit unter alltäglichen Routinebedingungen („Effectiveness“) historisch den Weg zur Entwicklung eines praxisorientierten Forschungsparadigmas. Im Beitrag wird argumentiert, dass im Rahmen dieses Paradigmas praxisbasierte Studien eine wertvolle Ergänzung zu RCTs darstellen, da sie existierende Probleme in der Psychotherapieforschung adressieren können. In der gegenwärtigen praxisorientierten Forschung liefern dabei neue Ansätze aus der personalisierten Medizin und Methoden aus der ‚Computational Psychiatry‘ wichtige Anhaltspunkte zur Optimierung von Effekten in der Psychotherapie. Im Kontext der Personalisierung werden bspw. klinische multivariable Prädiktionsmodelle entwickelt, welche durch Rückmeldeschleifen an Praktiker_innen kurzfristig ein evidenzbasiertes Outcome-Monitoring ermöglicht und langfristig das Praxis-Forschungsnetzwerk in Deutschland stärkt. Am Ende des Beitrags werden zukünftige Richtungen für die praxisorientierte Forschung im Sinne des ‘Precision Mental Health Care’ -Paradigmas abgeleitet und diskutiert.

Service support, work engagement and psychological wellbeing: validating an index of resource and infrastructure support for the delivery of CBT

BACKGROUND

Effective dissemination of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) has been assisted by clearly defined competencies, skills and activities, and validated scales used to measure therapist competence and adherence. However, there is no validated measure of the resource and infrastructure support therapists require to enable them to deliver CBT in line with best practice.

AIMS

This study aimed to validate an index of resource infrastructure and support for the delivery of CBT.

METHOD

This study took an existing questionnaire developed by Groom and Delgadillo (2012) and aimed to establish its psychometric properties through expert review and a pilot study.

RESULTS

This resulted in a shorter questionnaire with good content validity, internal consistency (α = 0.80) and temporal stability (r = 0.74, p < .00). The index consists of six components, and construct validity was demonstrated through positive association with measures of work engagement (r = 0.31, p < .00) and practitioner wellbeing (r = 0.47, p < .00).

CONCLUSIONS

The questionnaire provides a valid and reliable index of service support for delivering CBT, and is positively related to engagement and wellbeing among CBT practitioners.

Implementation of evidence-based treatment for PTSD in Norway: clinical outcomes and impact of probable complex PTSD

Background: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a long-lasting and debilitating psychological disorder that affects a large portion of the population. Treatments such as Cognitive therapy for PTSD (CT-PTSD) and Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) have been shown to be effective and cost-efficient in clinical trials, but uptake and evidence of positive outcomes in real-world clinical services are limited. Implementation efforts have been hampered by providers' concerns about the feasibility of trauma-focused treatments in more complex presentations (i.e. Complex PTSD). Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of CT-PTSD and EMDR in a real-world setting, as implemented in Norwegian outpatient mental health clinics for adults, and investigate the impact of probable Complex PTSD status on treatment outcomes. Methods: Clinicians from 15 different outpatient clinics received training and supervision in EMDR or CT-PTSD as part of a national implementation project. 104 clinicians recruited and treated 196 participants with PTSD. Symptoms of PTSD, depression and anxiety were assessed session-by-session and used to estimate pre-post effect sizes. Mixed-models were employed to investigate the impact of complex PTSD. Results: Both EMDR and CT-PTSD were associated with significant reductions in PTSD symptoms, with large effect sizes. Probable Complex PTSD was associated with higher levels of symptoms before and after treatment but did not significantly impact the effectiveness of treatment. Conclusion: The use of evidence-based treatments for PTSD in routine clinical service is associated with good treatment outcomes, also for patients with Complex PTSD.

Mechanisms of Change in Trauma-Focused Treatment for PTSD: The Role of Rumination

OBJECTIVE

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been well established in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In recent years, researchers have begun to investigate its underlying mechanisms of change. Dysfunctional cognitive content, i.e. excessively negative appraisals of the trauma or its consequences, has been shown to predict changes in PTSD symptoms over the course of treatment. However, the role of change in cognitive processes, such as trauma-related rumination, needs to be addressed. The present study investigates whether changes in rumination intensity precede and predict changes in symptom severity. We also explored the extent to which symptom severity predicts rumination.

METHOD

As part of a naturalistic effectiveness study evaluating CBT for PTSD in routine clinical care, eighty-eight patients with PTSD completed weekly measures of rumination and symptom severity. Lagged associations between rumination and symptoms in the following week were examined using linear mixed models.

RESULTS

Over the course of therapy, both ruminative thinking and PTSD symptoms decreased. Rumination was a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms in the following week, although this effect was at least partly explained by the time factor (e.g., natural recovery or inseparable treatment effects). Symptom severity predicted ruminative thinking in the following week even with time as an additional predictor.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides preliminary evidence that rumination in PTSD is reduced by CBT for PTSD but does not give conclusive evidence that rumination is a mechanism of change in trauma-focused treatment for PTSD.

A Review of PTSD and Current Treatment Strategies

Current treatment strategies for control of trauma-associated symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) have recently been updated by the Veterans Affairs (VA) and the Department of Defense (DoD, after over a decade of dedicated research. The most recent evidence is compelling that its use of trauma-focused therapies such as Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT), Prolonged Exposure Therapy (PE), Eye Movement, Desensitization, and Restructuring (EMDR), and others with significant trauma focus are the current gold standard for treatment. Additional medication use may be of assistance in treatment of symptomology, with special avoidance of benzodiazepines or other sedative hypnotic medications which are causal of increased intrusive and dissociative symptoms over time.

Evaluation of an Early Intervention Model for Child and Adolescent Victims of Interpersonal Violence

Only the minority of youth exposed to traumatic events receive mental health care, as trauma-informed clinical services are lacking or are poorly accessible. In order to bridge this gap, the Outpatient Trauma Clinic (OTC) was founded, an easily accessible early, short-time intervention, with onward referral to follow-up treatment. This report presents the OTC's interventional approach and first outcome data. Using a retrospective naturalistic design, we analyzed trauma- and intervention-related data of the sample (n = 377, 55.4% female, mean age 10.95, SD = 4.69). Following drop-out analyses, predictors for treatment outcome were identified by logistic regression. The majority (81.9%) was suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or adjustment disorders. Around one forth dropped out of treatment; these cases showed higher avoidance symptoms at presentation. In 91%, psychological symptoms improved. Experience of multiple traumatic events was the strongest predictor for poor treatment outcome (B = -0.823, SE = 0.313, OR = 0.439, 95% CI 0.238-0.811). Around two thirds were connected to follow-up treatment. The OTC realized a high retention rate, initial improvement of symptoms and referral to subsequent longer-term psychotherapeutic treatment in the majority. Further dissemination of comparable early intervention models is needed, in order to improve mental health care for this vulnerable group.

Predicting Outcome in an Intensive Outpatient PTSD Treatment Program Using Daily Measures

It is useful to investigate factors that could predict treatment outcomes for PTSD. The current study aims to investigate the relationship between daily measured PTSD symptoms during an intensive six-day treatment program and overall post-treatment outcomes. The treatment program combines eye movement desensitization with reprocessing and prolonged exposure, as well as physical activity and psychoeducation. It was expected that for the entire duration of treatment, as well as the first half of the treatment, a greater decline in daily PTSD symptoms would be a predictor for a greater decline in PTSD symptoms at a four-week follow-up. Data from 109 PTSD-patients (87.2% female, mean age = 36.9, SD = 11.5) were used. PTSD symptoms were measured with the CAPS-5 and the self-reported PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Daily PTSD symptoms were measured with an abbreviated version of the PCL-5 (8-item PCL). Latent growth curve models were used to describe changes in daily PTSD symptoms and predict treatment outcome. Results show that a greater decline in daily PTSD symptoms measured by the 8-item PCL predicts better treatment outcome (CAPS-5 and PCL-5), but that a patient’s PTSD symptoms on the first day of treatment has no predictive effect. A decline in PTSD symptoms only during the first half of treatment was also found to predict treatment outcomes. Future research should be focused on replicating the results of the current study.

First, do no harm: An intensive experience sampling study of adverse effects to mindfulness training

OBJECTIVE

The study of safety and adverse effects of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) is limited. We propose a novel reliable change index (RCI) approach to experience sampling (ES) data to begin to understand the common domains, frequency, severity, risk for, and context of adverse responding to mindfulness meditation practice and brief MBI.

METHODS

Over the course of a 21-day MBI among 82 meditation-naïve participants, we estimated (i) momentary adverse effects during mindfulness meditation practice and (ii) sustained adverse effects in daily living following the intervention.

RESULTS

First, RCI analyses of experience sampling of mindfulness meditation document that 87% of participants demonstrated at least one momentary adverse effect during meditation, most commonly anxiety; and subject-level temporal variability or instability in experience samples of daily living did not account for momentary adverse effects attributed to mindfulness meditation sessions. Second, 25% of participants experienced a sustained adverse effect in daily living at post-intervention. Yet, neither momentary adverse effects to meditation nor vulnerability factors at pre-intervention predicted adverse effects at post-intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings illustrate that mindfulness meditation may be transiently anxiogenic for many participants, yet, these experiences are unlikely to constitute objective harm per se. Furthermore, observed deterioration in daily living post-intervention cannot be attributed to momentary adverse effects in response to mindfulness meditation. We speculate that observed deterioration in daily living post-intervention may thus be better explained by increased awareness to internal states following mindfulness training. Findings highlight the potential utility of applying a RCI approach to intensive ES measurement to quantify adverse effects of mindfulness training specifically and mental health interventions broadly.

Predictors and trajectories of treatment response to SSRIs in patients suffering from PTSD

Paroxetine and sertraline are the only FDA approved drugs for treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Although both drugs show better outcomes than placebo, not all patients benefit from treatment. We examined predictors and latent classes of SSRI treatment response in patients with PTSD. Symptom severity was measured over a 12-week period in 390 patients suffering from PTSD treated with open-label sertraline or paroxetine and a double-blinded placebo. First, growth curve modeling (GCM) was used to examine population-level predictors of treatment response. Second, growth mixture modeling (GMM) was used to group patients into latent classes based on their treatment response trajectories over time and to investigate predictors of latent class membership. Gender, childhood sexual trauma, and sexual assault as index trauma moderated the population-level treatment response using GCM. GMM identified three classes: fast responders, responders with low pretreatment symptom severity and responders with high pretreatment symptom severity. Class membership was predicted based on time since index trauma, severity of depression, and severity of anxiety. The study shows that higher severity of comorbid disorders does not result in an inferior response to treatment and suggests that patients with longer time since index trauma might particularly benefit from treatment with sertraline or paroxetine.

Does complex PTSD predict or moderate treatment outcomes of three variants of exposure therapy?

BACKGROUND

One reason for the inclusion of Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) in the 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) was its suspected relevance for treatment indications. We investigated whether CPTSD predicted and moderated treatment outcomes of Prolonged Exposure (PE), intensified PE (iPE) and Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation followed by PE (STAIR + PE). We expected that CPTSD would predict worse treatment outcomes across treatments. Secondly, we expected that CPTSD would lead to better treatment effect in STAIR + PE compared to PE and iPE.

METHODS

We analyzed 149 patients with childhood-abuse related PTSD from a randomized clinical trial. CPTSD diagnosis and symptom severity were measured with the International Trauma Questionnaire. The main outcome was change in clinician-assessed PTSD symptoms. Assessments took place at baseline, week 4, week 8, week 16 (post-treatment) and at a 6-and 12-month follow-up. Analyses were based on an intention-to-treat sample using mixed effect models.

RESULTS

More than half (54 %) of the patients met criteria for CPTSD at baseline. CPTSD was related to more severe PTSD symptoms and higher comorbidity at baseline. CPTSD neither predicted nor moderated treatment outcome.

LIMITATIONS

Inclusion was limited to patients with PTSD related to childhood abuse. Replication is needed in different samples.

CONCLUSIONS

CPTSD is associated with more severe PTSD and with higher comorbidity. CPTSD did not predict treatment outcome and did not indicate differential treatment outcome of STAIR + PE compared to PE and iPE.

Cognitive therapy for moral injury in post-traumatic stress disorder

Moral injury is the profound psychological distress that can arise following participating in, or witnessing, events that transgress an individual's morals and include harming, betraying, or failure to help others, or being subjected to such events, e.g. being betrayed by leaders. It has been primarily researched in the military, but it also found in other professionals such as healthcare workers coping with the COVID-19 pandemic and civilians following a wide range of traumas. In this article, we describe how to use cognitive therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (CT-PTSD) to treat patients presenting with moral injury-related PTSD. We outline the key techniques involved in CT-PTSD and describe their application to treating patients with moral injury-related PTSD. A case study of a healthcare worker is presented to illustrate the treatment interventions.

KEY LEARNING AIMS

(1)To recognise moral injury where it arises alongside PTSD.(2)To understand how Ehlers and Clark's cognitive model of PTSD can be applied to moral injury.(3)To be able to apply cognitive therapy for PTSD to patients with moral injury-related PTSD.

Predicting outcome of daycare cognitive behavioural therapy in a naturalistic sample of patients with PTSD: a machine learning approach

BACKGROUND

Identifying predictors for treatment outcome in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is important in order to provide an effective treatment, but robust and replicated treatment outcome predictors are not available up to now.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated predictors of treatment outcome in a naturalistic sample of patients with PTSD admitted to an 8-week daycare cognitive behavioural therapy programme following a wide range of traumatic events.

METHOD

We used machine learning (linear and non-linear regressors and cross-validation) to predict outcome at discharge for 116 patients and sustained treatment effects 6 months after discharge for 52 patients who had a follow-up assessment. Predictions were based on a wide selection of demographic and clinical assessments including age, gender, comorbid psychiatric disorders, trauma history, posttraumatic symptoms, posttraumatic cognitions, depressive symptoms, general psychopathology and psychosocial functioning.

RESULTS

We found that demographic and clinical variables significantly, but only modestly predicted PTSD treatment outcome at discharge (r = 0.21, p = .021 for the best model) and follow-up (r = 0.31, p = .026). Among the included variables, more severe posttraumatic cognitions were negatively associated with treatment outcome. Early response in PTSD symptomatology (percentage change of symptom scores after 4 weeks of treatment) allowed more accurate predictions of outcome at discharge (r = 0.56, p < .001) and follow-up (r = 0.43, p = .001).

CONCLUSION

Our results underscore the importance of early treatment response for short- and long-term treatment success. Nevertheless, it remains an unresolved challenge to identify variables that can robustly predict outcome before the initiation of treatment.

Estimated Intelligence Moderates Cognitive Processing Therapy Outcome for Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms

Although patient intelligence may be an important determinant of the degree to which individuals may comprehend, comply with, and ultimately benefit from trauma-focused treatment, no prior studies have examined the impact of patient intelligence on benefit from psychotherapies for PTSD. We investigated the degree to which educational achievement, often used as a proxy for intelligence, and estimated full scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ) scores themselves moderated treatment outcomes for two effective psychotherapies for PTSD: Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) and Written Exposure Therapy (WET). Participants, 126 treatment-seeking adults with PTSD (52% male; mean age = 43.9, SD = 14.6), were equally randomized to CPT and WET; PTSD symptom severity was measured at baseline and 6-, 12-, 24-, 36-, and 60-weeks following the first treatment session. Multilevel models revealed that participants with higher FSIQ scores experienced significantly greater PTSD symptom reduction through the 24-week assessment in CPT but not WET; this effect did not persist through the 60-week assessment. Educational achievement did not moderate symptom change through either 24- or 60-weeks. Individuals with higher FSIQ who are treated with CPT may experience greater symptom improvement in the early stages of recovery.

Cognitive behavioral social rhythm group therapy versus present centered group therapy for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder: A randomized controlled pilot trial

BACKGROUND

Cognitive Behavioral Social Rhythm Group Therapy (CBSRT) is a chronobiologically-informed group therapy designed to stabilize social rhythms in veterans with comorbid combat-related PTSD and major depressive disorder (MDD). This randomized controlled pilot trial is the first to examine feasibility and preliminary efficacy of group CBSRT as compared to group Present Centered Therapy (PCT), a well-characterized active attention, psychotherapy condition.

METHODS

A total of 43 male veterans with combat-related PTSD, MDD, and disruptions in sleep or daily routine were randomly assigned to CBSRT or PCT. Therapy was provided weekly in a group modality for 12 weeks. Follow-up feasibility and gold-standard PTSD, MDD, and subjective/objective sleep assessments were conducted at post-treatment, 3 months, and 6 months post-treatment.

RESULTS

Feasibility results demonstrated that veterans assigned to CBSRT had higher rates of attendance than veterans assigned to PCT. Both CBSRT and PCT were associated with improvements in PTSD and MDD symptoms, sleep efficiency, and number of awakenings; there were no differences between group therapies on these indices. Veterans in the CBSRT group had a greater reduction in the number of nightmares than veterans in the PCT group.

LIMITATIONS

Preliminary results must be qualified by the small sample size.

CONCLUSIONS

Group CBSRT may be more feasible for veterans than PCT. Both CBSRT and PCT were associated with improvements in psychiatric symptoms with few differences between conditions. CBSRT is a promising new group therapy that may help address the high-rate of PTSD therapy attrition in combat veterans.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT00984698.

Behavioural Experiments in Cognitive Therapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Why, When, and How?

Behavioural experiments are an integral component of cognitive therapy (CT) for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but they can be overlooked due to practical constraints and therapist concerns. Here we describe why behavioural experiments are an important part of CT, where they fit into different elements of treatment for PTSD, how to design and implement effective experiments including coping with unexpected outcomes, and how to incorporate behavioural experiments when therapy is delivered remotely. Clinical case examples are used to illustrate a range of idiosyncratic and creative behavioural experiments.

Does cumulative exposure to traumatic stressors predict treatment outcome of community-implemented exposure-based therapy for PTSD?

Background: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is associated with high levels of functional impairments such as difficulties in academic or occupational performance and in social relationships. With an increasing number of traumatic event types experienced (trauma load), PTSD risk increases in a dose-dependent manner. Accordingly, high rates of PTSD can impair the reconstruction process in post-conflict societies. In order to meet these high needs for mental health services in societies with little access to professional care, task shifting approaches and community-based interventions have been suggested. Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) has been developed as a short and pragmatic exposure-based PTSD treatment that can be easily trained to lay personnel. Yet, it remains unclear whether NET can be effectively provided by trained lay counsellors even at high levels of trauma load. Objective: To investigate whether trauma load influences the treatment effectiveness of NET provided by trained and supervised local lay counsellors. Method: Linear mixed models were calculated to investigate the influence of trauma load on treatment effectiveness in a sample of N = 323 rebel war survivors from Northern Uganda with PTSD. Results: We found a strong reduction of PTSD symptoms following NET, which was not influenced by trauma load. However, individuals with higher levels of trauma load reported higher PTSD symptoms before therapy as well as 4 and 10 months following treatment completion compared to individuals with lower trauma load. Conclusions: Treatment with NET by lay counsellors is effective independent of trauma load. However, individuals with higher trauma load have a higher probability to show residual symptoms, which might require additional time, sessions or treatment modules.

Successfully treating refugees' post-traumatic stress symptoms in a Ugandan settlement with group cognitive behaviour therapy

BACKGROUND

High rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are documented within refugee populations. Although research supports effectiveness of trauma-focused cognitive behaviour therapy (TF-CBT) among Western populations, little research exists for its efficacy among refugees living in camps and settlements in developing nations.

AIMS

To investigate whether a culturally sensitive, group-based TF-CBT programme (EMPOWER) delivered in a Ugandan refugee settlement effectively reduced refugees' post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), and whether sociodemographic factors, trauma characteristics, or PTSS severity related to programme completion or treatment outcomes.

METHOD AND RESULTS

Data linkages were conducted on information provided by 174 Congolese refugees living in a Ugandan settlement (mean age = 33.4 years, SD = 11.7; 49% male). Using a quasi-experimental design, participants who initially completed the intervention (n = 43) delivered across nine 90-minute sessions, reported significant reductions in self-reported PTSS with a large effect size. The delayed treatment group (n = 55) also reported significant treatment gains once they received the intervention. Participants who completed the programme reported significantly greater initial PTSS severity than those who dropped out, while no sociodemographic factors, trauma characteristics or PTSS were associated with better treatment outcomes.

DISCUSSION

A culturally sensitive, group-based TF-CBT programme delivered in a refugee settlement meaningfully reduces refugees' PTSS severity and is equally effective for all participants, with the highest retention rates found among those in greatest need of treatment. Programmes such as this, with capacity to treat hundreds of people simultaneously, represent highly cost-effective, accessible, disseminable and effective treatment for PTSS among refugees living in humanitarian settings in developing nations.

Predictors of outcome during inpatient psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: a single-treatment, multi-site, practice-based study

Objective: The aims of this study were to determine the effectiveness of a routine clinical care treatment and to identify predictors of treatment outcome in PTSD inpatients. Methods: A routinely collected data set of 612 PTSD inpatients (M = 42.3 years [SD = 11.6], 75.7% female) having received trauma-focused psychotherapy was analyzed. Primary outcome was the clinical symptom severity change score, secondary outcomes were assessed using functional, anxiety, and depression change scores. Hedges g-corrected pre-post effect sizes (ES) were computed for all outcomes. Elastic net regulation as a data-driven, stability-based machine-learning approach was used to build stable clinical prediction models. Results: Hedges g ES indicated medium to large effects on all outcomes. The results of the predictor analyses suggested that a combined predictor model with sociodemographic, clinical, and psychometric variables contribute to predicting different treatment outcomes. Across the clinical and functional outcome, psychoticism, total number of diagnoses, and bronchial asthma consistently showed a stable negative predictive relationship to treatment outcome. Conclusion: Trauma-focused psychotherapy could effectively be implemented in a routine inpatient setting. Some important prognostic variables could be identified. If the proposed models of predictors are replicated, they may help personalize treatment for patients receiving routine clinical care.

The effects of a prolonged exposure workshop with and without consultation on provider and patient outcomes: a randomized implementation trial

Background

Prolonged exposure therapy (PE) is an evidence-based treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that is underutilized in the military health system. Standard workshop training in PE may not be sufficient to alter provider behavior, but post-workshop consultation requires significant resources. Therefore, it is important to determine the incremental utility of post-workshop consultation.

Methods

This study used a hybrid type III randomized implementation trial at 3 US Army installations. Providers were randomized to receive a 4-day prolonged exposure workshop (Standard training condition, n = 60), or the prolonged exposure workshop followed by 6–8 months of post-workshop expert case consultation (Extended training condition, n = 43). The effects training condition were examined on provider attitudes (self-efficacy in delivering PE, expectations for patient improvement, and beliefs about PE), use of PE and PE components, and clinical outcomes of patients with PTSD (using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS-5)).

Results

Extended condition providers reported greater improvements in self-efficacy, b = .83, 95% CI [.38, 1.27], t(79) = 3.71, p = .001, and d = .63. A greater proportion of patients in the Extended condition (44%) than in the Standard condition (27%) received at least 1 PE session, b = .76, t(233) = 2.53, p = .012, and OR = 2.13. Extended condition providers used more PE components (M = .9/session) than did Standard condition providers (M = .5/session), b = .54, 95% CI [.15, .93], t(68) = 2.70, p = .007, and d = .68. Finally, decrease in patients’ PTSD symptoms was faster for patients of Extended condition providers than for patients of Standard condition providers, b = − 1.81, 95% CI [− 3.57, − .04], t(263) = − 2.02, p = .045, and d = .66, and their symptoms were lower at the second assessment, b = − 5.47, 95% CI [− 9.30, − 1.63], t(210) = − 2.81, p = .005, and d = .66.

Conclusions

Post-workshop consultation improved self-efficacy for delivering PE, greater use of PE, faster PTSD reduction, and lower PTSD severity at the second assessment. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration that post-workshop case consultation for PE improves patient outcomes.

Trial registration

Clinicaltrials.gov, NCT02982538. Registered December 5, 2016; retrospectively registered

Treating posttraumatic stress disorder remotely with cognitive therapy for PTSD

Delivering trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy to patients with PTSD during the COVID-19 pandemic poses challenges. The therapist cannot meet with the patient in person to guide them through trauma-focused work and other treatment components, and patients are restricted in carrying out treatment-related activities and behavioural experiments that involve contact with other people. Whilst online trauma-focused CBT treatments for PTSD have been developed, which overcome some of these barriers in that they can be delivered remotely, they are not yet routinely available in clinical services in countries, such as the UK. Cognitive therapy for PTSD (CT-PTSD) is a trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy that is acceptable to patients, leads to high rates of recovery and is recommended as a first-line treatment for the disorder by international clinical practice guidelines. Here we describe how to deliver CT-PTSD remotely so that patients presenting with PTSD during the COVID-19 pandemic can still benefit from this evidence-based treatment.

Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder

BACKGROUND

Over the decades, a variety of psychological interventions for borderline personality disorder (BPD) have been developed. This review updates and replaces an earlier review (Stoffers-Winterling 2012).

OBJECTIVES

To assess the beneficial and harmful effects of psychological therapies for people with BPD.

SEARCH METHODS

In March 2019, we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, 14 other databases and four trials registers. We contacted researchers working in the field to ask for additional data from published and unpublished trials, and handsearched relevant journals. We did not restrict the search by year of publication, language or type of publication.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials comparing different psychotherapeutic interventions with treatment-as-usual (TAU; which included various kinds of psychotherapy), waiting list, no treatment or active treatments in samples of all ages, in any setting, with a formal diagnosis of BPD. The primary outcomes were BPD symptom severity, self-harm, suicide-related outcomes, and psychosocial functioning. There were 11 secondary outcomes, including individual BPD symptoms, as well as attrition and adverse effects.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

At least two review authors independently selected trials, extracted data, assessed risk of bias using Cochrane's 'Risk of bias' tool and assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach. We performed data analysis using Review Manager 5 and quantified the statistical reliability of the data using Trial Sequential Analysis.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 75 randomised controlled trials (4507 participants), predominantly involving females with mean ages ranging from 14.8 to 45.7 years. More than 16 different kinds of psychotherapy were included, mostly dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) and mentalisation-based treatment (MBT). The comparator interventions included treatment-as-usual (TAU), waiting list, and other active treatments. Treatment duration ranged from one to 36 months. Psychotherapy versus TAU Psychotherapy reduced BPD symptom severity, compared to TAU; standardised mean difference (SMD) -0.52, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.70 to -0.33; 22 trials, 1244 participants; moderate-quality evidence. This corresponds to a mean difference (MD) of -3.6 (95% CI -4.4 to -2.08) on the Zanarini Rating Scale for BPD (range 0 to 36), a clinically relevant reduction in BPD symptom severity (minimal clinical relevant difference (MIREDIF) on this scale is -3.0 points). Psychotherapy may be more effective at reducing self-harm compared to TAU (SMD -0.32, 95% CI -0.49 to -0.14; 13 trials, 616 participants; low-quality evidence), corresponding to a MD of -0.82 (95% CI -1.25 to 0.35) on the Deliberate Self-Harm Inventory Scale (range 0 to 34). The MIREDIF of -1.25 points was not reached. Suicide-related outcomes improved compared to TAU (SMD -0.34, 95% CI -0.57 to -0.11; 13 trials, 666 participants; low-quality evidence), corresponding to a MD of -0.11 (95% CI -0.19 to -0.034) on the Suicidal Attempt Self Injury Interview. The MIREDIF of -0.17 points was not reached. Compared to TAU, psychotherapy may result in an improvement in psychosocial functioning (SMD -0.45, 95% CI -0.68 to -0.22; 22 trials, 1314 participants; low-quality evidence), corresponding to a MD of -2.8 (95% CI -4.25 to -1.38), on the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (range 0 to 100). The MIREDIF of -4.0 points was not reached. Our additional Trial Sequential Analysis on all primary outcomes reaching significance found that the required information size was reached in all cases. A subgroup analysis comparing the different types of psychotherapy compared to TAU showed no clear evidence of a difference for BPD severity and psychosocial functioning. Psychotherapy may reduce depressive symptoms compared to TAU but the evidence is very uncertain (SMD -0.39, 95% CI -0.61 to -0.17; 22 trials, 1568 participants; very low-quality evidence), corresponding to a MD of -2.45 points on the Hamilton Depression Scale (range 0 to 50). The MIREDIF of -3.0 points was not reached. BPD-specific psychotherapy did not reduce attrition compared with TAU. Adverse effects were unclear due to too few data. Psychotherapy versus waiting list or no treatment Greater improvements in BPD symptom severity (SMD -0.49, 95% CI -0.93 to -0.05; 3 trials, 161 participants), psychosocial functioning (SMD -0.56, 95% CI -1.01 to -0.11; 5 trials, 219 participants), and depression (SMD -1.28, 95% CI -2.21 to -0.34, 6 trials, 239 participants) were observed in participants receiving psychotherapy versus waiting list or no treatment (all low-quality evidence). No evidence of a difference was found for self-harm and suicide-related outcomes. Individual treatment approaches DBT and MBT have the highest numbers of primary trials, with DBT as subject of one-third of all included trials, followed by MBT with seven RCTs. Compared to TAU, DBT was more effective at reducing BPD severity (SMD -0.60, 95% CI -1.05 to -0.14; 3 trials, 149 participants), self-harm (SMD -0.28, 95% CI -0.48 to -0.07; 7 trials, 376 participants) and improving psychosocial functioning (SMD -0.36, 95% CI -0.69 to -0.03; 6 trials, 225 participants). MBT appears to be more effective than TAU at reducing self-harm (RR 0.62, 95% CI 0.49 to 0.80; 3 trials, 252 participants), suicidality (RR 0.10, 95% CI 0.04, 0.30, 3 trials, 218 participants) and depression (SMD -0.58, 95% CI -1.22 to 0.05, 4 trials, 333 participants). All findings are based on low-quality evidence. For secondary outcomes see review text.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Our assessments showed beneficial effects on all primary outcomes in favour of BPD-tailored psychotherapy compared with TAU. However, only the outcome of BPD severity reached the MIREDIF-defined cut-off for a clinically meaningful improvement. Subgroup analyses found no evidence of a difference in effect estimates between the different types of therapies (compared to TAU) . The pooled analysis of psychotherapy versus waiting list or no treatment found significant improvement on BPD severity, psychosocial functioning and depression at end of treatment, but these findings were based on low-quality evidence, and the true magnitude of these effects is uncertain. No clear evidence of difference was found for self-harm and suicide-related outcomes. However, compared to TAU, we observed effects in favour of DBT for BPD severity, self-harm and psychosocial functioning and, for MBT, on self-harm and suicidality at end of treatment, but these were all based on low-quality evidence. Therefore, we are unsure whether these effects would alter with the addition of more data.

Cost-effectiveness of psychological treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults

BACKGROUND

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe and disabling condition that may lead to functional impairment and reduced productivity. Psychological interventions have been shown to be effective in its management. The objective of this study was to assess the cost-effectiveness of a range of interventions for adults with PTSD.

METHODS

A decision-analytic model was constructed to compare costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) of 10 interventions and no treatment for adults with PTSD, from the perspective of the National Health Service and personal social services in England. Effectiveness data were derived from a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Other model input parameters were based on published sources, supplemented by expert opinion.

RESULTS

Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) appeared to be the most cost-effective intervention for adults with PTSD (with a probability of 0.34 amongst the 11 evaluated options at a cost-effectiveness threshold of £20,000/QALY), followed by combined somatic/cognitive therapies, self-help with support, psychoeducation, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy (TF-CBT), self-help without support, non-TF-CBT and combined TF-CBT/SSRIs. Counselling appeared to be less cost-effective than no treatment. TF-CBT had the largest evidence base.

CONCLUSIONS

A number of interventions appear to be cost-effective for the management of PTSD in adults. EMDR appears to be the most cost-effective amongst them. TF-CBT has the largest evidence base. There remains a need for well-conducted studies that examine the long-term clinical and cost-effectiveness of a range of treatments for adults with PTSD.

Cognitive therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder following critical illness and intensive care unit admission

Around a quarter of patients treated in intensive care units (ICUs) will develop symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Given the dramatic increase in ICU admissions during the COVID-19 pandemic, clinicians are likely to see a rise in post-ICU PTSD cases in the coming months. Post-ICU PTSD can present various challenges to clinicians, and no clinical guidelines have been published for delivering trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy with this population. In this article, we describe how to use cognitive therapy for PTSD (CT-PTSD), a first line treatment for PTSD recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Using clinical case examples, we outline the key techniques involved in CT-PTSD, and describe their application to treating patients with PTSD following ICU.

KEY LEARNING AIMS

To recognise PTSD following admissions to intensive care units (ICUs).To understand how the ICU experience can lead to PTSD development.To understand how Ehlers and Clark's (2000) cognitive model of PTSD can be applied to post-ICU PTSD.To be able to apply cognitive therapy for PTSD to patients with post-ICU PTSD.

A randomised controlled trial of therapist-assisted online psychological therapies for posttraumatic stress disorder (STOP-PTSD): trial protocol

BACKGROUND

Over the last few decades, effective psychological treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been developed, but many patients are currently unable to access these treatments. There is initial evidence that therapist-assisted internet-based psychological treatments are effective for PTSD and may help increase access, but it remains unclear which of these treatments work best and are most acceptable to patients. This randomised controlled trial will compare a trauma-focussed and a nontrauma-focussed therapist-assisted cognitive behavioural Internet treatment for PTSD: Internet-delivered cognitive therapy for PTSD (iCT-PTSD) and internet-delivered stress management therapy (iStress-PTSD).

METHODS/DESIGN

The study is a single-blind, randomised controlled trial comparing iCT-PTSD, iStress-PTSD and a 13-week wait-list condition, with an embedded process study. Assessors of treatment outcome will be blinded to trial arm. Two hundred and seventeen participants who meet DSM-5 criteria for PTSD will be randomly allocated by a computer programme to iCT-PTSD, iStress-PTSD or wait-list at a 3:3:1 ratio. The primary assessment point is at 13 weeks, and further assessments are taken at 6, 26, 39 and 65 weeks. The primary outcome measure is the severity of PTSD symptoms as measured by the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Secondary measures of PTSD symptoms are the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5) and the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R). Other symptoms and well-being will be assessed with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Generalised Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7), WHO (Five) Well-Being Index, Work and Social Adjustment Scale (WSAS), Endicott Quality of Life Scale (QoL), and Insomnia Sleep Index (ISI). Health economics analyses will consider quality of life, productivity, health resource utilisation, employment status and state benefits, and treatment delivery costs. Process analyses will investigate candidate mediators and moderators of outcome. Patient experience will be assessed by interview and questionnaire.

DISCUSSION

This study will be the first to compare the efficacy of a trauma-focussed and nontrauma-focussed therapist-assisted online cognitive behavioural treatment for people with posttraumatic stress disorder.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN16806208. Registered prospectively on 5 January 2018.

Cognitive processes associated with sudden gains in cognitive therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in routine care

Objective: Although most studies investigating sudden gains in treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) report a positive association between sudden gains and outcomes at the end of treatment, less is known about sudden gains in routine clinical care and the processes involved in their occurrence. This study investigated changes in cognitive factors (negative appraisals, trauma memory characteristics) before, during, and after sudden gains in PTSD symptom severity. Method: Two samples (N₁ = 248, N₂ = 234) of patients who received trauma-focused cognitive therapy for PTSD in routine clinical care were analyzed. Mahalanobis distance matching, including the propensity score, was used to compare patients with sudden gains and similar patients without sudden gains. Estimates from both samples were meta-analyzed to obtain pooled effects. Results: Patients with sudden gains (n₁ = 76, n₂ = 87) reported better treatment outcomes in PTSD symptom severity, depression, and anxiety at the end of therapy and follow-up than those without sudden gains. No baseline predictors of sudden gains could be reliably identified. During sudden gains, those with sudden gains had greater changes in both cognitive factors than matched patients. Meta-analyses of the two samples showed that negative appraisals had already decreased in the session prior to sudden gains compared with matched patients. Conclusions: The pooled estimates suggest that changes in negative trauma-related appraisals precede sudden gains in PTSD symptoms. The results suggest that interventions that promote change in appraisals may also facilitate sudden gains in therapy.

This study highlights that a substantial subgroup of patients with PTSD showed concurrent large improvements in PTSD, appraisals, and memory features from one treatment session to the next. Sudden gains were also preceded by greater changes in appraisals than sessions that did not include sudden gains. This supports interventions that target the identification and modification of negative appraisals in PTSD, which, if successful, can result in sudden symptom improvements that are associated with better treatment outcomes.

Client-level predictors of treatment engagement, outcome and dropout: moving beyond demographics

Background

Despite the availability of evidence-based treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), significant heterogeneity in the effectiveness of PTSD treatment persists, especially in community settings. Client demographics used to understand this variability in treatment outcome and dropout have yielded mixed results. Despite increasing evidence for the importance of attending to treatment engagement in community settings, few studies have explored client-level predictors.

Aim

The purpose of this study is to explore client-level predictors of treatment outcome and dropout beyond client demographics, and to identify client-level predictors of treatment engagement in community settings.

Method

Secondary data analysis was conducted with data collected as part of an implementation-effectiveness hybrid study of cognitive processing therapy (CPT) for PTSD in a diverse community health centre. Providers (n=19) treated (n=52) clients as part of their routine clinical care. Non-demographic client-level predictors included barriers to treatment, quality of life, session-level language and employment history assessed at baseline. Treatment engagement included number of weeks in the study, number of sessions with repeated CPT content, number of unique CPT sessions attended, frequency of session attendance and consistency of session attendance.

Results

Results showed language as a significant predictor of treatment engagement. There were significant differences between Spanish and English-speaking clients, with the former having a tendency to repeat more session content than the latter (β=1.4 sessions, p=0.003), and also less likely to attend treatment frequently (r=0.62, p=0.009) and consistently (r=0.57, p=0.027) if high logistical and financial barriers were endorsed. Irrespective of language, clients who reported high quality of life at baseline were less likely to repeat CPT session content (β=−0.3, p=0.04), and those with increased baseline barriers to treatment had deceleration in PTSD symptom improvement over time (β=−0.62, p<0.05). In terms of treatment engagement moderators impacting treatment outcome, clients who repeated more session content were more likely to complete treatment (OR=1.84, p=0.037).

Conclusion

Identification of client-level predictors of treatment engagement, outcome and dropout is essential to optimise treatment, particularly in community settings.

A meta-analysis of the effect of therapist experience on outcomes for clients with internalizing disorders

Objective: This meta-analysis synthesized the literature regarding the effect of therapist experience on internalizing client outcomes to evaluate the utility of lay providers in delivering treatment and to inform therapist training. Method: The analysis included 22 studies, contributing 208 effect sizes. Study and client characteristics were coded to examine moderators. We conducted subgroup meta-analyses examining the relationship of therapist experience across a diverse set of internalizing client outcomes. Results: Results demonstrated a small, but significant relationship between therapist experience and internalizing client outcomes. There was no relationship between therapist experience and outcomes in clients with primary anxiety disorders. In samples of clients with primary depressive disorders and in samples of clients with mixed internalizing disorders, there was a significant relationship between experience and outcomes. The relationship between therapist experience and outcomes was stronger when clients were randomized to therapists, treatment was not manualized, and for measures of client satisfaction and "other" outcomes (e.g., dropout). Conclusions: It appears that therapist experience may matter for internalizing clients under certain circumstances, but this relationship is modest. Continuing methodological concerns in the literature are noted, as well as recommendations to address these concerns.

Predictors of dropout from a randomized clinical trial of cognitive processing therapy for female veterans with military sexual trauma-related PTSD

Many veterans do not complete evidence-based treatments (EBTs) for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Veterans with military sexual trauma (MST)-related PTSD were shown to have higher than average rates of dropout from PTSD treatment in a national study of EBT implementation. Although predictors of dropout from EBTs have been identified, these factors are largely unmodifiable (e.g., age, service era). The purpose of the present study was to identify dynamic psychosocial predictors of dropout among female veterans from cognitive processing therapy (CPT). Data were utilized from 56 female veterans who participated in a randomized clinical trial investigating the effectiveness of CPT for MST-related PTSD. Dropout was defined continuously (i.e., number of sessions attended) and dichotomously (i.e., attending six or more sessions). Potential predictors included sociodemographic factors, psychotherapist fidelity, PTSD-related service connection, psychiatric symptom severity (i.e., PTSD, depression), trauma-related negative cognitions (about self, self-blame, world), and treatment expectations. Higher trauma-related negative cognitions about self-blame and lower trauma-related negative cognitions about self were protective against dropout. The current study generated testable hypotheses for further research on dynamic predictors of dropout from CPT in female veterans with MST-related PTSD. With replication, results may assist with identifying pre-treatment strategies to reduce dropout in this clinical population.

Provider fidelity and modifications to cognitive processing therapy in a diverse community health clinic: Associations with clinical change

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to examine associations between therapist adherence, competence, and modifications of an evidence-based protocol (EBP) delivered in routine clinical care and client outcomes.

METHOD

Data were derived from a NIMH-funded implementation-effectiveness hybrid study of Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) for PTSD in a diverse community health center. Providers (n = 19) treated clients (n = 58) as part of their routine clinical care. Clients completed the PCL-S and PHQ-9 at baseline, after each CPT session, and posttreatment. CPT sessions were rated for treatment fidelity and therapist modifications.

RESULTS

Overall, therapist adherence was high, although it decreased across sessions suggesting potential drift. Therapist competence ratings varied widely. Therapists made on average 1.6 fidelity-consistent and 0.4 fidelity-inconsistent modifications per session. Results show that higher numbers of fidelity-consistent modifications were associated with larger reductions in posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms. High adherence ratings were associated with greater reductions in depressive symptoms, whereas higher competence ratings were associated with greater reduction in posttraumatic stress symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The results highlight the importance of differentially assessing therapist adherence, competence, and modifications to EBP in usual care settings. The findings also suggest that effective EBP delivery in routine care may require minor adaptations to meet client needs, consistent with previous studies. Greater attention to fidelity and adaptation can enhance training so providers can tailor while retaining core components of the intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Conceptualization, Assessment, and Treatment of Traumatic Stress in First Responders: A Review of Critical Issues

First responders are regularly confronted with exposure to traumatic events, including potentially life-threatening situations as well as the grave injuries and deaths of colleagues and civilians. Evidence indicates that the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is substantially higher among first responders than the general population. This article provides information about the outpatient trauma services at McLean Hospital's LEADER (Law Enforcement, Active Duty, Emergency Responder) program to assist clinicians who encounter these first responders in their practices or who are specifically interested in working with this patient population. We begin by synthesizing the literature on the prevalence of PTSD in first responders following work-related exposure to traumatic stress, and by addressing the occupation-specific risk factors and the third-variable risk factors that may contribute to potentiated risk. We then discuss assessment strategies and treatment options used in our program, which is tailored for individuals who are dealing with mental health issues stemming from occupation-specific traumatic-stress exposure. We also address the unique challenges of treating traumatized first responders with more complex issues such as traumatic stress exposure across the lifespan and safety issues, including acute suicidality. We conclude by discussing notable gaps in the literature, including the need to investigate why and how women present with different PTSD symptoms than men and how these differences need to be taken into account in determining appropriate treatment for women.

Intrusive memories of trauma: A target for research bridging cognitive science and its clinical application

Intrusive memories of a traumatic event can be distressing and disruptive, and comprise a core clinical feature of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Intrusive memories involve mental imagery-based impressions that intrude into mind involuntarily, and are emotional. Here we consider how recent advances in cognitive science have fueled our understanding of the development and possible treatment of intrusive memories of trauma. We conducted a systematic literature search in PubMed, selecting articles published from 2008 to 2018 that used the terms "trauma" AND ("intrusive memories" OR "involuntary memories") in their abstract or title. First, we discuss studies that investigated internal (neural, hormonal, psychophysiological, and cognitive) processes that contribute to intrusive memory development. Second, we discuss studies that targeted these processes using behavioural/pharmacological interventions to reduce intrusive memories. Third, we consider possible clinical implications of this work and highlight some emerging research avenues for treatment and prevention, supplemented by new data to examine some unanswered questions. In conclusion, we raise the possibility that intrusive memories comprise an alternative, possibly more focused, target in translational research endeavours, rather than only targeting overall symptoms of disorders such as PTSD. If so, relatively simple approaches could help to address the need for easy-to-deliver, widely-scalable trauma interventions.

Testing the leadership and organizational change for implementation (LOCI) intervention in Norwegian mental health clinics: a stepped-wedge cluster randomized design study protocol

BACKGROUND

Alignment across levels of leadership within an organization is needed for successful implementation of evidence-based practice. The leadership and organizational change for implementation (LOCI) intervention is a multi-faceted multilevel implementation strategy focusing on enhancing first-level general and implementation leadership while also engaging with organization upper management to develop an organizational climate for implementation. The aim of the project is to evaluate the effectiveness of LOCI in supporting the implementation of evidence-based treatment for PTSD in child- and adult-specialized mental health clinics in health trusts in Norway.

METHODS

The study design is a stepped-wedge cluster randomized trial with enrollment of clinics in three cohorts. Executives, clinic leaders, and therapists will be asked to complete surveys assessing leadership and implementation climate. Surveys will be completed at baseline, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 months. Results from surveys will be shared with executives and clinic leaders to inform the subsequent creation of tailored leadership and climate development plans for enhanced implementation. Patients will complete surveys measuring traumatic events and post-traumatic stress symptoms during the therapy process. Therapy sessions will be audio or video recorded and scored for fidelity as part of training.

DISCUSSION

This study aims to provide knowledge on how to improve leadership and organizational climate to enhance effective implementation of evidence-based treatments in mental health services.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study has been registrated in ClinicalTrials with ID NCT03719651 .