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Kries H, Trottmann F, Hertweck C. Novel Biocatalysts from Specialized Metabolism. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202309284. [PMID: 37737720 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202309284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Enzymes are increasingly recognized as valuable (bio)catalysts that complement existing synthetic methods. However, the range of biotransformations used in the laboratory is limited. Here we give an overview on the biosynthesis-inspired discovery of novel biocatalysts that address various synthetic challenges. Prominent examples from this dynamic field highlight remarkable enzymes for protecting-group-free amide formation and modification, control of pericyclic reactions, stereoselective hetero- and polycyclizations, atroposelective aryl couplings, site-selective C-H activations, introduction of ring strain, and N-N bond formation. We also explore unusual functions of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, radical SAM-dependent enzymes, flavoproteins, and enzymes recruited from primary metabolism, which offer opportunities for synthetic biology, enzyme engineering, directed evolution, and catalyst design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajo Kries
- Junior Research Group Biosynthetic Design of Natural Products, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology (HKI), Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, 95440, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Felix Trottmann
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology (HKI), Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Hertweck
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology (HKI), Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07743, Jena, Germany
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Verma S, Paliwal S. Recent Developments and Applications of Biocatalytic and Chemoenzymatic Synthesis for the Generation of Diverse Classes of Drugs. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2024; 25:448-467. [PMID: 37885105 DOI: 10.2174/0113892010238984231019085154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Biocatalytic and chemoenzymatic biosynthesis are powerful methods of organic chemistry that use enzymes to execute selective reactions and allow the efficient production of organic compounds. The advantages of these approaches include high selectivity, mild reaction conditions, and the ability to work with complex substrates. The utilization of chemoenzymatic techniques for the synthesis of complicated compounds has lately increased dramatically in the area of organic chemistry. Biocatalytic technologies and modern synthetic methods are utilized synergistically in a multi-step approach to a target molecule under this paradigm. Chemoenzymatic techniques are promising for simplifying access to essential bioactive compounds because of the remarkable regio- and stereoselectivity of enzymatic transformations and the reaction diversity of modern organic chemistry. Enzyme kits may include ready-to-use, reproducible biocatalysts. Its use opens up new avenues for the synthesis of active therapeutic compounds and aids in drug development by synthesizing active components to construct scaffolds in a targeted and preparative manner. This study summarizes current breakthroughs as well as notable instances of biocatalytic and chemoenzymatic synthesis. To assist organic chemists in the use of enzymes for synthetic applications, it also provides some basic guidelines for selecting the most appropriate enzyme for a targeted reaction while keeping aspects like cofactor requirement, solvent tolerance, use of whole cell or isolated enzymes, and commercial availability in mind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swati Verma
- Department of Pharmacy, ITS College of Pharmacy, Muradnagar, Ghaziabad, India
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, 304022, Rajasthan, India
| | - Sarvesh Paliwal
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, 304022, Rajasthan, India
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Salim V, Jarecki SA, Vick M, Miller R. Advances in Metabolic Engineering of Plant Monoterpene Indole Alkaloids. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1056. [PMID: 37626942 PMCID: PMC10452178 DOI: 10.3390/biology12081056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs) encompass a diverse family of over 3000 plant natural products with a wide range of medical applications. Further utilizations of these compounds, however, are hampered due to low levels of abundance in their natural sources, causing difficult isolation and complex multi-steps in uneconomical chemical syntheses. Metabolic engineering of MIA biosynthesis in heterologous hosts is attractive, particularly for increasing the yield of natural products of interest and expanding their chemical diversity. Here, we review recent advances and strategies which have been adopted to engineer microbial and plant systems for the purpose of generating MIAs and discuss the current issues and future developments of manufacturing MIAs by synthetic biology approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vonny Salim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71115, USA; (S.-A.J.); (M.V.)
| | - Sara-Alexis Jarecki
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71115, USA; (S.-A.J.); (M.V.)
| | - Marshall Vick
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Shreveport, LA 71115, USA; (S.-A.J.); (M.V.)
| | - Ryan Miller
- School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA;
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Darriet F. The bio-interactions between plants, insecticides and fertilizers: an innovative approach for the research of xenobiotic substances. NATURAL PRODUCTS AND BIOPROSPECTING 2022; 12:41. [PMID: 36450969 PMCID: PMC9712858 DOI: 10.1007/s13659-022-00360-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
In this experiment carried out on Caribbean chili pepper plants (Capsicum chinensis), the bio-insecticide azadirachtin in combination with an NPK fertilizer proved to have a greater lethal impact on the larvae of Aedes albopictus than each substance on its own. This synergistic effect is noticeably important when both inputs are sprayed directly on the leaves of the plant (foliar application). While the plants treated with azadirachtin or NPK alone cause a 33.6% and 36.4% mortality respectively of the Ae. albopictus larvae, the combination of the two inputs induces a 74.4% mortality on the mosquito larvae. To account for this synergistic effect phenomenon inside the plant, the azadirachtin + NPK combination most likely interacts with the capsaicinoid compounds naturally produced by the plant. Not only does this study carried out on azadirachtin reveal major results but the methodology itself offers a most interesting approach on how to boost the agricultural inputs within the plants. As a matter of fact, this research axis demands developing since the control of pests harmful to men has been dramatically lacking insecticide molecules acting on new targets over the past three decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Darriet
- Institute of Research for Development (IRD delegation Occitanie), Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs, Écologie, Génétique, Évolution et Contrôle (MIVEGEC), Université de Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, BP 64501, 911 Avenue Agropolis, 34394, Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
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Kinner A, Nerke P, Siedentop R, Steinmetz T, Classen T, Rosenthal K, Nett M, Pietruszka J, Lütz S. Recent Advances in Biocatalysis for Drug Synthesis. Biomedicines 2022; 10:964. [PMID: 35625702 PMCID: PMC9138302 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10050964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Biocatalysis is constantly providing novel options for the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). In addition to drug development and manufacturing, biocatalysis also plays a role in drug discovery and can support many active ingredient syntheses at an early stage to build up entire scaffolds in a targeted and preparative manner. Recent progress in recruiting new enzymes by genome mining and screening or adapting their substrate, as well as product scope, by protein engineering has made biocatalysts a competitive tool applied in academic and industrial spheres. This is especially true for the advances in the field of nonribosomal peptide synthesis and enzyme cascades that are expanding the capabilities for the discovery and synthesis of new bioactive compounds via biotransformation. Here we highlight some of the most recent developments to add to the portfolio of biocatalysis with special relevance for the synthesis and late-stage functionalization of APIs, in order to bypass pure chemical processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Kinner
- Chair for Bioprocess Engineering, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; (A.K.); (P.N.); (R.S.); (K.R.)
| | - Philipp Nerke
- Chair for Bioprocess Engineering, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; (A.K.); (P.N.); (R.S.); (K.R.)
| | - Regine Siedentop
- Chair for Bioprocess Engineering, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; (A.K.); (P.N.); (R.S.); (K.R.)
| | - Till Steinmetz
- Laboratory for Technical Biology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; (T.S.); (M.N.)
| | - Thomas Classen
- Institute of Bio- and Geosciences: Biotechnology (IBG-1), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (T.C.); (J.P.)
| | - Katrin Rosenthal
- Chair for Bioprocess Engineering, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; (A.K.); (P.N.); (R.S.); (K.R.)
| | - Markus Nett
- Laboratory for Technical Biology, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; (T.S.); (M.N.)
| | - Jörg Pietruszka
- Institute of Bio- and Geosciences: Biotechnology (IBG-1), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (T.C.); (J.P.)
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf Located at Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52426 Jülich, Germany
| | - Stephan Lütz
- Chair for Bioprocess Engineering, Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany; (A.K.); (P.N.); (R.S.); (K.R.)
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Cigan E, Eggbauer B, Schrittwieser JH, Kroutil W. The role of biocatalysis in the asymmetric synthesis of alkaloids - an update. RSC Adv 2021; 11:28223-28270. [PMID: 35480754 PMCID: PMC9038100 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra04181a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Alkaloids are a group of natural products with interesting pharmacological properties and a long history of medicinal application. Their complex molecular structures have fascinated chemists for decades, and their total synthesis still poses a considerable challenge. In a previous review, we have illustrated how biocatalysis can make valuable contributions to the asymmetric synthesis of alkaloids. The chemo-enzymatic strategies discussed therein have been further explored and improved in recent years, and advances in amine biocatalysis have vastly expanded the opportunities for incorporating enzymes into synthetic routes towards these important natural products. The present review summarises modern developments in chemo-enzymatic alkaloid synthesis since 2013, in which the biocatalytic transformations continue to take an increasingly 'central' role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Cigan
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, BioTechMed Graz, BioHealth Heinrichstrasse 28/II 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Bettina Eggbauer
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, BioTechMed Graz, BioHealth Heinrichstrasse 28/II 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Joerg H Schrittwieser
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, BioTechMed Graz, BioHealth Heinrichstrasse 28/II 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Wolfgang Kroutil
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, BioTechMed Graz, BioHealth Heinrichstrasse 28/II 8010 Graz Austria
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Singh W, Hui C, Li C, Huang M. Thebaine is Selectively Demethylated by Thebaine 6- O-Demethylase and Codeine-3- O-demethylase at Distinct Binding Sites: A Computational Study. Inorg Chem 2021; 60:10199-10214. [PMID: 34213893 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c00468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Two homologous 2-oxoglutarate-dependent (ODD) nonheme enzymes thebaine 6-O-demethylase (T6ODM) and codeine-3-O-demethylase (CODM), are involved in the morphine biosynthesis pathway from thebaine, catalyzing the O-demethylation reaction with precise regioselectivity at C6 and C3 positions of thebaine respectively. We investigated the origin of the regioselectivity of these enzymes by combined molecular dynamics (MD) and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations and found that Thebaine binds at the two distinct sites of T6ODM and CODM, which determines the regioselectivity of the enzymes. A remarkable oxo rotation is observed in the decarboxylation process. Starting from the closed pentacoordinate configuration, the C-terminal lid adopts an open conformation in the octahedral Fe(IV) = O complex to facilitate the subsequent demethylation. Phe241 and Phe311 stabilize the substrate in the binding pocket, while Arg219 acts as a gatekeeper residue to stabilize the substrate. Our results unravel the regioselectivity in 2-OG dependent nonheme enzymes and may shed light for exploring the substrate scope of these enzymes and developing novel biotechnology for morphine biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warispreet Singh
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Queen's University, Belfast BT9 5AG, United Kingdom
| | - Chenggong Hui
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Queen's University, Belfast BT9 5AG, United Kingdom
| | - Chun Li
- Key Lab of Industrial Biocatalysis Ministry of Education, Institute of Biochemical Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, P. R. China
| | - Meilan Huang
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Queen's University, Belfast BT9 5AG, United Kingdom
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Anthony SM, Tona V, Zou Y, Morrill LA, Billingsley JM, Lim M, Tang Y, Houk KN, Garg NK. Total Synthesis of (-)-Strictosidine and Interception of Aryne Natural Product Derivatives "Strictosidyne" and "Strictosamidyne". J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:7471-7479. [PMID: 33955226 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c02004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Monoterpene indole alkaloids are a large class of natural products derived from a single biosynthetic precursor, strictosidine. We describe a synthetic approach to strictosidine that relies on a key facially selective Diels-Alder reaction between a glucosyl-modified alkene and an enal to set the C15-C20-C21 stereotriad. DFT calculations were used to examine the origin of stereoselectivity in this key step, wherein two of 16 possible isomers are predominantly formed. These calculations suggest the presence of a glucosyl unit, also inherent in the strictosidine structure, guides diastereoselectivity, with the reactive conformation of the vinyl glycoside dienophile being controlled by an exo-anomeric effect. (-)-Strictosidine was subsequently accessed using late-stage synthetic manipulations and an enzymatic Pictet-Spengler reaction. Several new natural product analogs were also accessed, including precursors to two unusual aryne natural product derivatives termed "strictosidyne" and "strictosamidyne". These studies provide a strategy for accessing glycosylic natural products and a new platform to access monoterpene indole alkaloids and their derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Anthony
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Veronica Tona
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Yike Zou
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Lucas A Morrill
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - John M Billingsley
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Megan Lim
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Yi Tang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - K N Houk
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Neil K Garg
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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9
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Stander EA, Sepúlveda LJ, Dugé de Bernonville T, Carqueijeiro I, Koudounas K, Lemos Cruz P, Besseau S, Lanoue A, Papon N, Giglioli-Guivarc’h N, Dirks R, O’Connor SE, Atehortùa L, Oudin A, Courdavault V. Identifying Genes Involved in alkaloid Biosynthesis in Vinca minor Through Transcriptomics and Gene Co-Expression Analysis. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10121595. [PMID: 33255314 PMCID: PMC7761029 DOI: 10.3390/biom10121595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The lesser periwinkle Vinca minor accumulates numerous monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs) including the vasodilator vincamine. While the biosynthetic pathway of MIAs has been largely elucidated in other Apocynaceae such as Catharanthus roseus, the counterpart in V. minor remains mostly unknown, especially for reactions leading to MIAs specific to this plant. As a consequence, we generated a comprehensive V. minor transcriptome elaborated from eight distinct samples including roots, old and young leaves exposed to low or high light exposure conditions. This optimized resource exhibits an improved completeness compared to already published ones. Through homology-based searches using C. roseus genes as bait, we predicted candidate genes for all common steps of the MIA pathway as illustrated by the cloning of a tabersonine/vincadifformine 16-O-methyltransferase (Vm16OMT) isoform. The functional validation of this enzyme revealed its capacity of methylating 16-hydroxylated derivatives of tabersonine, vincadifformine and lochnericine with a Km 0.94 ± 0.06 µM for 16-hydroxytabersonine. Furthermore, by combining expression of fusions with yellow fluorescent proteins and interaction assays, we established that Vm16OMT is located in the cytosol and forms homodimers. Finally, a gene co-expression network was performed to identify candidate genes of the missing V. minor biosynthetic steps to guide MIA pathway elucidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Amor Stander
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
| | - Liuda Johana Sepúlveda
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Antioquia Medellin 050021, Colombia;
| | - Thomas Dugé de Bernonville
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
| | - Inês Carqueijeiro
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
| | - Konstantinos Koudounas
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
| | - Pamela Lemos Cruz
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
| | - Sébastien Besseau
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
| | - Arnaud Lanoue
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
| | - Nicolas Papon
- Host-Pathogen Interaction Study Group (GEIHP, EA 3142), UNIV Angers, UNIV Brest, 49933 Angers, France;
| | - Nathalie Giglioli-Guivarc’h
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
| | - Ron Dirks
- Future Genomics Technologies, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Sarah Ellen O’Connor
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany;
| | - Lucia Atehortùa
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Antioquia Medellin 050021, Colombia;
| | - Audrey Oudin
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
- Correspondence: (A.O.); (V.C.)
| | - Vincent Courdavault
- EA2106 “Biomolécules et Biotechnologies Végétales”, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France; (E.A.S.); (L.J.S.); (T.D.d.B.); (I.C.); (K.K.); (P.L.C.); (S.B.); (A.L.); (N.G.-G.)
- Correspondence: (A.O.); (V.C.)
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10
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Lichman BR. The scaffold-forming steps of plant alkaloid biosynthesis. Nat Prod Rep 2020; 38:103-129. [PMID: 32745157 DOI: 10.1039/d0np00031k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Alkaloids from plants are characterised by structural diversity and bioactivity, and maintain a privileged position in both modern and traditional medicines. In recent years, there have been significant advances in elucidating the biosynthetic origins of plant alkaloids. In this review, I will describe the progress made in determining the metabolic origins of the so-called true alkaloids, specialised metabolites derived from amino acids containing a nitrogen heterocycle. By identifying key biosynthetic steps that feature in the majority of pathways, I highlight the key roles played by modifications to primary metabolism, iminium reactivity and spontaneous reactions in the molecular and evolutionary origins of these pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin R Lichman
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK.
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11
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Schenck CA, Westphal J, Jayaraman D, Garcia K, Wen J, Mysore KS, Ané J, Sumner LW, Maeda HA. Role of cytosolic, tyrosine-insensitive prephenate dehydrogenase in Medicago truncatula. PLANT DIRECT 2020; 4:e00218. [PMID: 32368714 PMCID: PMC7196213 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Revised: 03/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
l-Tyrosine (Tyr) is an aromatic amino acid synthesized de novo in plants and microbes downstream of the shikimate pathway. In plants, Tyr and a Tyr pathway intermediate, 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate (HPP), are precursors to numerous specialized metabolites, which are crucial for plant and human health. Tyr is synthesized in the plastids by a TyrA family enzyme, arogenate dehydrogenase (ADH/TyrAa), which is feedback inhibited by Tyr. Additionally, many legumes possess prephenate dehydrogenases (PDH/TyrAp), which are insensitive to Tyr and localized to the cytosol. Yet the role of PDH enzymes in legumes is currently unknown. This study isolated and characterized Tnt1-transposon mutants of MtPDH1 (pdh1) in Medicago truncatula to investigate PDH function. The pdh1 mutants lacked PDH transcript and PDH activity, and displayed little aberrant morphological phenotypes under standard growth conditions, providing genetic evidence that MtPDH1 is responsible for the PDH activity detected in M. truncatula. Though plant PDH enzymes and activity have been specifically found in legumes, nodule number and nitrogenase activity of pdh1 mutants were not significantly reduced compared with wild-type (Wt) during symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Although Tyr levels were not significantly different between Wt and mutants under standard conditions, when carbon flux was increased by shikimate precursor feeding, mutants accumulated significantly less Tyr than Wt. These data suggest that MtPDH1 is involved in Tyr biosynthesis when the shikimate pathway is stimulated and possibly linked to unidentified legume-specific specialized metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig A. Schenck
- Department of BotanyUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWIUSA
- Present address:
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMIUSA
| | - Josh Westphal
- Department of BotanyUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWIUSA
| | | | - Kevin Garcia
- Department of BacteriologyUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWIUSA
- Department of Crop and Soil SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | | | | | - Jean‐Michel Ané
- Department of BacteriologyUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWIUSA
- Department of AgronomyUniversity of Wisconsin‐MadisonMadisonWIUSA
| | - Lloyd W. Sumner
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of MissouriColumbiaMOUSA
- Metabolomics and Bond Life Sciences CentersUniversity of MissouriColumbiaMOUSA
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12
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Eshaghi M, Shiran B, Fallahi H, Ravash R, Đeri BB. Identification of genes involved in steroid alkaloid biosynthesis in Fritillaria imperialis via de novo transcriptomics. Genomics 2019; 111:1360-1372. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2018.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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13
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Patil MD, Grogan G, Yun H. Biocatalyzed C−C Bond Formation for the Production of Alkaloids. ChemCatChem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201801130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh D. Patil
- Department of Systems BiotechnologyKonkuk University Seoul 143-701 Korea
| | - Gideon Grogan
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of York Heslington York, YO10 5DD UK
| | - Hyungdon Yun
- Department of Systems BiotechnologyKonkuk University Seoul 143-701 Korea
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14
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Bennett MR, Thompson ML, Shepherd SA, Dunstan MS, Herbert AJ, Smith DRM, Cronin VA, Menon BRK, Levy C, Micklefield J. Structure and Biocatalytic Scope of Coclaurine N-Methyltransferase. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:10600-10604. [PMID: 29791083 PMCID: PMC6099451 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201805060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) are a structurally diverse family of plant secondary metabolites, which have been exploited to develop analgesics, antibiotics, antitumor agents, and other therapeutic agents. Biosynthesis of BIAs proceeds via a common pathway from tyrosine to (S)-reticulene at which point the pathway diverges. Coclaurine N-methyltransferase (CNMT) is a key enzyme in the pathway to (S)-reticulene, installing the N-methyl substituent that is essential for the bioactivity of many BIAs. In this paper, we describe the first crystal structure of CNMT which, along with mutagenesis studies, defines the enzymes active site architecture. The specificity of CNMT was also explored with a range of natural and synthetic substrates as well as co-factor analogues. Knowledge from this study could be used to generate improved CNMT variants required to produce BIAs or synthetic derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Bennett
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Mark L. Thompson
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Sarah A. Shepherd
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Mark S. Dunstan
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Abigail J. Herbert
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Duncan R. M. Smith
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Victoria A. Cronin
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Binuraj R. K. Menon
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Colin Levy
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
| | - Jason Micklefield
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester131 Princess StreetManchesterM1 7DNUK
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15
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Bennett MR, Thompson ML, Shepherd SA, Dunstan MS, Herbert AJ, Smith DRM, Cronin VA, Menon BRK, Levy C, Micklefield J. Structure and Biocatalytic Scope of Coclaurine
N
‐Methyltransferase. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201805060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Bennett
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Mark L. Thompson
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Sarah A. Shepherd
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Mark S. Dunstan
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Abigail J. Herbert
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Duncan R. M. Smith
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Victoria A. Cronin
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Binuraj R. K. Menon
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Colin Levy
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Jason Micklefield
- School of ChemistryManchester Institute of BiotechnologyThe University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
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16
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Schenck CA, Maeda HA. Tyrosine biosynthesis, metabolism, and catabolism in plants. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2018; 149:82-102. [PMID: 29477627 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
L-Tyrosine (Tyr) is an aromatic amino acid (AAA) required for protein synthesis in all organisms, but synthesized de novo only in plants and microorganisms. In plants, Tyr also serves as a precursor of numerous specialized metabolites that have diverse physiological roles as electron carriers, antioxidants, attractants, and defense compounds. Some of these Tyr-derived plant natural products are also used in human medicine and nutrition (e.g. morphine and vitamin E). While the Tyr biosynthesis and catabolic pathways have been extensively studied in microbes and animals, respectively, those of plants have received much less attention until recently. Accumulating evidence suggest that the Tyr biosynthetic pathways differ between microbes and plants and even within the plant kingdom, likely to support the production of lineage-specific plant specialized metabolites derived from Tyr. The interspecies variations of plant Tyr pathway enzymes can now be used to enhance the production of Tyr and Tyr-derived compounds in plants and other synthetic biology platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig A Schenck
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Hiroshi A Maeda
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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17
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Burse A, Boland W. Deciphering the route to cyclic monoterpenes in Chrysomelina leaf beetles: source of new biocatalysts for industrial application? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 72:417-427. [PMID: 28593879 DOI: 10.1515/znc-2017-0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The drastic growth of the population on our planet requires the efficient and sustainable use of our natural resources. Enzymes are indispensable tools for a wide range of industries producing food, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, or biofuels. Because insects constitute one of the most species-rich classes of organisms colonizing almost every ecological niche on earth, they have developed extraordinary metabolic abilities to survive in various and sometimes extreme habitats. Despite this metabolic diversity, insect enzymes have only recently generated interest in industrial applications because only a few metabolic pathways have been sufficiently characterized. Here, we address the biosynthetic route to iridoids (cyclic monoterpenes), a group of secondary metabolites used by some members of the leaf beetle subtribe Chrysomelina as defensive compounds against their enemies. The ability to produce iridoids de novo has also convergently evolved in plants. From plant sources, numerous pharmacologically relevant structures have already been described. In addition, in plants, iridoids serve as building blocks for monoterpenoid indole alkaloids with broad therapeutic applications. As the commercial synthesis of iridoid-based drugs often relies on a semisynthetic approach involving biocatalysts, the discovery of enzymes from the insect iridoid route can account for a valuable resource and economic alternative to the previously used enzymes from the metabolism of plants. Hence, this review illustrates the recent discoveries made on the steps of the iridoid pathway in Chrysomelina leaf beetles. The findings are also placed in the context of the studied counterparts in plants and are further discussed regarding their use in technological approaches.
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18
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Park SY, Yang D, Ha SH, Lee SY. Metabolic Engineering of Microorganisms for the Production of Natural Compounds. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/adbi.201700190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Seon Young Park
- Metabolic and Biomolecular Engineering National Research Laboratory; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering (BK21 Plus Program); Institute for the BioCentury; Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST); Daejeon 34141 Republic of Korea
| | - Dongsoo Yang
- Metabolic and Biomolecular Engineering National Research Laboratory; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering (BK21 Plus Program); Institute for the BioCentury; Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST); Daejeon 34141 Republic of Korea
| | - Shin Hee Ha
- Metabolic and Biomolecular Engineering National Research Laboratory; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering (BK21 Plus Program); Institute for the BioCentury; Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST); Daejeon 34141 Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Yup Lee
- Metabolic and Biomolecular Engineering National Research Laboratory; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering (BK21 Plus Program); Institute for the BioCentury; Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST); Daejeon 34141 Republic of Korea
- BioProcess Engineering Research Center; KAIST; Daejeon 34141 Republic of Korea
- BioInformatics Research Center; KAIST; Daejeon 34141 Republic of Korea
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19
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Duplais C, Estevez Y. Tandem Biocatalysis Unlocks the Challenging de Novo Production of Plant Natural Products. Chembiochem 2017; 18:2192-2195. [PMID: 28940553 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201700508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Intimate partnership: Knowledge of the biocatalytic cascades in different cellular compartments is limited, but deciphering these systems in nature can be used to inspire synthetic strategies. Two studies report new insights into the biosynthesis of alkaloids and sesterterpenoids in plants. This highlight presents these novel biotransformations to illustrate how tandem biocatalysis can impact the future of natural product production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Duplais
- CNRS, UMR8172 EcoFoG, AgroParisTech, Cirad, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, Campus agronomique avenue de France, 97379, Kourou, French Guiana, France
| | - Yannick Estevez
- CNRS, UMR8172 EcoFoG, AgroParisTech, Cirad, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, Campus agronomique avenue de France, 97379, Kourou, French Guiana, France
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20
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Abstract
Oxidative cyclizations are important transformations that occur widely during natural product biosynthesis. The transformations from acyclic precursors to cyclized products can afford morphed scaffolds, structural rigidity, and biological activities. Some of the most dramatic structural alterations in natural product biosynthesis occur through oxidative cyclization. In this Review, we examine the different strategies used by nature to create new intra(inter)molecular bonds via redox chemistry. This Review will cover both oxidation- and reduction-enabled cyclization mechanisms, with an emphasis on the former. Radical cyclizations catalyzed by P450, nonheme iron, α-KG-dependent oxygenases, and radical SAM enzymes are discussed to illustrate the use of molecular oxygen and S-adenosylmethionine to forge new bonds at unactivated sites via one-electron manifolds. Nonradical cyclizations catalyzed by flavin-dependent monooxygenases and NAD(P)H-dependent reductases are covered to show the use of two-electron manifolds in initiating cyclization reactions. The oxidative installations of epoxides and halogens into acyclic scaffolds to drive subsequent cyclizations are separately discussed as examples of "disappearing" reactive handles. Last, oxidative rearrangement of rings systems, including contractions and expansions, will be covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man-Cheng Tang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Yi Zou
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Kenji Watanabe
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan
| | - Christopher T. Walsh
- Stanford University Chemistry, Engineering, and Medicine for Human Health (ChEM-H), Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Yi Tang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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21
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Lavaud C, Massiot G. The Iboga Alkaloids. PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC NATURAL PRODUCTS 2017; 105:89-136. [PMID: 28194562 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-49712-9_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
Iboga alkaloids are a particular class of indolomonoterpenes most often characterized by an isoquinuclidine nucleus. Their first occurrence was detected in the roots of Tabernanthe iboga, a sacred plant to the people of Gabon, which made it cult object. Ibogaine is the main representative of this class of alkaloids and its psychoactive properties are well documented. It has been proposed as a drug cessation treatment and has a wide range of activities in targeting opioids, cocaine, and alcohol. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a background on this molecule and related compounds and to update knowledge on the most recent advances made. Difficulties linked to the status of ibogaine as a drug in several countries have hampered its development, but 18-methoxycoronaridine is currently under evaluation for the same purposes and for the treatment of leishmaniasis. The chapter is divided into six parts: an introduction aiming at defining what is called an iboga alkaloid, and this is followed by current knowledge on their biosynthesis, which unfortunately remains a "black box" as far as the key construction step is concerned. Many of these alkaloids are still being discovered and the third and fourth parts of the chapter discuss the analytical tools in use for this purpose and give lists of new monomeric and dimeric alkaloids belonging to this class. When necessary, the structures are discussed especially with regard to absolute configuration determinations, which remain a point of weakness in their assignments. Part V gives an account of progress made in the synthesis, partial and total, which the authors believe is key to providing solid solutions to the industrial development of the most promising molecules. The last part of the chapter is devoted to the biological properties of iboga alkaloids, with particular emphasis on ibogaine and 18-methoxycoronaridine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Lavaud
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims, UMR CNRS 7312, Case postale 44, UFR des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, BP 1039, 51687, Reims, Cedex 2, France.
| | - Georges Massiot
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims, UMR CNRS 7312, Case postale 44, UFR des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, BP 1039, 51687, Reims, Cedex 2, France
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22
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Dziggel C, Schäfer H, Wink M. Tools of pathway reconstruction and production of economically relevant plant secondary metabolites in recombinant microorganisms. Biotechnol J 2016; 12. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201600145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Dziggel
- Heidelberg University; Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology; Heidelberg Germany
| | - Holger Schäfer
- Heidelberg University; Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology; Heidelberg Germany
| | - Michael Wink
- Heidelberg University; Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology; Heidelberg Germany
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23
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Schmidt NG, Eger E, Kroutil W. Building Bridges: Biocatalytic C-C-Bond Formation toward Multifunctional Products. ACS Catal 2016; 6:4286-4311. [PMID: 27398261 PMCID: PMC4936090 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.6b00758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Carbon-carbon bond formation is the key reaction for organic synthesis to construct the carbon framework of organic molecules. The review gives a selection of biocatalytic C-C-bond-forming reactions which have been investigated during the last 5 years and which have already been proven to be applicable for organic synthesis. In most cases, the reactions lead to products functionalized at the site of C-C-bond formation (e.g., α-hydroxy ketones, aminoalcohols, diols, 1,4-diketones, etc.) or allow to decorate aromatic and heteroaromatic molecules. Furthermore, examples for cyclization of (non)natural precursors leading to saturated carbocycles are given as well as the stereoselective cyclopropanation of olefins affording cyclopropanes. Although many tools are already available, recent research also makes it clear that nature provides an even broader set of enzymes to perform specific C-C coupling reactions. The possibilities are without limit; however, a big library of variants for different types of reactions is required to have the specific enzyme for a desired specific (stereoselective) reaction at hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina G. Schmidt
- ACIB
GmbH c/o, Department of Chemistry, University
of Graz, Heinrichstrasse
28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Eger
- Department
of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Kroutil
- ACIB
GmbH c/o, Department of Chemistry, University
of Graz, Heinrichstrasse
28, 8010 Graz, Austria
- Department
of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
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