Monitoring PCDD/Fs and other organic substances in workers of a hazardous waste incinerator: a case study

Concentrations of persistent organic pollutants in blood of the Spanish population: Temporal trend

The present article reviews the human biomonitoring studies conducted in Spain to assess exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). In general terms, important variations in POPs concentrations between Spanish regions and specific populations were observed, while no associations between exposure to POPs and adverse health outcomes were found. Moreover, occupational exposure seems not to be a risk factor with regards to POPs exposure in the Spanish population. The present review highlights the importance of conducting human biomonitoring studies to find possible associations between POPs and adverse health effects.

Concentrations of PCDD/Fs in Human Blood: A Review of Data from the Current Decade

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-furans (PCDD/Fs) are environmental pollutants with great persistence, the capacity of bioaccumulation, and well known important toxic effects in humans and animals. Incinerators of hazardous, municipal and medical waste, chlorine bleaching of paper pulp, cement plants, and the traffic of motor vehicles are the most frequent emission sources of these compounds. The diet, followed at a great distance by inhalation, is generally the main way of human exposure to PCDD/Fs. Human biomonitoring is of great importance to prevent potential adverse effects derived from exposure to chemicals such as PCDD/Fs. In relation to this, blood is among the most used biological monitors. In the current review, we have summarized the recent information (2000–2009) published in the scientific literature (databases: Scopus and PubMed) on the concentrations of PCDD/Fs in blood samples of non-occupationally exposed populations, as well as in some groups of occupationally exposed individuals. We have revised a number of studies conducted in various African, American, Asian and European countries, and Australia. Unfortunately, the information is quite limited. No data are available for most countries over the world. Based on the results here reviewed, where available, the current health risks for the general populations do not seem to be of concern. Moreover, taking into account the important reductions observed in the levels of PCDD/Fs in foodstuffs, new decreases in the concentrations of PCDD/Fs in blood—and other biological tissues—are very probable in the immediate years.

Quantification of eight bisphenol analogues in blood and urine samples of workers in a hazardous waste incinerator

Bisphenol A (BPA) has been widely used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resins. In recent years, producers have started replacing BPA by other chemical analogues, such as bisphenol -S (BPS) and -F (BPF), all of them under the label "BPA-free". However, despite bisphenol (BP) analogues have a very similar structure, their endocrine-disrupting properties could differ from those of BPA. Unfortunately, information regarding human exposure to BP analogues is very limited, not only as single substances, but also as chemical mixtures. The aim of this study was to determine the levels of 8 BP analogues (A, S, F, B, AF, Z, E, and AP) in biological samples from a controlled cohort of workers in a hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) located in Constantí (Catalonia, Spain). Firstly, a chemical method to analyze a mixture of those 8 analogues in total blood and urine was optimized, being samples quantified by means of gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Furthermore, a biomonitoring study was performed by collecting samples of total blood and urine of 29 people working in the HWI. Among the 8 BP analogues assessed, BPA presented the highest levels in both biological samples, with mean total (free + conjugated) BPA concentrations of 0.58 and 0.86 μg/L in blood and urine, respectively. Free vs. total BPA levels presented a mean percentage of 79% in blood and 19% in urine. Beyond BPA, traces of BPB were also found in a single sample of blood. Furthermore, none of the remaining BP analogues was detected in blood or urine. Despite BPA has been regulated, it is still very present in the environment, being human exposure to this chemical still an issue of concern for the public health.

Monitoring dioxins and furans in plasma of individuals living near a hazardous waste incinerator: Temporal trend after 20 years

The concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) were analyzed in 40 plasma samples of individuals living in zones under potential influence of the emissions of a hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) (Tarragona County, Catalonia, Spain). Samples corresponded to subjects of different gender, age and specific areas of residence. The levels of PCDD/Fs were compared to those obtained in a baseline study (1998), as well as in previous surveys (2002, 2007 and 2012). The current mean concentration of PCDD/Fs in plasma was 6.79 pg I-TEQ/g lipid, which was significantly lower than the baseline concentration (27.0 pg I-TEQ/g lipid). A significant decrease was also observed in comparison to the results obtained in 2002 and 2007 (15.7 and 9.4 pg I-TEQ/g, respectively), while the current PCDD/F levels were similar to those obtained in 2012 (6.18 pg I-TEQ/g lipid). This important reduction in plasma PCDD/F levels is in accordance with the decreasing trend in the daily dietary intake of PCDD/Fs, which diminished from 210.1 pg I-TEQ (baseline) to 8.54 pg WHO-TEQ (current). OCDD was the predominant congener in plasma, while 2,3,7,8-TeCDD and 1,2,3,4,7,8,9-HpCDF showed the lowest levels. Based on the above results, as well as other recent data on the levels of PCDD/Fs in human milk, we conclude that the presence of the HWI does not mean additional and significant risks -as regards to PCDD/F exposure-for the population living in the neighborhood of the facility.

Site-specific water quality criteria for aquatic ecosystems: A case study of pentachlorophenol for Tai Lake, China

Given the widely varying types of aquatic ecosystems and bioavailability of chemicals, it is important to develop site-specific water quality criteria (WQC) to ensure criteria are neither over- nor under-protective. In the study, using pentachlorophenol (PCP) as an example, several approaches to derive site-specific WQC were investigated, including the conventional species sensitivity distribution (SSD), weighted SSD based on the proportion of each trophic level, and water effect ratio (WER) method. When corrected to a pH of 7.8, the conventional SSD approach resulted in criteria maximum concentration (CMC) and criteria continuous concentration (CCC) of 18.11 and 1.74 μg/L, respectively. If SSD was weighted according to the current species composition in Tai Lake, the CMC and CCC were 32.81 and 4.48 μg/L, respectively. However, available data suggest that many sensitive species inhabiting Tai Lake during 1980s were disappeared. Considering the species composition of the healthier ecosystem in 1980s, the CMC and CCC were 10.99 and 0.38 μg/L, respectively, which provide more protective water quality standards. Water effect ratio (WER) was further used to correct for co-occurrence of other toxicants and factors affecting bioavailability of PCP. A final WER of 4.72 was applied to adjust the criteria derived by using the weighted SSD for the 1980s aquatic community, and the final CMC and CCC obtained were 51.87 and 1.79 μg/L, respectively, at a pH of 7.8. Water quality criteria derived using the 1980s species composition and adjusted with WER were deemed the most appropriate WQC for water management and aquatic life protection. Merits of the various approaches for developing WQC for protection of aquatic species were discussed.

Distribution of PCDD/Fs in the fly ash and atmospheric air of two typical hazardous waste incinerators in eastern China

Distribution of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) in the fly ash and atmospheric air of one medical waste incinerator (MWI) and one industrial hazardous waste incinerator (IHWI) plants were characterized. The PCDD/F concentrations of the stack gas (fly ash) produced from MWI and IHWI were 17.7 and 0.7 ng international toxic equivalent (I-TEQ)/Nm(3) (4.1 and 2.5 ng I-TEQ/g), respectively. For workplace air, the total concentrations of PCDD/Fs were 11.32 and 0.28 pg I-TEQ/Nm(3) (819.5 and 15.3 pg/Nm(3)). We assumed that the large differences of PCDD/F concentrations in workplace air were due to the differences in chlorine content of the waste, combustion conditions, and other contamination sources. With respect to the homologue profiles, the concentrations of PCDFs decreased with the increase of the substituted chlorine number for each site. Among all of the PCDD/F congeners, 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF was the most important contributor to the I-TEQ value accounting for ca. 43 % of two sites. The gas/particle partition of PCDD/Fs in the atmosphere of the workplace in the MWI was also investigated, indicating that PCDD/Fs were more associated in the particle phase, especially for the higher chlorinated ones. Moreover, the ratio of the I-TEQ values in particle and gas phase of workplace air was 11.0. At last, the relationship between the distribution of PCDD/Fs in the workplace air and that from stack gas and fly ash was also analyzed and discussed. The high correlation coefficient might be a sign for diffuse gas emissions at transient periods of fumes escaping from the incinerator.

Perfluorinated compounds in serum and urine samples from children aged 5-13 years in South Korea

Serum and urine samples from 120 children aged 5-13 years from Dae-gu, Korea, were analyzed for 16 perfluorinated compounds (PFCs). The total PFC concentrations in the serum were 4.26-29.70 ng/mL, and perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS, which was dominant overall, at 6.58 ng/mL), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUndA) were detected in all serum samples. The total PFC concentrations in the urine ranged from below the detection limit to 14.9 ng/mL, and perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA) was predominant. The PFOS (p < 0.005) concentration was higher in the serum of children than that of Korean adults aged 20-29. Some of the PFC concentrations in the serum correlated negatively with body mass index and tended to increase with the duration of breastfeeding. However, there were no gender-specific differences in the PFC concentrations and no correlations between PFC concentrations in serum and urine.

Biological monitoring of PCDD/Fs and PCBs in the City of Mataró. A population-based cohort study (1995-2012)

There is great concern about the exposure to PCDD/Fs in areas near solid waste incineration (SWI) plants as, in the past, thermal waste treatment was a major source of PCDD/Fs, affecting negatively the environment and the population living nearby the area of influence. The aim of the present study was to monitor PCDD/Fs and PCBs levels in blood samples in general population living nearby a modern SWI. Up to 7 different campaigns were performed between 1995 and 2012. Overall, 104 exposed subjects (living <1000 m from the incinerator plant) and 97 non-exposed subjects (living >3000 m from the incinerator plant) were randomly selected from the municipal census of the City of Mataró in 1995. In addition, workers of the SWI plant were included in the study. Moreover, in 1999, 100 non-exposed subjects living in the nearby City of Arenys de Mar were added to the project. Overall, this study represents the longest consecutive human biomonitoring study of dioxins, furans and PCBs ever conducted in Spain. Concentrations of PCDD/Fs and PCBs were determined according to age, sex and distance to the SWI exposure in whole blood sample pools. No relevant differences in PCDD/Fs and PCBs levels were observed between SWI exposure groups. It could be noted that since 1999 all groups experienced a slight decrease in the levels of PCDD/Fs and marker PCBs. Moreover, concentrations of PCDD/Fs and marker PCBs were higher in women than in men, and in older age group in comparison to the younger ones.

Body burden monitoring of dioxins and other organic substances in workers at a hazardous waste incinerator

The construction in Constantí (Tarragona County, Catalonia) of the first, and up till now the only hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) in Spain, finished in 1999. In this study, we measured the concentrations of a number of organic substances determined in blood and urine of the HWI workers. Samples of 18 men and 9 women, classified according to their respective workplaces, were collected in 2011, after approximately 12 years of regular operations in the facility. The current results were compared with those of the baseline survey, as well as with the most recent surveys performed in 2008, 2009 and 2010. Plasma analyses were carried out for hexachlorobenzene (HCB), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs 28, 52, 101, 138, 153, and 180) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), while the levels of 2,4- and 2,5-dichlorophenol (DCP), 2,4,5- and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP), pentachlorophenol (PCP) and 1-hydroxypyrene (1-HP) were measured in urine samples. In plasma, the mean concentrations were the following: 10.8μg/kg lipid for HCB; 0.8μg/kg lipid for PCB28; 0.3μg/kg lipid for PCB52; 0.5μg/kg lipid for PCB101; 42.2μg/kg lipid for PCB138; 18.5μg/kg lipid for PCB153, and 51.2μg/kg lipid for PCB180. For PCDD/Fs, the mean concentration was 4.6ng I-TEQ/kg lipid (4.7ng WHO-TEQ/kg lipid). These levels, as well as those found in urine samples, are in agreement with the data of previous surveys performed in the same area. The current results in HWI workers do not show any evident sign of occupational exposure to PCDD/Fs and other organic substances. However, these results must be considered only as an indication of potential exposure, as the study presents notable limitations, such as the reduced number of participants and the lack of data relative to the air concentrations of chemicals. Consequently, general conclusions cannot be derived and the results should not be used as a basis for the implementation of industrial hygiene measures in other HWIs.

Blood levels of dioxins, furans, dioxin-like PCBs, and TEQs in general populations: a review, 1989-2010

A comprehensive worldwide literature review of blood levels of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds in non-exposed adult general populations was performed. The studies published in 1989-2010 reporting information on polychlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), non-ortho-PCBs (nPCBs), mono-ortho-PCBs (mPCBs) levels and Toxic Equivalencies (TEQs, a summary weighted measure of their combined toxicity) were reviewed. TEQs were calculated using as standard the most recent WHO 2005 reevaluation of Toxic Equivalency Factors (TEFs). Weighted multiple regression analyses adjusted for year, subject's age, type of sample analyzed, method used for values below detection limit, and central tendency measure used were performed for each congener and standardized TEQs (log-transformed). We identified 187 studies regarding 29,687 subjects of 26 countries. Year of blood collection ranged from 1985 to 2008. The studies reporting congener levels 161. In adjusted analyses, European countries showed higher levels of most dioxin-like congeners and TEQs. A strong positive association of subjects' age with most congeners and with TEQ values was found, confirming previous findings. Significant decreases over time (1985-2008) were documented for PCCDs, PCDFs, and TEQs including their contributions. No significant decrease was found for non-ortho-PCBs, notably PCB 126. Only some mono-ortho-PCBs showed clear significant declines. Accordingly, TEQs including only PCB contribution did not decrease over time. In interpreting these findings, it should be considered that for dioxin-like PCBs the analysis period was shorter (17 years), since these compounds were first measured in 1992.

Assessment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran emissions from a hazardous waste incineration plant using long-term sampling equipment

The aim of this work is to evaluate the performance of a continuous monitoring system for the analysis of the mass concentration of PCDD/Fs from stationary sources. Data was acquired from a modern, state of the art, hazardous waste thermal treatment plant for a period of more than 2 years using a commercial available continuous monitoring system. The study consisted of a total of 16 samples, collected in periods from 1 week to 2 months resulting in an average of 360 m³ sampled flue gas per sample. The study showed the system was able to confirm that for a period of more than 2 years the plant was complying with the limit of 0.1 ng I-TEQ/Nm(3). In addition, the data showed the typical fingerprint of such installations which is useful for example in impact studies. Long-term samples were compared to five short-term samples (6 h) collected every 6 months during the study period. Principal component analysis was applied to PCDD/Fs obtained data as useful statistical tool to find out trends and similarities between different samples. Improvement in terms of representativeness of data was achieved through continuous assessment since the starts of the project. The obtained data was further used to determine the emission factor for this activity and the total annual PCDD/Fs release to the atmosphere.

Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene and PAH exposure in 4-year-old Spanish children

AIMS

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), among the main compounds present in polluted urban air, is of concern for children's health. Childhood exposure to PAH was assessed by urinary monitoring of 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP), a pyrene metabolite, investigating its association with exposure to air pollution and other factors related to PAH in air.

METHODS

A group of 174 4-year-old children were recruited and a questionnaire on their indoor and outdoor residential environment was completed by parents. At the same time, environmental measurements of traffic-related air pollution (NO2) were carried out. A urine sample was collected from each child in order to analyze 1-OHP using HPLC with fluorescence detection, correcting for creatinine concentrations. Non-parametric tests and regression analyses were used to identify environmental factors that influence 1-OHP excretion.

RESULTS

Mean urinary 1-OHP concentration was 0.061 micromol/mol creatinine, ranging from 0.004 to 0.314 micromol/mol. Non-parametric tests and regression analysis showed positive and significant associations (P<or=0.05) between 1-OHP and predicted residential exposure to NO2 (which was based on outdoor environmental measurements and geo-statistical analysis), self-reported residential vehicle traffic, passive smoking and cooking appliance. 1-OHP levels tended to be higher among children living in urban areas (0.062 micromol/mol vs. 0.058 micromol/mol for children living in rural areas) but differences were not significant (P=0.20).

CONCLUSION

In Southern Spain, concentrations of urinary 1-OHP were in the lower range of those generally reported for children living in non-polluted areas in Western Europe and the USA. Traffic-related air pollution, passive smoking and cooking appliance influenced urinary 1-OHP level in the children, which should be prevented due to the health consequences of the inadvertent exposure to PAH during development.

Non-invasive matrices in human biomonitoring: a review

Humans and other living organisms are exposed to a variety of chemical pollutants that are released into the environment as a consequence of anthropogenic activities. Environmental pollutants are incorporated into the organism by different routes and can then be stored and distributed in different tissues, which leads to an internal concentration that can induce different alterations, adverse effects and/or diseases. Control measures should be taken to avoid these effects and human biomonitoring is a very useful tool that can contribute to this aim. Human biomonitoring uses different matrices to measure the target chemicals depending on the chemical, the amount of matrix necessary for the analysis and the detection limit (LOD) of the analytical technique. Blood is the ideal matrix for most chemicals due to its contact with the whole organism and its equilibrium with organs and tissues where chemicals are stored. However, it has an important disadvantage of being an invasive matrix. The development of new methodology and modern analytical techniques has allowed the use of other matrices that are less or non-invasive, such as saliva, urine, meconium, nails, hair, and semen or breast milk. The presence of a chemical in these matrices reflects an exposure, but correlations between levels in non-invasive matrices and blood must be established to ensure that these levels are related to the total body burden. The development of new biomarkers that are measurable in these matrices will improve non-invasive biomonitoring. This paper reviews studies that measure Cd, Pb, Hg, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organochlorine pesticides and phthalates in non-invasive matrices, the most used techniques for measurements and what alternative techniques are available.

Concentrations of PCDD/PCDFs in plasma of subjects living in the vicinity of a hazardous waste incinerator: follow-up and modeling validation

In 2007, the concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDFs) were determined in plasma of non-occupationally exposed subjects living near the only hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) in Spain (Constantí, Tarragona County, Catalonia). These data were compared with the levels found in two previous surveys performed in 1998 (baseline) and 2002. The current mean PCDD/PCDF concentration in plasma was 9.36pg I-TEQg(-1) of lipid (range: 1.76-23.44pg I-TEQg(-1) of lipid). It means a significant reduction of the mean PCDD/PCDFs levels in plasma in comparison to the concentrations found in 1998 and 2002 (27.01 and 15.70pg I-TEQg(-1) of lipid, respectively). This important decrease agrees well with the notable reduction in the dietary intake of PCDD/PCDFs recently noted for the population of the same area (210.1pg I-TEQd(-1), 63.8pgWHO-TEQd(-1), and 27.8pgWHO-TEQd(-1), in 1998, 2002 and 2007, respectively). The current data were also used to predict theoretical PCDD/PCDF concentrations in plasma by executing a single-compartment empirically-based pharmacokinetic model on the basis of the daily intake of these pollutants by the local population.

Dietary exposure to PCDD/PCDFs by individuals living near a hazardous waste incinerator in Catalonia, Spain: temporal trend

The levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF) were measured in foodstuffs randomly acquired in July 2006 in various locations of Tarragona County (Catalonia, Spain), which are near a hazardous waste incinerator (HWI). A total of 35 composite samples, belonging to various food groups (vegetables, pulses, cereals, fruits, fish and seafood, meat and meat products, eggs, milk, dairy products, and oils and fats) were analyzed by HRGC/HRMS. The dietary intake of PCDD/PCDFs was subsequently determined and compared with a previous survey performed in 2002. For calculations, recent data on consumption of the selected food items were used. Total dietary intake of PCDD/PCDFs for the general population of Tarragona County was estimated to be 27.81 pg WHO-TEQ/day, value notably lower than that found in the 2002 study, 63.80 pg WHO-TEQ/day. Fish and seafood (28%), oils and fats (22%), eggs (17%), and dairy products (11%) were the most important contributors to this intake, while pulses (1%), milk (2%), vegetables (3%) and fruits (3%) showed the lowest contribution to total WHO-TEQ. The current PCDD/PCDF intake is also considerably lower than the intake estimated in 1998 for the population of the same geographical area, 210.1 pg I-TEQ/day, when a baseline study was carried out during the construction of the HWI. The present intake is also compared with the dietary intakes of PCDD/PCDFs recently (2006-2007) reported for a number of regions and countries.