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Millet N, Sekar J, Solis NV, Millet A, Aggor FEY, Wildeman A, Lionakis MS, Gaffen SL, Jendzjowsky N, Filler SG, Swidergall M. Non-canonical IL-22 receptor signaling remodels the mucosal barrier during fungal immunosurveillance. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.09.08.611873. [PMID: 39314368 PMCID: PMC11419061 DOI: 10.1101/2024.09.08.611873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/25/2024]
Abstract
Mucosal barrier integrity is vital for homeostasis with commensal organisms while preventing pathogen invasion. We unexpectedly found that fungal-induced immunosurveillance enhances resistance to fungal outgrowth and tissue invasion by remodeling the oral mucosal epithelial barrier in mouse models of adult and neonatal Candida albicans colonization. Epithelial subset expansion and tissue remodeling were dependent on interleukin-22 (IL-22) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling, through a non-canonical receptor complex composed of glycoprotein 130 (gp130) coupled with IL-22RA1 and IL-10RB. Immunosurveillance-induced epithelial remodeling was restricted to the oral mucosa, whereas barrier architecture was reset once fungal-specific immunity developed. Collectively, these findings identify fungal-induced transient mucosal remodeling as a critical determinant of resistance to mucosal fungal infection during early stages of microbial colonization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Millet
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Jinendiran Sekar
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Norma V Solis
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Antoine Millet
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine and Physiology, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Felix E Y Aggor
- University of Pittsburgh, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Asia Wildeman
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Michail S Lionakis
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sarah L Gaffen
- University of Pittsburgh, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Nicholas Jendzjowsky
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine and Physiology, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Scott G Filler
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Marc Swidergall
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Jensen O, Trujillo E, Hanson L, Ost KS. Controlling Candida: immune regulation of commensal fungi in the gut. Infect Immun 2024; 92:e0051623. [PMID: 38647290 PMCID: PMC11385159 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00516-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The intestinal microbiome harbors fungi that pose a significant risk to human health as opportunistic pathogens and drivers of inflammation. Inflammatory and autoimmune diseases are associated with dysbiotic fungal communities and the expansion of potentially pathogenic fungi. The gut is also the main reservoir for disseminated fungal infections. Immune interactions are critical for preventing commensal fungi from becoming pathogenic. Significant strides have been made in defining innate and adaptive immune pathways that regulate intestinal fungi, and these discoveries have coincided with advancements in our understanding of the fungal molecular pathways and effectors involved in both commensal colonization and pathogenesis within the gut. In this review, we will discuss immune interactions important for regulating commensal fungi, with a focus on how specific cell types and effectors interact with fungi to limit their colonization or pathogenic potential. This will include how innate and adaptive immune pathways target fungi and orchestrate antifungal immune responses, in addition to how secreted immune effectors, such as mucus and antimicrobial peptides, regulate fungal colonization and inhibit pathogenic potential. These immune interactions will be framed around our current understanding of the fungal effectors and pathways regulating colonization and pathogenesis within this niche. Finally, we highlight important unexplored mechanisms by which the immune system regulates commensal fungi in the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen Jensen
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Emma Trujillo
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Luke Hanson
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Kyla S Ost
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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Zhang Y, Huang S, Guo Y, Xie X, Chen G, Cao C, Hu D, Cheng S. Chitosan from the base of Flammulina velutipes stipe alleviates oral Candida albicans infection via modulating Th-17 cell differentiation and Streptococcus mutans. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 274:132879. [PMID: 38838899 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
The base of Flammulina velutipes (F. velutipes) stipe are agricultural wastes generated during the cultivation of edible fungus F. velutipes with high amount of chitin. Herein, this study firstly prepared chitosan from the base of F. velutipes stipe (FVC) and its structure was identified. It was confirmed that FVC acted as an antigenic substance to activate the immune system in vivo and in vitro, drive T cells to differentiate into Th-17 cells, and establish an effective mucosal immune barrier in the oral cavity, thus inhibited C. albicans infection; On the other hand, FVC maintained the oral flora stability and significantly reduced the abundance of Streptococcus spp., which was closely related to C. albicans infection. On this basis, the inhibitory effects of FVC on oral pathogens Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus casei associated with C. albicans infection were further verified, and it was demonstrated that FVC effectively interfered with the growth of pathogenic bacteria by inducing the production of intracellular ROS to damage bacterial cells. Therefore, FVC may be potentially exploited as a novel approach to the prevention and treatment of oral C. albicans infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanxin Zhang
- Department of Food Nutrition and Safety/National R&D Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine Processing, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Shuting Huang
- Department of Food Nutrition and Safety/National R&D Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine Processing, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China.
| | - Yuheng Guo
- Department of Food Nutrition and Safety/National R&D Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine Processing, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Xiaoyun Xie
- Department of Food Nutrition and Safety/National R&D Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine Processing, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Guitang Chen
- Department of Food Nutrition and Safety/National R&D Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine Processing, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Chongjiang Cao
- Department of Food Nutrition and Safety/National R&D Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine Processing, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Dejun Hu
- Department of Food Nutrition and Safety/National R&D Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine Processing, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China.
| | - Shujie Cheng
- Department of Food Nutrition and Safety/National R&D Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine Processing, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China.
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4
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Zhou Y, Lv D, Wei W, Zhou T, Tang S, Yang F, Zhang J, Jiang L, Xia X, Jiang Y, Chen Q, Yue Y, Feng X. Type 17 immune response promotes oral epithelial cell proliferation in periodontitis. Arch Oral Biol 2024; 164:106005. [PMID: 38781743 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2024.106005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aims to investigate the effects of type 17 immune response on the proliferation of oral epithelial cells in periodontitis. DESIGN A time-dependent ligature induced periodontitis mouse model was utilized to explore gingival hyperplasia and the infiltration of interleukin 17A (IL-17A) positive cells. Immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry were employed to determine the localization and expression of IL-17A in the ligature induced periodontitis model. A pre-existing single-cell RNA sequencing dataset, comparing individuals affected by periodontitis with healthy counterparts, was reanalyzed to evaluate IL-17A expression levels. We examined proliferation markers, including proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT3), Yes-associated protein (YAP), and c-JUN, in the gingival and tongue epithelium of the periodontitis model. An anti-IL-17A agent was administered daily to observe proliferative changes in the oral mucosa within the periodontitis model. Cell number quantification, immunofluorescence, and western blot analyses were performed to assess the proliferative responses of human normal oral keratinocytes to IL-17A treatment in vitro. RESULTS The ligature induced periodontitis model exhibited a marked infiltration of IL-17A-positive cells, alongside significant increase in thickness of the gingival and tongue epithelium. IL-17A triggers the proliferation of human normal oral keratinocytes, accompanied by upregulation of PCNA, STAT3, YAP, and c-JUN. The administration of an anti-IL-17A agent attenuated the proliferation in oral mucosa. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that type 17 immune response, in response to periodontitis, facilitates the proliferation of oral epithelial cells, thus highlighting its crucial role in maintaining the oral epithelial barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Die Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Weideng Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Tong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Shijie Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Fan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Jiuge Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Lanxin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Yuchen Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Qianming Chen
- Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Affiliated Stomatology Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Stomatology, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310006, China
| | - Yuan Yue
- Department of Prosthodontics, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.
| | - Xiaodong Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, China.
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Aggor FEY, Bertolini M, Coleman BM, Taylor TC, Ponde NO, Gaffen SL. Combinatorial actions of IL-22 and IL-17 drive optimal immunity to oral candidiasis through SPRRs. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012302. [PMID: 38949991 PMCID: PMC11216582 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) is the most common human fungal infection, arising typically from T cell immune impairments. IL-17 and IL-22 contribute individually to OPC responses, but here we demonstrate that the combined actions of both cytokines are essential for resistance to OPC. Mice lacking IL-17RA and IL-22RA1 exhibited high fungal loads in esophagus- and intestinal tract, severe weight loss, and symptoms of colitis. Ultimately, mice succumbed to infection. Dual loss of IL-17RA and IL-22RA impaired expression of small proline rich proteins (SPRRs), a class of antimicrobial effectors not previously linked to fungal immunity. Sprr2a1 exhibited direct candidacidal activity in vitro, and Sprr1-3a-/- mice were susceptible to OPC. Thus, cooperative actions of Type 17 cytokines mediate oral mucosal anti-Candida defenses and reveal a role for SPRRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix E. Y. Aggor
- University of Pittsburgh, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Martinna Bertolini
- University of Pittsburgh, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- University of Pittsburgh, Department of Periodontics and Preventive Dentistry, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Bianca M. Coleman
- University of Pittsburgh, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Tiffany C. Taylor
- University of Pittsburgh, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Nicole O. Ponde
- University of Pittsburgh, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Sarah L. Gaffen
- University of Pittsburgh, Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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6
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Hu ST, Zhou G, Zhang J. Implications of innate lymphoid cells in oral diseases. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 133:112122. [PMID: 38663313 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), as newly discovered antigen-independent innate immune cells, respond promptly to stimuli by secreting effector cytokines to exert effector functions similar to those of T cells. ILCs predominantly reside at mucosal sites and play critical roles in defending against infections, maintaining mucosal homeostasis, regulating inflammatory and immune responses, and participating in tumorigenesis. Recently, there has been a growing interest in the role of ILCs in oral diseases. This review outlines the classifications and the major characteristics of ILCs, and then comprehensively expatiates the research on ILCs in oral cancer, primary Sjogren's syndrome, periodontal diseases, oral lichen planus, oral candidiasis, Behcet's disease, and pemphigus vulgaris, aiming at summarising the implications of ILCs in oral diseases and providing new ideas for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Ting Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral & Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Regeneration, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, China
| | - Gang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Oral & Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Regeneration, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, China; Department of Oral Medicine, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral & Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Regeneration, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, China; Department of Oral Medicine, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, China.
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Bittner-Eddy PD, Fischer LA, Parachuru PV, Costalonga M. MHC-II presentation by oral Langerhans cells impacts intraepithelial Tc17 abundance and Candida albicans oral infection via CD4 T cells. FRONTIERS IN ORAL HEALTH 2024; 5:1408255. [PMID: 38872986 PMCID: PMC11169704 DOI: 10.3389/froh.2024.1408255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
In a murine model (LCΔMHC-II) designed to abolish MHC-II expression in Langerhans cells (LCs), ∼18% of oral LCs retain MHC-II, yet oral mucosal CD4 T cells numbers are unaffected. In LCΔMHC-II mice, we now show that oral intraepithelial conventional CD8αβ T cell numbers expand 30-fold. Antibody-mediated ablation of CD4 T cells in wild-type mice also resulted in CD8αβ T cell expansion in the oral mucosa. Therefore, we hypothesize that MHC class II molecules uniquely expressed on Langerhans cells mediate the suppression of intraepithelial resident-memory CD8 T cell numbers via a CD4 T cell-dependent mechanism. The expanded oral CD8 T cells co-expressed CD69 and CD103 and the majority produced IL-17A [CD8 T cytotoxic (Tc)17 cells] with a minority expressing IFN-γ (Tc1 cells). These oral CD8 T cells showed broad T cell receptor Vβ gene usage indicating responsiveness to diverse oral antigens. Generally supporting Tc17 cells, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) increased 4-fold in the oral mucosa. Surprisingly, blocking TGF-β1 signaling with the TGF-R1 kinase inhibitor, LY364947, did not reduce Tc17 or Tc1 numbers. Nonetheless, LY364947 increased γδ T cell numbers and decreased CD49a expression on Tc1 cells. Although IL-17A-expressing γδ T cells were reduced by 30%, LCΔMHC-II mice displayed greater resistance to Candida albicans in early stages of oral infection. These findings suggest that modulating MHC-II expression in oral LC may be an effective strategy against fungal infections at mucosal surfaces counteracted by IL-17A-dependent mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter D. Bittner-Eddy
- Division of Basic Sciences, Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Lori A. Fischer
- Division of Basic Sciences, Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Praveen Venkata Parachuru
- Division of Periodontology, Department of Developmental and Surgical Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Massimo Costalonga
- Division of Basic Sciences, Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
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8
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Wei XY, Tan YQ, Zhou G. γδ T cells in oral diseases. Inflamm Res 2024; 73:867-876. [PMID: 38563967 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-024-01870-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE γδ T cells are a distinct subset of unconventional T cells, which link innate and adaptive immunity by secreting cytokines and interacting with other immune cells, thereby modulating immune responses. As the first line of host defense, γδ T cells are essential for mucosal homeostasis and immune surveillance. When abnormally activated or impaired, γδ T cells can contribute to pathogenic processes. Accumulating evidence has revealed substantial impacts of γδ T cells on the pathogenesis of cancers, infections, and immune-inflammatory diseases. γδ T cells exhibit dual roles in cancers, promoting or inhibiting tumor growth, depending on their phenotypes and the clinical stage of cancers. During infections, γδ T cells exert high cytotoxic activity in infectious diseases, which is essential for combating bacterial and viral infections by recognizing foreign antigens and activating other immune cells. γδ T cells are also implicated in the onset and progression of immune-inflammatory diseases. However, the specific involvement and underlying mechanisms of γδ T cells in oral diseases have not been systematically discussed. METHODS We conducted a systematic literature review using the PubMed/MEDLINE databases to identify and analyze relevant literature on the roles of γδ T cells in oral diseases. RESULTS The literature review revealed that γδ T cells play a pivotal role in maintaining oral mucosal homeostasis and are involved in the pathogenesis of oral cancers, periodontal diseases, graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), oral lichen planus (OLP), and oral candidiasis. γδ T cells mainly influence various pathophysiological processes, such as anti-tumor activity, eradication of infection, and immune response regulation. CONCLUSION This review focuses on the involvement of γδ T cells in oral diseases, with a particular emphasis on the main functions and underlying mechanisms by which γδ T cells influence the pathogenesis and progression of these conditions. This review underscores the potential of γδ T cells as therapeutic targets in managing oral health issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Yi Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Oral & Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Regeneration, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ya-Qin Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Oral & Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Regeneration, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
- Department of Oral Medicine, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Gang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Oral & Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Regeneration, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
- Department of Oral Medicine, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
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9
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Jørgensen MR. Pathophysiological microenvironments in oral candidiasis. APMIS 2024. [PMID: 38571459 DOI: 10.1111/apm.13412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Oral candidiasis (OC), a prevalent opportunistic infection of the oral mucosa, presents a considerable health challenge, particularly in individuals with compromised immune responses, advanced age, and local predisposing conditions. A considerable part of the population carries Candida in the oral cavity, but only few develop OC. Therefore, the pathogenesis of OC may depend on factors other than the attributes of the fungus, such as host factors and other predisposing factors. Mucosal trauma and inflammation compromise epithelial integrity, fostering a conducive environment for fungal invasion. Molecular insights into the immunocompromised state reveal dysregulation in innate and adaptive immunity, creating a permissive environment for Candida proliferation. Detailed examination of Candida species (spp.) and their virulence factors uncovers a nuanced understanding beyond traditional C. albicans focus, which embrace diverse Candida spp. and their strategies, influencing adhesion, invasion, immune evasion, and biofilm formation. Understanding the pathophysiological microenvironments in OC is crucial for the development of targeted therapeutic interventions. This review aims to unravel the diverse pathophysiological microenvironments influencing OC development focusing on microbial, host, and predisposing factors, and considers Candida resistance to antifungal therapy. The comprehensive approach offers a refined perspective on OC, seeking briefly to identify potential therapeutic targets for future effective management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mette Rose Jørgensen
- Section of Oral Pathology and Oral Medicine, Department of Odontology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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10
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Launder D, Dillon JT, Wuescher LM, Glanz T, Abdul-Aziz N, Yi EMC, Naglik JR, Worth RG, Conti HR. Immunity to pathogenic mucosal C. albicans infections mediated by oral megakaryocytes activated by IL-17 and candidalysin. Mucosal Immunol 2024; 17:182-200. [PMID: 38246240 PMCID: PMC11034721 DOI: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2024.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
The fungus Candida albicans can cause mucosal infections including oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) in immunocompromised patients. In humans, an increased risk of fungal infections correlates with thrombocytopenia. However, our understanding of platelets and megakaryocytes (Mks) in mucosal fungal infections is almost entirely unknown. When megakaryocyte- and platelet-depleted mice were infected with OPC, the tongue showed higher fungal burden, due to decreased neutrophil accumulation. Protection depended on a distinct population of oral-resident Mks. Interleukin-17, important in antifungal immunity, was required since mice lacking the IL-17 receptor had decreased circulating platelets and their oral Mks did not expand during OPC. The secretion of the peptide toxin candidalysin activated human Mks to release platelets with antifungal capacity. Infection with a candidalysin-deficient strain resulted in decreased expansion of tongue Mks during OPC. This is the first time that a distinct megakaryocyte population was identified in the oral mucosa which is critical for immunity against fungal infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Launder
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States
| | - John T Dillon
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States
| | - Leah M Wuescher
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, Ohio, United States
| | - Trevor Glanz
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States
| | - Nora Abdul-Aziz
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States
| | - Elise Mein-Chiain Yi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States
| | - Julian R Naglik
- Center for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Randall G Worth
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, Ohio, United States
| | - Heather R Conti
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States.
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Kadirvelu L, Sivaramalingam SS, Jothivel D, Chithiraiselvan DD, Karaiyagowder Govindarajan D, Kandaswamy K. A review on antimicrobial strategies in mitigating biofilm-associated infections on medical implants. CURRENT RESEARCH IN MICROBIAL SCIENCES 2024; 6:100231. [PMID: 38510214 PMCID: PMC10951465 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2024.100231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Biomedical implants are crucial in providing support and functionality to patients with missing or defective body parts. However, implants carry an inherent risk of bacterial infections that are biofilm-associated and lead to significant complications. These infections often result in implant failure, requiring replacement by surgical restoration. Given these complications, it is crucial to study the biofilm formation mechanism on various biomedical implants that will help prevent implant failures. Therefore, this comprehensive review explores various types of implants (e.g., dental implant, orthopedic implant, tracheal stent, breast implant, central venous catheter, cochlear implant, urinary catheter, intraocular lens, and heart valve) and medical devices (hemodialyzer and pacemaker) in use. In addition, the mechanism of biofilm formation on those implants, and their pathogenesis were discussed. Furthermore, this article critically reviews various approaches in combating implant-associated infections, with a special emphasis on novel non-antibiotic alternatives to mitigate biofilm infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lohita Kadirvelu
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sowmiya Sri Sivaramalingam
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Deepsikha Jothivel
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Dhivia Dharshika Chithiraiselvan
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Kumaravel Kandaswamy
- Research Center for Excellence in Microscopy, Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641049, Tamil Nadu, India
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12
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Koh CH, Kim BS, Kang CY, Chung Y, Seo H. IL-17 and IL-21: Their Immunobiology and Therapeutic Potentials. Immune Netw 2024; 24:e2. [PMID: 38455465 PMCID: PMC10917578 DOI: 10.4110/in.2024.24.e2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Studies over the last 2 decades have identified IL-17 and IL-21 as key cytokines in the modulation of a wide range of immune responses. IL-17 serves as a critical defender against bacterial and fungal pathogens, while maintaining symbiotic relationships with commensal microbiota. However, alterations in its levels can lead to chronic inflammation and autoimmunity. IL-21, on the other hand, bridges the adaptive and innate immune responses, and its imbalance is implicated in autoimmune diseases and cancer, highlighting its important role in both health and disease. Delving into the intricacies of these cytokines not only opens new avenues for understanding the immune system, but also promises innovative advances in the development of therapeutic strategies for numerous diseases. In this review, we will discuss an updated view of the immunobiology and therapeutic potential of IL-17 and IL-21.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choong-Hyun Koh
- Laboratory of Immune Regulation, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
| | - Byung-Seok Kim
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea
| | - Chang-Yuil Kang
- Research & Development Center, Cellid Co., Ltd., Seoul 08826, Korea
| | - Yeonseok Chung
- Laboratory of Immune Regulation, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
| | - Hyungseok Seo
- Laboratory of Cell & Gene Therapy, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
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13
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Bowen J, Cross C. The Role of the Innate Immune Response in Oral Mucositis Pathogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16314. [PMID: 38003503 PMCID: PMC10670995 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral mucositis (OM) is a significant complication of cancer therapy with limited management strategies. Whilst inflammation is a central feature of destructive and ultimately ulcerative pathology, to date, attempts to mitigate damage via this mechanism have proven limited. A relatively underexamined aspect of OM development is the contribution of elements of the innate immune system. In particular, the role played by barriers, pattern recognition systems, and microbial composition in early damage signaling requires further investigation. As such, this review highlights the innate immune response as a potential focus for research to better understand OM pathogenesis and development of interventions for patients treated with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Future areas of evaluation include manipulation of microbial-mucosal interactions to alter cytotoxic sensitivity, use of germ-free models, and translation of innate immune-targeted agents interrogated for mucosal injury in other regions of the alimentary canal into OM-based clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Bowen
- School of Biomedicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia;
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14
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Taylor TC, Coleman BM, Arunkumar SP, Dey I, Dillon JT, Ponde NO, Poholek AC, Schwartz DM, McGeachy MJ, Conti HR, Gaffen SL. IκBζ is an essential mediator of immunity to oropharyngeal candidiasis. Cell Host Microbe 2023; 31:1700-1713.e4. [PMID: 37725983 PMCID: PMC10591851 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2023.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
Fungal infections are a global threat; yet, there are no licensed vaccines to any fungal pathogens. Th17 cells mediate immunity to Candida albicans, particularly oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC), but essential downstream mechanisms remain unclear. In the murine model of OPC, IκBζ (Nfkbiz, a non-canonical NF-κB transcription factor) was upregulated in an interleukin (IL)-17-dependent manner and was essential to prevent candidiasis. Deletion of Nfkbiz rendered mice highly susceptible to OPC. IκBζ was dispensable in hematopoietic cells and acted partially in the suprabasal oral epithelium to control OPC. One prominent IκBζ-dependent gene target was β-defensin 3 (BD3) (Defb3), an essential antimicrobial peptide. Human oral epithelial cells required IκBζ for IL-17-mediated induction of BD2 (DEFB4A, human ortholog of mouse Defb3) through binding to the DEFB4A promoter. Unexpectedly, IκBζ regulated the transcription factor Egr3, which was essential for C. albicans induction of BD2/DEFB4A. Accordingly, IκBζ and Egr3 comprise an antifungal signaling hub mediating mucosal defense against oral candidiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany C Taylor
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Bianca M Coleman
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Samyuktha P Arunkumar
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Ipsita Dey
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - John T Dillon
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Nicole O Ponde
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Amanda C Poholek
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh, Children's Hospital of UPMC, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
| | - Daniella M Schwartz
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Mandy J McGeachy
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Heather R Conti
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Sarah L Gaffen
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
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15
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Edgerton M, Rojas I, Kumar R, Li R, Salvatori O, Abrams S, Irimia D. Neutrophil swarms containing myeloid-derived suppressor cells are crucial for limiting oral mucosal infection by C. albicans. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3346012. [PMID: 37886517 PMCID: PMC10602121 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3346012/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Oral mucosal colonization by C. albicans (Ca) is benign in healthy people but progresses to deeper infection known as oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) that may become disseminated when combined with immunosuppression. Cortisone-induced immunosuppression is a well-known risk factor for OPC, however the mechanism by which it permits infection is poorly understood. Neutrophils are the primary early sentinels preventing invasive fungal growth, and here we identify that in vivo neutrophil functional complexes known as swarms are crucial for preventing Ca invasion which are disrupted by cortisone. Neutrophil swarm function required leukotriene B4 receptor 1 (BLT1) expression, and swarms were further characterized by peripheral association of polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells (PMN-MDSCs) showing that OPC recruits PMN-MDSCs to this site of infection. Furthermore, PMN-MDSCs associated with Ca hyphae had no direct antifungal effect but showed prolonged survival times and increased autophagy. Thus in vivo neutrophil swarms are complex structures with spatially associated PMN-MDSCs that likely contribute immunoregulatory functions to resolve OPC. These swarm structures have an important function in preventing deep invasion by Ca within the oral mucosa and represent a mechanism for increased disease severity under immune deficient clinical settings.
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16
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Liu H, Shetty AC, Ibrahim AS, Filler SG, Bruno VM. Novel Host Pathways Govern Epithelial Cell Invasion of Aspergillus fumigatus. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0008423. [PMID: 37255456 PMCID: PMC10434228 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00084-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Invasive aspergillosis is initiated when Aspergillus fumigatus adheres to and invades the pulmonary epithelial cells that line the airways and alveoli. To gain deeper insight into how pulmonary epithelial cells respond to A. fumigatus invasion, we used transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) to determine the transcriptional response of the A549 type II alveolar epithelial cell line to infection with strains CEA10 and Af293, two clinical isolates of A. fumigatus. Upstream regulator analysis of the data indicated that while both strains activated virtually identical host cell signaling pathways after 16 h of infection, only strain CEA10 activated these pathways after 6 h of infection. Many of the pathways that were predicted to be activated by A. fumigatus, including the tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin-1α (IL-1α), IL-1β, IL-17A, Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), and TLR4 pathways, are known to be critical for the host defense against this fungus. We also found that the platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF BB) and progesterone receptor (PGR) pathways were activated by A. fumigatus. Using pharmacologic inhibitors, we determined that blocking the PDGF receptor or PGR inhibited the endocytosis of both strains of A. fumigatus in an additive manner. Both the PDGF BB and PGR pathways are also predicted to be activated by infection of A549 cells with other molds, such as Rhizopus delemar and Rhizopus oryzae. Thus, these pathways may represent a common response of pulmonary epithelial cells to mold infection. IMPORTANCE Invasive aspergillosis is a deadly invasive fungal infection that initiates when Aspergillus fumigatus spores are inhaled and come into contact with the epithelial cells that line the airways and alveoli. Understanding this fungus-host interaction is important for the development of novel therapeutics. To gain a deeper understanding of how these airway epithelial cells respond to A. fumigatus during infection, we used RNA-seq to determine the transcriptional response of alveolar epithelial cells to infection with two different clinical isolates of A. fumigatus. Our analysis identified new host response pathways that have not previously been tied to infection with A. fumigatus. Pharmacological inhibition of two of these pathways inhibited the ability of A. fumigatus to invade airway epithelial cells. These two pathways are also predicted to be activated by infection with other filamentous fungi. Thus, these pathways may represent a common response of alveolar epithelial cells to mold infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Liu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Amol C. Shetty
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Ashraf S. Ibrahim
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Scott G. Filler
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Vincent M. Bruno
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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17
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Lin WY, Iliev ID. Gut epithelium modulates fungal pathogenesis. Science 2023; 381:483-484. [PMID: 37535732 PMCID: PMC10790205 DOI: 10.1126/science.adj1240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Specialized epithelium secretes an antifungal peptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woan-Yu Lin
- Joan and Sanford I. Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
- The Jill Roberts Institute for Research in Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Iliyan D Iliev
- Joan and Sanford I. Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
- The Jill Roberts Institute for Research in Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
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18
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Yang L, Cheng T, Shao J. Perspective on receptor-associated immune response to Candida albicans single and mixed infections: Implications for therapeutics in oropharyngeal candidiasis. Med Mycol 2023; 61:myad077. [PMID: 37533203 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myad077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC), commonly known as 'thrush', is an oral infection that usually dismantles oral mucosal integrity and malfunctions local innate and adaptive immunities in compromised individuals. The major pathogen responsible for the occurrence and progression of OPC is the dimorphic opportunistic commensal Candida albicans. However, the incidence induced by non-albicans Candida species including C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. dubliniensis, C. parapsilosis, and C. krusei are increasing in company with several oral bacteria, such as Streptococcus mutans, S. gordonii, S. epidermidis, and S. aureus. In this review, the microbiological and infection features of C. albicans and its co-contributors in the pathogenesis of OPC are outlined. Since the invasion and concomitant immune response lie firstly on the recognition of oral pathogens through diverse cellular surface receptors, we subsequently emphasize the roles of epidermal growth factor receptor, ephrin-type receptor 2, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, and aryl hydrocarbon receptor located on oral epithelial cells to delineate the underlying mechanism by which host immune recognition to oral pathogens is mediated. Based on these observations, the therapeutic approaches to OPC comprising conventional and non-conventional antifungal agents, fungal vaccines, cytokine and antibody therapies, and antimicrobial peptide therapy are finally overviewed. In the face of newly emerging life-threatening microbes (C. auris and SARS-CoV-2), risks (biofilm formation and interconnected translocation among diverse organs), and complicated clinical settings (HIV and oropharyngeal cancer), the research on OPC is still a challenging task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu Yang
- Laboratory of Anti-infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Zhijing Building, 350 Longzihu Road, Xinzhan District, Hefei 230012, P. R. China
| | - Ting Cheng
- Laboratory of Anti-infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Zhijing Building, 350 Longzihu Road, Xinzhan District, Hefei 230012, P. R. China
| | - Jing Shao
- Laboratory of Anti-infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Zhijing Building, 350 Longzihu Road, Xinzhan District, Hefei 230012, P. R. China
- Institute of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Zhijing Building, 350 Longzihu Road, Xinzhan District, Hefei 230012, P. R. China
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19
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ElFeky DS, Awad AR, Shamseldeen AM, Mowafy HL, Hosny SA. Comparing the therapeutic potentials of Lactobacillus johnsonii vs. Lactobacillus acidophilus against vulvovaginal candidiasis in female rats: an in vivo study. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1222503. [PMID: 37529322 PMCID: PMC10388188 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1222503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a highly prevalent illness affecting women globally. Lactobacilli, which make up the majority of healthy vaginal microbiota (VMB), serve as a powerful barrier against infections. Probiotic therapy has been recommended for the treatment or prevention of VVC. Aim of work To compare the in vivo therapeutic effects of Lactobacillus johnsonii (B-2178) vs. Lactobacillus acidophilus (LA-5®) on VVC in a rat model, particularly highlighting the immune response of the host vaginal epithelium. Methods In total, 30 female Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 5 groups; Group 1: no intervention, Group 2: ovariectomy group, while animals in Groups 3-5 were subjected to ovariectomy and an intravaginal inoculation of Candida albicans (C. albicans) to establish VVC. The animals in Groups 4 and 5 received intravaginal lactobacilli treatment with L. acidophilus (LA-5®) and L. johnsonii (B-2178) strains, respectively, for 7 days. C. albicans load was measured in a vaginal lavage 1, 3, and 7 days after the stoppage of the treatment. Histological, morphometric, and immunohistochemical studies of the vaginal tissues were done. IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-17 were measured in the vaginal tissue. Results Both L. johnsonii and L. acidophilus significantly reduced C. albicans vaginal load (250 ± 77.46 and 133.33 ± 40.82 CFU/mL) compared to the count before treatment in both groups (4,850 ± 1419.51 and 4966.67 ± 852.45 CFU/mL) even after 7 days of stoppage of lactobacilli treatment. A statistically significant reduction of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-17 and IFN-γ was reported in both treated groups compared to the infected untreated group. L. johnsonii has a significant effect on the reduction of hyphae formation of C. albicans as well as the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) immunostaining density of vaginal tissue compared to L. acidophilus. Moreover, treatment with L. johnsonii significantly minimized the epithelium damage triggered by C. albicans infection and restored normal vaginal architecture as evidenced by the histologic and morphometric studies when compared to L. acidophilus. Conclusion Through maintaining an immune tolerant state in the vaginal epithelium and ameliorating the undesirable uncontrolled inflammatory response in the vaginal tissue, L. johnsonii (B-2178) has the potential to be utilized alone or in combination with other lactobacilli species in probiotic clinical trials to treat or prevent VVC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalia Saad ElFeky
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Alaa Reda Awad
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Asmaa Mohammed Shamseldeen
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, October 6 University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Hagar Lotfy Mowafy
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Sara Adel Hosny
- Histology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
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20
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Ponde NO, Shoger KE, Khatun S, Sarkar MK, Dey I, Taylor TC, Cisney RN, Arunkumar SP, Gudjonsson JE, Kolls JK, Gottschalk RA, Gaffen SL. SARS-CoV-2 ORF8 Mediates Signals in Macrophages and Monocytes through MyD88 Independently of the IL-17 Receptor. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 211:252-260. [PMID: 37265402 PMCID: PMC10330444 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2300110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 has caused an estimated 7 million deaths worldwide to date. A secreted SARS-CoV-2 accessory protein, known as open reading frame 8 (ORF8), elicits inflammatory pulmonary cytokine responses and is associated with disease severity in COVID-19 patients. Recent reports proposed that ORF8 mediates downstream signals in macrophages and monocytes through the IL-17 receptor complex (IL-17RA, IL-17RC). However, generally IL-17 signals are found to be restricted to the nonhematopoietic compartment, thought to be due to rate-limiting expression of IL-17RC. Accordingly, we revisited the capacity of IL-17 and ORF8 to induce cytokine gene expression in mouse and human macrophages and monocytes. In SARS-CoV-2-infected human and mouse lungs, IL17RC mRNA was undetectable in monocyte/macrophage populations. In cultured mouse and human monocytes and macrophages, ORF8 but not IL-17 led to elevated expression of target cytokines. ORF8-induced signaling was fully preserved in the presence of anti-IL-17RA/RC neutralizing Abs and in Il17ra-/- cells. ORF8 signaling was also operative in Il1r1-/- bone marrow-derived macrophages. However, the TLR/IL-1R family adaptor MyD88, which is dispensable for IL-17R signaling, was required for ORF8 activity yet MyD88 is not required for IL-17 signaling. Thus, we conclude that ORF8 transduces inflammatory signaling in monocytes and macrophages via MyD88 independently of the IL-17R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole O. Ponde
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, PA
| | | | | | | | - Ipsita Dey
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Tiffany C. Taylor
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Rylee N. Cisney
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Samyuktha P. Arunkumar
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, PA
| | | | | | | | - Sarah L. Gaffen
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, PA
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21
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Lamont RJ, Miller DP, Bagaitkar J. Illuminating the oral microbiome: cellular microbiology. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2023; 47:fuad045. [PMID: 37533213 PMCID: PMC10657920 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuad045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cells line mucosal surfaces such as in the gingival crevice and provide a barrier to the ingress of colonizing microorganisms. However, epithelial cells are more than a passive barrier to microbial intrusion, and rather constitute an interactive interface with colonizing organisms which senses the composition of the microbiome and communicates this information to the underlying cells of the innate immune system. Microorganisms, for their part, have devised means to manipulate host cell signal transduction pathways to favor their colonization and survival. Study of this field, which has become known as cellular microbiology, has revealed much about epithelial cell physiology, bacterial colonization and pathogenic strategies, and innate host responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Lamont
- Department of Oral Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, KY40202, United States
| | - Daniel P Miller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, VA23298, United States
| | - Juhi Bagaitkar
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, OH43205, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, OH43210, United States
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22
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Douglas A, Stevens B, Lynch L. Interleukin-17 as a key player in neuroimmunometabolism. Nat Metab 2023; 5:1088-1100. [PMID: 37488456 PMCID: PMC10440016 DOI: 10.1038/s42255-023-00846-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
In mammals, interleukin (IL)-17 cytokines are produced by innate and adaptive lymphocytes. However, the IL-17 family has widespread expression throughout evolution, dating as far back as cnidaria, molluscs and worms, which predate lymphocytes. The evolutionary conservation of IL-17 suggests that it is involved in innate defence strategies, but also that this cytokine family has a fundamental role beyond typical host defence. Throughout evolution, IL-17 seems to have a major function in homeostatic maintenance at barrier sites. Most recently, a pivotal role has been identified for IL-17 in regulating cellular metabolism, neuroimmunology and tissue physiology, particularly in adipose tissue. Here we review the emerging role of IL-17 signalling in regulating metabolic processes, which may shine a light on the evolutionary role of IL-17 beyond typical immune responses. We propose that IL-17 helps to coordinate the cross-talk among the nervous, endocrine and immune systems for whole-body energy homeostasis as a key player in neuroimmunometabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Douglas
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, TBSI, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Brenneth Stevens
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, TBSI, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lydia Lynch
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, TBSI, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
- Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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23
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Pechacek J, Lionakis MS. Host defense mechanisms against Candida auris. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2023; 21:1087-1096. [PMID: 37753840 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2023.2264500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Candida auris is a pathogen of growing public health concern given its rapid spread across the globe, its propensity for long-term skin colonization and healthcare-related outbreaks, its resistance to a variety of antifungal medications, and the high morbidity and mortality associated with invasive disease. Despite that, the host immune response mechanisms that operate during C. auris skin colonization and invasive infection remains poorly understood. AREAS COVERED In this manuscript, we review the available literature in the growing research field pertaining to C. auris host defenses and we discuss what is known about the ability of C. auris to thrive on mammalian skin, the role of lymphoid cell-mediated, IL-17-dependent defenses in controlling cutaneous colonization, and the contribution of myeloid phagocytes in curtailing systemic infection. EXPERT OPINION Understanding the mechanisms by which the host immune system responds to and controls colonization and infection with C. auris and developing a deeper knowledge of tissue-specific host-C. auris interactions and of C. auris immune-evading mechanisms may help devise improved strategies for decolonization, prognostication, prevention, vaccination, and/or directed antifungal treatment in vulnerable patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Pechacek
- From the Fungal Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Michail S Lionakis
- From the Fungal Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Lionakis MS, Drummond RA, Hohl TM. Immune responses to human fungal pathogens and therapeutic prospects. Nat Rev Immunol 2023; 23:433-452. [PMID: 36600071 PMCID: PMC9812358 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-022-00826-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic fungi have emerged as significant causes of infectious morbidity and death in patients with acquired immunodeficiency conditions such as HIV/AIDS and following receipt of chemotherapy, immunosuppressive agents or targeted biologics for neoplastic or autoimmune diseases, or transplants for end organ failure. Furthermore, in recent years, the spread of multidrug-resistant Candida auris has caused life-threatening outbreaks in health-care facilities worldwide and raised serious concerns for global public health. Rapid progress in the discovery and functional characterization of inborn errors of immunity that predispose to fungal disease and the development of clinically relevant animal models have enhanced our understanding of fungal recognition and effector pathways and adaptive immune responses. In this Review, we synthesize our current understanding of the cellular and molecular determinants of mammalian antifungal immunity, focusing on observations that show promise for informing risk stratification, prognosis, prophylaxis and therapies to combat life-threatening fungal infections in vulnerable patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michail S Lionakis
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Rebecca A Drummond
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Tobias M Hohl
- Infectious Disease Service, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
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Tangye SG, Puel A. The Th17/IL-17 Axis and Host Defense Against Fungal Infections. THE JOURNAL OF ALLERGY AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY. IN PRACTICE 2023; 11:1624-1634. [PMID: 37116791 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaip.2023.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMC) was recognized as a primary immunodeficiency in the early 1970s. However, for almost 40 years, its genetic etiology remained unknown. The progressive molecular and cellular description of inborn errors of immunity (IEI) with syndromic CMC pointed toward a possible role of IL-17-mediated immunity in protecting against fungal infection and CMC. Since 2011, novel IEI affecting either the response to or production of IL-17A and/or IL-17F (IL-17A/F) in patients with isolated or syndromic CMC provided formal proof of the pivotal role of the IL-17 axis in mucocutaneous immunity to Candida spp, and, to a lesser extent, to Staphylococcus aureus in humans. In contrast, IL-17-mediated immunity seems largely redundant against other common microbes in humans. In this review, we outline the current knowledge of IEI associated with impaired IL-17A/F-mediated immunity, highlighting our current understanding of the role of IL-17A/F in human immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Tangye
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia; School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Faculty of Medicine & Health, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia.
| | - Anne Puel
- Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, INSERM U1163, Necker Hospital for Sick Children, Paris, France; Imagine Institute, University of Paris, Paris, France; St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Rockefeller Branch, the Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
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Guo Y, Liu Y, Rui B, Lei Z, Ning X, Liu Y, Li M. Crosstalk between the gut microbiota and innate lymphoid cells in intestinal mucosal immunity. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1171680. [PMID: 37304260 PMCID: PMC10249960 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1171680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The human gastrointestinal mucosa is colonized by thousands of microorganisms, which participate in a variety of physiological functions. Intestinal dysbiosis is closely associated with the pathogenesis of several human diseases. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), which include NK cells, ILC1s, ILC2s, ILC3s and LTi cells, are a type of innate immune cells. They are enriched in the mucosal tissues of the body, and have recently received extensive attention. The gut microbiota and its metabolites play important roles in various intestinal mucosal diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), allergic disease, and cancer. Therefore, studies on ILCs and their interaction with the gut microbiota have great clinical significance owing to their potential for identifying pharmacotherapy targets for multiple related diseases. This review expounds on the progress in research on ILCs differentiation and development, the biological functions of the intestinal microbiota, and its interaction with ILCs in disease conditions in order to provide novel ideas for disease treatment in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Ming Li
- *Correspondence: Yinhui Liu, ; Ming Li,
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El-Newary SA, Abd Elkarim AS, Abdelwahed NAM, Omer EA, Elgamal AM, ELsayed WM. Chenopodium murale Juice Shows Anti-Fungal Efficacy in Experimental Oral Candidiasis in Immunosuppressed Rats in Relation to Its Chemical Profile. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28114304. [PMID: 37298777 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28114304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Chenopodium murale (Syn. Chenopodiastrum murale) (amaranthaceae) is used in the rural Egypt to treat oral ulcers in newborn children. The current study aimed to discover new natural products suitable for treating candidiasis disease with minimal side effects. Characterization of bioactive compounds by LC-QTOF-HR-MS/MS from Chenopodium murale fresh leaves' juice (CMJ) was carried out in order to elucidate their potential anti-fungal and immunomodulatory effects in oral candidiasis in immunosuppressed rats. An oral ulcer candidiasis model was created in three stages: (i) immunosuppression by drinking dexamethasone (0.5 mg/L) for two weeks; (ii) Candida albicans infection (3.00 × 106 viable cell/mL) for one week; and (iii) treatment with CMJ (0.5 and 1.0 g/kg orally) or nystatin (1,000,000 U/L orally) for one week. Two doses of CMJ exhibited antifungal effects, for example, through a significant reduction in CFU/Petri (236.67 ± 37.86 and 4.33 ± 0.58 CFU/Petri), compared to the Candida control (5.86 × 104 ± 1.21 CFU/Petri), p ≤ 0.001. In addition, CMJ significantly induced neutrophil production (32.92% ± 1.29 and 35.68% ± 1.77) compared to the Candida control level of 26.50% ± 2.44. An immunomodulatory effect of CMJ at two doses appeared, with a considerable elevation in INF-γ (103.88 and 115.91%), IL-2 (143.50, 182.33%), and IL-17 (83.97 and 141.95% Pg/mL) compared with the Candida group. LC-MS/MS analysis operated in negative mode was used for tentative identification of secondary (SM) metabolites based on their retention times and fragment ions. A total of 42 phytoconstituents were tentatively identified. Finally, CMJ exhibited a potent antifungal effect. CMJ fought Candida through four strategies: (i) promotion of classical phagocytosis of neutrophils; (ii) activation of T cells that activate IFN-γ, IL-2, and IL-17; (iii) increasing the production of cytotoxic NO and H2O2 that can kill Candida; and (iv) activation of SOD, which converts superoxide to antimicrobial materials. These activities could be due to its active constituents, which are documented as anti-fungal, or due to its richness in flavonoids, especially the active compounds of kaempferol glycosides and aglycone, which have been documented as antifungal. After repetition on another type of small experimental animal, their offspring, and an experimental large animal, this study may lead to clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samah A El-Newary
- Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki-Giza-Egypt, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Asmaa S Abd Elkarim
- Chemistry of Tanning Materials and Leather Technology Department, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Nayera A M Abdelwahed
- Chemistry of Natural and Microbial Products Department, Pharmaceutical Industries Institute, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Elsayed A Omer
- Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki-Giza-Egypt, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Abdelbaset M Elgamal
- Department of Chemistry of Microbial and Natural Products, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Wael M ELsayed
- Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt
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Abstract
The respiratory tree maintains sterilizing immunity against human fungal pathogens. Humans inhale ubiquitous filamentous molds and geographically restricted dimorphic fungal pathogens that form small airborne conidia. In addition, pathogenic yeasts, exemplified by encapsulated Cryptococcus species, and Pneumocystis pose significant fungal threats to the lung. Classically, fungal pneumonia occurs in immune compromised individuals, specifically in patients with HIV/AIDS, in patients with hematologic malignancies, in organ transplant recipients, and in patients treated with corticosteroids and targeted biologics that impair fungal immune surveillance in the lung. The emergence of fungal co-infections during severe influenza and COVID-19 underscores the impairment of fungus-specific host defense pathways in the lung by respiratory viruses and by medical therapies to treat viral infections. Beyond life-threatening invasive syndromes, fungal antigen exposure can exacerbate allergenic disease in the lung. In this review, we discuss emerging principles of lung-specific antifungal immunity, integrate the contributions and cooperation of lung epithelial, innate immune, and adaptive immune cells to mucosal barrier immunity, and highlight the pathogenesis of fungal-associated allergenic disease. Improved understanding of fungus-specific immunity in the respiratory tree has paved the way to develop improved diagnostic, pre-emptive, therapeutic, and vaccine approaches for fungal diseases of the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena J Heung
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Research Division of Immunology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Women's Guild Lung Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Darin L Wiesner
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Keyi Wang
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Amariliz Rivera
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Tobias M Hohl
- Infectious Disease Service, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA; Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
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Russell CM, Rybak JA, Miao J, Peters BM, Barrera FN. Candidalysin: Connecting the pore forming mechanism of this virulence factor to its immunostimulatory properties. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:102829. [PMID: 36581211 PMCID: PMC9852700 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans is a deadly pathogen responsible for millions of mucosal and systemic infections per year. The pathobiology of C. albicans is largely dependent on the damaging and immunostimulatory properties of the peptide candidalysin (CL), a key virulence factor. When CL forms pores in the plasma membrane of epithelial cells, it activates a response network grounded in activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor. Prior reviews have characterized the resulting CL immune activation schemas but lacked insights into the molecular mechanism of CL membrane damage. We recently demonstrated that CL functions by undergoing a unique self-assembly process; CL forms polymers and loops in aqueous solution prior to inserting and forming pores in cell membranes. This mechanism, the first of its kind to be observed, informs new therapeutic avenues to treat Candida infections. Recently, variants of CL were identified in other Candida species, providing an opportunity to identify the residues that are key for CL to function. In this review, we connect the ability of CL to damage cell membranes to its immunostimulatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles M Russell
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jennifer A Rybak
- School of Genome Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jian Miao
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Graduate Health Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Brian M Peters
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Francisco N Barrera
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA.
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Ruchti F, LeibundGut-Landmann S. New insights into immunity to skin fungi shape our understanding of health and disease. Parasite Immunol 2023; 45:e12948. [PMID: 36047038 PMCID: PMC10078452 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Fungi represent an integral part of the skin microbiota. Their complex interaction network with the host shapes protective immunity during homeostasis. If host defences are breached, skin-resident fungi including Malassezia and Candida, and environmental fungi such as dermatophytes can cause cutaneous infections. In addition, fungi are associated with diverse non-infectious skin disorders. Despite their multiple roles in health and disease, fungi remain elusive and understudied, and the mechanisms underlying the emergence of pathological conditions linked to fungi are largely unclear. The identification of IL-17 as an important antifungal effector mechanism represents a milestone for understanding homeostatic antifungal immunity. At the same time, host-adverse, disease-promoting roles of IL-17 have been delineated, as in psoriasis. Fungal dysbiosis represents another feature of many pathological skin conditions with an unknown causal link of intra- and interkingdom interactions to disease pathogenesis. The emergence of new fungal pathogens such as Candida auris highlights the need for more research into fungal immunology to understand how antifungal responses shape health and diseases. Recent technological advances for genetically manipulating fungi to target immunomodulatory fungal determinants, multi-omics approaches for studying immune cells in the human skin, and novel experimental models open up a promising future for skin fungal immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiorella Ruchti
- Section of Immunology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Salomé LeibundGut-Landmann
- Section of Immunology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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31
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Lopes JP, Lionakis MS. Pathogenesis and virulence of Candida albicans. Virulence 2022; 13:89-121. [PMID: 34964702 PMCID: PMC9728475 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.2019950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans is a commensal yeast fungus of the human oral, gastrointestinal, and genital mucosal surfaces, and skin. Antibiotic-induced dysbiosis, iatrogenic immunosuppression, and/or medical interventions that impair the integrity of the mucocutaneous barrier and/or perturb protective host defense mechanisms enable C. albicans to become an opportunistic pathogen and cause debilitating mucocutaneous disease and/or life-threatening systemic infections. In this review, we synthesize our current knowledge of the tissue-specific determinants of C. albicans pathogenicity and host immune defense mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Pedro Lopes
- From the Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Michail S. Lionakis
- From the Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), Bethesda, MD, USA
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Beute JE, Kim AY, Park JJ, Yang A, Torres-Shafer K, Mullins DW, Sundstrom P. The IL-20RB receptor and the IL-20 signaling pathway in regulating host defense in oral mucosal candidiasis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:979701. [PMID: 36225230 PMCID: PMC9548646 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.979701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudomembranous candidiasis (thrush), erythematous candidiasis, and fungal esophagitis are infections of the barrier mucosa of the upper gastrointestinal tract. The majority of these infections are caused by Candida albicans, an opportunistic fungal pathogen that frequently exists as a harmless commensal on mucosal surfaces lining the gastrointestinal tract. Oral infections are initiated in the superficial stratified squamous epithelium, in which keratinocytes are the most abundant host cells and are the initial points of contact with C. albicans present in saliva. Intrinsic features of oral keratinocytes are likely to play important roles in host defense and tissue homeostasis in oral candidiasis. One understudied pathway that may be important for modulating oral candidiasis is the IL-20 cytokine signaling pathway that employs keratinocyte IL-20RB receptors as ligands for IL-19, IL-20, and IL-24. We report that production of human oral keratinocyte il24 mRNA and protein are stimulated during co-culture with C. albicans. To test the role of the IL-20 family signaling pathway in oral candidiasis, Il20rb-/- mice (lacking the IL-20RB receptor) were compared to wild-type mice in a murine model of oropharyngeal candidiasis. Fungal burdens and percent loss in body weight were determined. Despite comparable fungal burdens, the Il20rb-/- mice exhibited less weight loss over the course of their infection compared to the B6 mice, suggestive of reduced overall disease consequences in the mutant mice. Interference with IL-20 family cytokine signaling may be useful for augmenting the ability of the host to defend itself against pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alex Y. Kim
- Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
| | | | - Allen Yang
- Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
| | - Keshia Torres-Shafer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States
| | - David W. Mullins
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States
| | - Paula Sundstrom
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States
- *Correspondence: Paula Sundstrom,
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Millet N, Solis NV, Aguilar D, Lionakis MS, Wheeler RT, Jendzjowsky N, Swidergall M. IL-23 signaling prevents ferroptosis-driven renal immunopathology during candidiasis. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5545. [PMID: 36138043 PMCID: PMC9500047 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33327-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
During infection the host relies on pattern-recognition receptors to sense invading fungal pathogens to launch immune defense mechanisms. While fungal recognition and immune effector responses are organ and cell type specific, during disseminated candidiasis myeloid cells exacerbate collateral tissue damage. The β-glucan receptor ephrin type-A 2 receptor (EphA2) is required to initiate mucosal inflammatory responses during oral Candida infection. Here we report that EphA2 promotes renal immunopathology during disseminated candidiasis. EphA2 deficiency leads to reduced renal inflammation and injury. Comprehensive analyses reveal that EphA2 restrains IL-23 secretion from and migration of dendritic cells. IL-23 signaling prevents ferroptotic host cell death during infection to limit inflammation and immunopathology. Further, host cell ferroptosis limits antifungal effector functions via releasing the lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxynonenal to induce various forms of cell death. Thus, we identify ferroptotic cell death as a critical pathway of Candida-mediated renal immunopathology that opens a new avenue to tackle Candida infection and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Millet
- grid.239844.00000 0001 0157 6501Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA USA ,grid.513199.6The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA USA
| | - Norma V. Solis
- grid.239844.00000 0001 0157 6501Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA USA ,grid.513199.6The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA USA
| | - Diane Aguilar
- grid.513199.6The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA USA
| | - Michail S. Lionakis
- grid.419681.30000 0001 2164 9667Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Robert T. Wheeler
- grid.21106.340000000121820794Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME USA
| | - Nicholas Jendzjowsky
- grid.513199.6The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA USA ,grid.19006.3e0000 0000 9632 6718David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Marc Swidergall
- grid.239844.00000 0001 0157 6501Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA USA ,grid.513199.6The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA USA ,grid.19006.3e0000 0000 9632 6718David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA USA
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Aggor FE, Bertolini M, Zhou C, Taylor TC, Abbott DA, Musgrove J, Bruno VM, Hand TW, Gaffen SL. A gut-oral microbiome-driven axis controls oropharyngeal candidiasis through retinoic acid. JCI Insight 2022; 7:e160348. [PMID: 36134659 PMCID: PMC9675558 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.160348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
A side effect of antibiotics is outgrowth of the opportunistic fungus Candida albicans in the oropharynx (oropharyngeal candidiasis, OPC). IL-17 signaling is vital for immunity to OPC, but how the microbiome impacts antifungal immunity is not well understood. Mice in standard specific pathogen-free (SPF) conditions are resistant to OPC, whereas we show that germ-free (GF) or antibiotic-treated mice are susceptible. Oral type 17 cells and IL-17-dependent responses were impaired in antibiotic-treated and GF mice. Susceptibility could be rescued in GF mice by mono-colonization with segmented filamentous bacterium (SFB), an intestine-specific constituent of the microbiota. SFB protection was accompanied by restoration of oral IL-17+CD4+ T cells and gene signatures characteristic of IL-17 signaling. Additionally, RNA-Seq revealed induction of genes in the retinoic acid (RA) and RA receptor-α (RARα) pathway. Administration of RA rescued immunity to OPC in microbiome-depleted or GF mice, while RAR inhibition caused susceptibility in immunocompetent animals. Surprisingly, immunity to OPC was independent of serum amyloids. Moreover, RAR inhibition did not alter oral type 17 cytokine levels. Thus, mono-colonization with a component of the intestinal microflora confers protection against OPC by type 17 and RA/RARα, which act in parallel to promote antifungal immunity. In principle, manipulation of the microbiome could be harnessed to maintain antifungal immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix E.Y. Aggor
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Martinna Bertolini
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, and
- Department of Periodontics and Preventive Dentistry, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Chunsheng Zhou
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Tiffany C. Taylor
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Darryl A. Abbott
- Richard King Mellon Foundation Institute for Pediatric Research, Department of Pediatrics, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Javonn Musgrove
- Richard King Mellon Foundation Institute for Pediatric Research, Department of Pediatrics, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Vincent M. Bruno
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Timothy W. Hand
- Richard King Mellon Foundation Institute for Pediatric Research, Department of Pediatrics, UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sarah L. Gaffen
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, and
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Taylor TC, Li Y, Li DD, Majumder S, McGeachy MJ, Biswas PS, Gingras S, Gaffen SL. Arid5a Mediates an IL-17-Dependent Pathway That Drives Autoimmunity but Not Antifungal Host Defense. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2022; 209:1138-1145. [PMID: 35940634 PMCID: PMC9492638 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
IL-17 contributes to the pathogenesis of certain autoimmune diseases, but conversely is essential for host defense against fungi. Ab-based biologic drugs that neutralize IL-17 are effective in autoimmunity but can be accompanied by adverse side effects. Candida albicans is a commensal fungus that is the primary causative agent of oropharyngeal and disseminated candidiasis. Defects in IL-17 signaling cause susceptibility to candidiasis in mice and humans. A key facet of IL-17 receptor signaling involves RNA-binding proteins, which orchestrate the fate of target mRNA transcripts. In tissue culture models we showed that the RNA-binding protein AT-rich interaction domain 5A (Arid5a) promotes the stability and/or translation of multiple IL-17-dependent mRNAs. Moreover, during oropharyngeal candidiasis, Arid5a is elevated within the oral mucosa in an IL-17-dependent manner. However, the contribution of Arid5a to IL-17-driven events in vivo is poorly defined. In this study, we used CRISPR-Cas9 to generate mice lacking Arid5a. Arid5a -/- mice were fully resistant to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, an autoimmune setting in which IL-17 signaling drives pathology. Surprisingly, Arid5a -/- mice were resistant to oropharyngeal candidiasis and systemic candidiasis, similar to immunocompetent wild-type mice and contrasting with mice defective in IL-17 signaling. Therefore, Arid5a-dependent signals mediate pathology in autoimmunity and yet are not required for immunity to candidiasis, indicating that selective targeting of IL-17 signaling pathway components may be a viable strategy for development of therapeutics that spare IL-17-driven host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany C Taylor
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; and
| | - Yang Li
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; and
| | - De-Dong Li
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; and
| | - Saikat Majumder
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; and
| | - Mandy J McGeachy
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; and
| | - Partha S Biswas
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; and
| | | | - Sarah L Gaffen
- Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; and
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36
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Johnstone KF, Herzberg MC. Antimicrobial peptides: Defending the mucosal epithelial barrier. FRONTIERS IN ORAL HEALTH 2022; 3:958480. [PMID: 35979535 PMCID: PMC9376388 DOI: 10.3389/froh.2022.958480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent epidemic caused by aerosolized SARS-CoV-2 virus illustrates the importance and vulnerability of the mucosal epithelial barrier against infection. Antimicrobial proteins and peptides (AMPs) are key to the epithelial barrier, providing immunity against microbes. In primitive life forms, AMPs protect the integument and the gut against pathogenic microbes. AMPs have also evolved in humans and other mammals to enhance newer, complex innate and adaptive immunity to favor the persistence of commensals over pathogenic microbes. The canonical AMPs are helictical peptides that form lethal pores in microbial membranes. In higher life forms, this type of AMP is exemplified by the defensin family of AMPs. In epithelial tissues, defensins, and calprotectin (complex of S100A8 and S100A9) have evolved to work cooperatively. The mechanisms of action differ. Unlike defensins, calprotectin sequesters essential trace metals from microbes, which inhibits growth. This review focuses on defensins and calprotectin as AMPs that appear to work cooperatively to fortify the epithelial barrier against infection. The antimicrobial spectrum is broad with overlap between the two AMPs. In mice, experimental models highlight the contribution of both AMPs to candidiasis as a fungal infection and periodontitis resulting from bacterial dysbiosis. These AMPs appear to contribute to innate immunity in humans, protecting the commensal microflora and restricting the emergence of pathobionts and pathogens. A striking example in human innate immunity is that elevated serum calprotectin protects against neonatal sepsis. Calprotectin is also remarkable because of functional differences when localized in epithelial and neutrophil cytoplasm or released into the extracellular environment. In the cytoplasm, calprotectin appears to protect against invasive pathogens. Extracellularly, calprotectin can engage pathogen-recognition receptors to activate innate immune and proinflammatory mechanisms. In inflamed epithelial and other tissue spaces, calprotectin, DNA, and histones are released from degranulated neutrophils to form insoluble antimicrobial barriers termed neutrophil extracellular traps. Hence, calprotectin and other AMPs use several strategies to provide microbial control and stimulate innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark C. Herzberg
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
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37
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Iwasawa MT, Miyachi H, Wakabayashi S, Sugihira T, Aoyama R, Nakagawa S, Katayama Y, Yoneyama M, Hara H, Iwakura Y, Matsumoto M, Inohara N, Koguchi-Yoshioka H, Fujimoto M, Núñez G, Matsue H, Nakamura Y, Saijo S. Epidermal clearance of Candida albicans is mediated by IL-17 but independent of fungal innate immune receptors. Int Immunol 2022; 34:409-420. [PMID: 35641096 PMCID: PMC9317997 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxac019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
IL-17 plays important roles in host defense against Candida albicans at barrier surfaces and during invasive infection. However, the role of IL-17 in host defense after colonization of the epidermis, a main site of C. albicans infection, remains poorly understood. Using a murine model of epicutaneous candidiasis without skin abrasion, we found that skin inflammation triggered by epidermal C. albicans colonization was self-limiting with fungal clearance completed by day 7 after inoculation in wild-type mice or animals deficient in IL-17A or IL-17F. In contrast, marked neutrophilic inflammation in the epidermis and impaired fungal clearance were observed in mice lacking both IL-17A and IL-17F. Clearance of C. albicans was independent of Dectin-1, Dectin-2, CARD9 (caspase-recruitment domain family, member 9), TLR2 (Toll-like receptor 2) and MyD88 in the epidermal colonization model. We found that group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3s) and γδT cells were the major IL-17 producers in the epicutaneous candidiasis model. Analyses of Rag2-/- mice and Rag2-/-Il2rg-/- mice revealed that production of IL-17A and IL-17F by ILC3s was sufficient for C. albicans clearance. Finally, we found that depletion of neutrophils impaired C. albicans clearance in the epidermal colonization model. Taken together, these findings indicate a critical and redundant function of IL-17A and IL-17F produced by ILC3s in host defense against C. albicans in the epidermis. The results also suggest that epidermal C. albicans clearance is independent of innate immune receptors or that these receptors act redundantly in fungal recognition and clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari T Iwasawa
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Hideaki Miyachi
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Seiichiro Wakabayashi
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Takashi Sugihira
- Department of Dermatology, Course of Integrated Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita-shi, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Reika Aoyama
- Department of Dermatology, Course of Integrated Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita-shi, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Seitaro Nakagawa
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Yuki Katayama
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Mitsutoshi Yoneyama
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University , Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8673, Japan
| | - Hiromitsu Hara
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-shi, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Yoichiro Iwakura
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University , Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8673, Japan.,Center for Experimental Medicine and Systems Biology, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan.,Center for Animal Disease Models, Research Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Noda-shi, Chiba 278-0022, Japan
| | - Masanori Matsumoto
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Naohiro Inohara
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Hanako Koguchi-Yoshioka
- Department of Dermatology, Course of Integrated Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita-shi, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Manabu Fujimoto
- Department of Dermatology, Course of Integrated Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita-shi, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.,Cutaneous Immunology, Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita-shi, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Gabriel Núñez
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Hiroyuki Matsue
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Yuumi Nakamura
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.,Department of Dermatology, Course of Integrated Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita-shi, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.,Cutaneous Immunology, Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita-shi, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Shinobu Saijo
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University , Chiba-shi, Chiba 260-8673, Japan
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38
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Le Bars P, Kouadio AA, Bandiaky ON, Le Guéhennec L, de La Cochetière MF. Host's Immunity and Candida Species Associated with Denture Stomatitis: A Narrative Review. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10071437. [PMID: 35889156 PMCID: PMC9323190 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10071437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Denture-related Candida stomatitis, which has been described clinically in the literature, is either localized or generalized inflammation of the oral mucosa in connection with a removable prosthesis. During this inflammatory process, the mycobacterial biofilm and the host’s immune response play an essential role. Among microorganisms of this mixed biofilm, the Candida species proliferates easily and changes from a commensal to an opportunistic pathogen. In this situation, the relationship between the Candida spp. and the host is influenced by the presence of the denture and conditioned both by the immune response and the oral microbiota. Specifically, this fungus is able to hijack the innate immune system of its host to cause infection. Additionally, older edentulous wearers of dentures may experience an imbalanced and decreased oral microbiome diversity. Under these conditions, the immune deficiency of these aging patients often promotes the spread of commensals and pathogens. The present narrative review aimed to analyze the innate and adaptive immune responses of patients with denture stomatitis and more particularly the involvement of Candida albicans sp. associated with this pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Le Bars
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Nantes University, 1 Place Alexis Ricordeau, 44042 Nantes, France; (A.A.K.); (O.N.B.); (L.L.G.)
- Correspondence: authors:
| | - Alain Ayepa Kouadio
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Nantes University, 1 Place Alexis Ricordeau, 44042 Nantes, France; (A.A.K.); (O.N.B.); (L.L.G.)
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, CHU, Abidjan P.O. Box 612, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Octave Nadile Bandiaky
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Nantes University, 1 Place Alexis Ricordeau, 44042 Nantes, France; (A.A.K.); (O.N.B.); (L.L.G.)
| | - Laurent Le Guéhennec
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Nantes University, 1 Place Alexis Ricordeau, 44042 Nantes, France; (A.A.K.); (O.N.B.); (L.L.G.)
| | - Marie-France de La Cochetière
- EA 3826 Thérapeutiques Cliniques Et expérimentales des Infections, Faculté de Médecine, CHU Hôtel-Dieu, Université de Nantes, 1, rue G. Veil, 44000 Nantes, France;
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39
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Efficacy of Cochleated Amphotericin B in Mouse and Human Mucocutaneous Candidiasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2022; 66:e0030822. [PMID: 35699443 PMCID: PMC9295580 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00308-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans causes debilitating, often azole-resistant, infections in patients with chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMC). Amphotericin B (AMB) resistance is rare, but AMB use is limited by parenteral administration and nephrotoxicity. In this study, we evaluated cochleated AMB (CAMB), a new oral AMB formulation, in mouse models of oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) and vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) and in patients with azole-resistant CMC. OPC and VVC were modeled in Act1-/- mice, and mucosal tissue fungal burden was assessed after once-daily treatment with CAMB, vehicle, or AMB-deoxycholate (AMB-d). Four patients with azole-resistant CMC enrolled in a phase 2 CAMB dose-escalation study. The primary endpoint was clinical improvement at 2 weeks followed by optional extension for long-term CMC suppression to assess safety and efficacy. CAMB-treated mice had significantly reduced tongue and vaginal fungal burdens compared to vehicle-treated mice and exhibited comparable fungal burden reduction relative to AMB-d-treated mice. All CAMB-treated patients reached clinical efficacy by 2 weeks, three at 400 mg twice daily and one at 200 mg twice-daily dosing. All patients continued to the extension phase, with three having sustained clinical improvement of OPC and esophageal candidiasis (EC) for up to 60 months. One patient had a relapse of esophageal symptoms at week 24 and was withdrawn from further study. Clinical responses were not seen for onychomycosis or VVC. CAMB was safe and well-tolerated, without any evidence of nephrotoxicity. In summary, oral CAMB reduced tongue and vaginal fungal burdens during murine candidiasis. A proof-of-concept clinical trial in human CMC showed efficacy with good tolerability and safety. This study has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under identifier NCT02629419.
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40
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Saul-McBeth J, Dillon J, Launder D, Hickey M, Yi EMC, Daboul Y, Biswas P, Salari E, Parsai EI, Conti HR. Radiation Exposure Perturbs IL-17RA-Mediated Immunity Leading to Changes in Neutrophil Responses That Increase Susceptibility to Oropharyngeal Candidiasis. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8050495. [PMID: 35628751 PMCID: PMC9144824 DOI: 10.3390/jof8050495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal infections caused by Candida albicans are a serious problem for immunocompromised individuals, including those undergoing radiotherapy for head and neck cancers. Targeted irradiation causes inflammatory dysregulation and damage to the oral mucosa that can be exacerbated by candidiasis. Post-irradiation the cytokine interleukin-17 (IL-17) protects the oral mucosae by promoting oral epithelial regeneration and balancing the oral immune cell populations, which leads to the eventual healing of the tissue. IL-17 signaling is also critical for the antifungal response during oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC). Yet, the benefit of IL-17 during other forms of candidiasis, such as vulvovaginal candidiasis, is not straightforward. Therefore, it was important to determine the role of IL-17 during OPC associated with radiation-induced inflammatory damage. To answer this question, we exposed Il17ra−/− and wild-type mice to head-neck irradiation (HNI) and OPC to determine if the IL-17 signaling pathway was still protective against C. albicans. HNI increased susceptibility to OPC, and in Il17ra−/− mice, the mucosal damage and fungal burden were elevated compared to control mice. Intriguingly, neutrophil influx was increased in Il17ra−/− mice, yet these cells had reduced capacity to phagocytose C. albicans and failed to clear OPC compared to immunocompetent mice. These findings suggest that radiotherapy not only causes physical damage to the oral cavity but also skews immune mediators, leading to increased susceptibility to oropharyngeal candidiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Saul-McBeth
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (J.S.-M.); (J.D.); (D.L.); (M.H.); (E.M.-C.Y.); (Y.D.); (P.B.)
| | - John Dillon
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (J.S.-M.); (J.D.); (D.L.); (M.H.); (E.M.-C.Y.); (Y.D.); (P.B.)
| | - Dylan Launder
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (J.S.-M.); (J.D.); (D.L.); (M.H.); (E.M.-C.Y.); (Y.D.); (P.B.)
| | - Maura Hickey
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (J.S.-M.); (J.D.); (D.L.); (M.H.); (E.M.-C.Y.); (Y.D.); (P.B.)
| | - Elise Mein-Chiain Yi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (J.S.-M.); (J.D.); (D.L.); (M.H.); (E.M.-C.Y.); (Y.D.); (P.B.)
| | - Yusuf Daboul
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (J.S.-M.); (J.D.); (D.L.); (M.H.); (E.M.-C.Y.); (Y.D.); (P.B.)
| | - Priosmita Biswas
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (J.S.-M.); (J.D.); (D.L.); (M.H.); (E.M.-C.Y.); (Y.D.); (P.B.)
| | - Elahheh Salari
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Division of Medical Physics, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (E.S.); (E.I.P.)
| | - E. Ishmael Parsai
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Division of Medical Physics, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (E.S.); (E.I.P.)
| | - Heather R. Conti
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (J.S.-M.); (J.D.); (D.L.); (M.H.); (E.M.-C.Y.); (Y.D.); (P.B.)
- Correspondence:
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41
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Archambault LS, Dongari-Bagtzoglou A. Probiotics for Oral Candidiasis: Critical Appraisal of the Evidence and a Path Forward. FRONTIERS IN ORAL HEALTH 2022; 3:880746. [PMID: 35495563 PMCID: PMC9046664 DOI: 10.3389/froh.2022.880746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Oropharyngeal Candidiasis (OPC) is a mucosal fungal infection that is prevalent among patients with compromised immunity. The success of probiotics in treating chronic diseases with a microbial etiology component at other mucosal sites (i.e., gastro-intestinal, genitourinary and alveolar mucosae) has inspired research into the use of probiotics in the treatment of OPC. A growing body of research in vitro and in animal models indicates that some probiotic species and strains have inhibitory activities against Candida albicans growth, morphological switching, and biofilm formation. However, recent review and meta-analysis studies reveal a dearth of human randomized, controlled clinical trials on the efficacy of probiotics to treat or prevent OPC, while the majority of these have not based their selection of probiotic strains or the type of administration on sound pre-clinical evidence. In this mini-review, we assess the state of the field, outline some of the difficulties in translating lab results to clinical efficacy, and make recommendations for future research needed in order to move the field forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda S. Archambault
- Department of Craniofacial Sciences, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, United States
- Center for Quantitative Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, United States
| | - Anna Dongari-Bagtzoglou
- Department of Craniofacial Sciences, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, United States
- *Correspondence: Anna Dongari-Bagtzoglou
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Nikou SA, Zhou C, Griffiths JS, Kotowicz NK, Coleman BM, Green MJ, Moyes DL, Gaffen SL, Naglik JR, Parker PJ. The Candida albicans toxin candidalysin mediates distinct epithelial inflammatory responses through p38 and EGFR-ERK pathways. Sci Signal 2022; 15:eabj6915. [PMID: 35380879 PMCID: PMC7612652 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.abj6915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The fungal pathogen Candida albicans secretes the peptide toxin candidalysin, which damages epithelial cells and drives an innate inflammatory response mediated by the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways and the transcription factor c-Fos. In cultured oral epithelial cells, candidalysin activated the MAPK p38, which resulted in heat shock protein 27 (Hsp27) activation, IL-6 release, and EGFR phosphorylation without affecting the induction of c-Fos. p38 activation was not triggered by EGFR but by two nonredundant pathways involving MAPK kinases (MKKs) and the kinase Src, which differentially controlled p38 signaling outputs. Whereas MKKs mainly promoted p38-dependent release of IL-6, Src promoted p38-mediated phosphorylation of EGFR in a ligand-independent fashion. In parallel, candidalysin also activated the EGFR-ERK pathway in a ligand-dependent manner, resulting in c-Fos activation and release of the neutrophil-activating chemokines G-CSF and GM-CSF. In mice, early clearance events of oral C. albicans infection required p38 but not c-Fos. These findings delineate how candidalysin activates the pathways downstream of the MAPKs p38 and ERK that differentially contribute to immune activation during C. albicans infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spyridoula-Angeliki Nikou
- Protein Phosphorylation Lab, The Francis Crick Institute; London, UK
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London; London, UK
| | - Chunsheng Zhou
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh, USA
| | - James S. Griffiths
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London; London, UK
| | - Natalia K. Kotowicz
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London; London, UK
| | - Bianca M. Coleman
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Mary J. Green
- Experimental Histopathology Lab, The Francis Crick Institute; London, UK
| | - David L. Moyes
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London; London, UK
| | - Sarah L. Gaffen
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh, USA
| | - Julian R. Naglik
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London; London, UK
| | - Peter J. Parker
- Protein Phosphorylation Lab, The Francis Crick Institute; London, UK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, New Hunt’s House, King’s College London; London, UK
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43
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Souza JG, Costa RC, Sampaio AA, Abdo VL, Nagay BE, Castro N, Retamal-Valdes B, Shibli JA, Feres M, Barão VA, Bertolini M. Cross-kingdom microbial interactions in dental implant-related infections: is Candida albicans a new villain? iScience 2022; 25:103994. [PMID: 35313695 PMCID: PMC8933675 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.103994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans, an oral fungal opportunistic pathogen, has shown the ability to colonize implant surfaces and has been frequently isolated from biofilms associated with dental implant-related infections, possibly due to its synergistic interactions with certain oral bacteria. Moreover, evidence suggests that this cross-kingdom interaction on implant can encourage bacterial growth, leading to increased fungal virulence and mucosal damage. However, the role of Candida in implant-related infections has been overlooked and not widely explored or even considered by most microbiological analyses and therapeutic approaches. Thus, we summarized the scientific evidence regarding the ability of C. albicans to colonize implant surfaces, interact in implant-related polymicrobial biofilms, and its possible role in peri-implant infections as far as biologic plausibility. Next, a systematic review of preclinical and clinical studies was conducted to identify the relevance and the gap in the existing literature regarding the role of C. albicans in the pathogenesis of peri-implant infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- João G.S. Souza
- Department of Periodontology, Dental Research Division, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Sāo Paulo 07023-070, Brazil
- Dental Science School (Faculdade de Ciências Odontológicas - FCO), Montes Claros, Minas Gerais 39401-303, Brazil
- Department of Prosthodontics and Periodontology, Piracicaba Dental School, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Piracicaba, São Paulo 13414-903, Brazil
- Corresponding author
| | - Raphael C. Costa
- Department of Prosthodontics and Periodontology, Piracicaba Dental School, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Piracicaba, São Paulo 13414-903, Brazil
| | - Aline A. Sampaio
- Department of Clinic, Pathology and Dental Surgery, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Victória L. Abdo
- Department of Periodontology, Dental Research Division, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Sāo Paulo 07023-070, Brazil
| | - Bruna E. Nagay
- Department of Prosthodontics and Periodontology, Piracicaba Dental School, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Piracicaba, São Paulo 13414-903, Brazil
| | - Nidia Castro
- Department of Periodontology, Dental Research Division, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Sāo Paulo 07023-070, Brazil
| | - Belén Retamal-Valdes
- Department of Periodontology, Dental Research Division, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Sāo Paulo 07023-070, Brazil
| | - Jamil A. Shibli
- Department of Periodontology, Dental Research Division, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Sāo Paulo 07023-070, Brazil
| | - Magda Feres
- Department of Periodontology, Dental Research Division, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Sāo Paulo 07023-070, Brazil
| | - Valentim A.R. Barão
- Department of Prosthodontics and Periodontology, Piracicaba Dental School, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Piracicaba, São Paulo 13414-903, Brazil
- Corresponding author
| | - Martinna Bertolini
- Department of Periodontics and Preventive Dentistry, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
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Chen M, Cheng T, Xu C, Pan M, Wu J, Wang T, Wu D, Yan G, Wang C, Shao J. Sodium houttuyfonate enhances the mono-therapy of fluconazole on oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) through HIF-1α/IL-17 axis by inhibiting cAMP mediated filamentation in Candida albicans-Candida glabrata dual biofilms. Virulence 2022; 13:428-443. [PMID: 35195502 PMCID: PMC8890385 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2022.2035066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans and Candida glabrata are two common opportunistic fungi that can be co-isolated in oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC). Hypha is a hallmark of the biofilm formation of C. albicans, indispensable for the attachment of C. glabrata, which is seldom in mycelial morphology. Increasing evidence reveals a hypoxic microenvironment in interior fungal biofilms, reminding of a fact that inflammation is usually accompanied by oxygen deprivation. As a result, it is assumed that the disaggregation of hypha-mediated hypoxia of biofilms might be a solution to alleviate OPC. Based on this hypothesis, sodium houttuyfonate (SH), a well-identified traditional herbal compound with antifungal activity, is used in combination with fluconazole (FLU), a well-informed synthesized antimycotics, to investigate their impact on filamentation in C. albicans and C. glabrata dual biofilms and the underlying mechanism of their combined treatment on OPC. The results show that compared with the single therapy, SH plus FLU can inhibit the hyphal growth in the mixed biofilms in vitro, decrease the fungal burden of oral tissues and internal organs, restore mucosal epithelial integrity and function, and reduce hypoxic microenvironment and inflammation in a mice OPC model. The possible mechanism of the combined therapy of SH plus FLU can be attributed to the regulation of HIF-1α/IL-17A axis through direct abrogation of the dual Candida biofilm formation. This study highlights the role of HIF-1α/IL-17A axis and the promising application of SH as a sensitizer of conventional antifungals in the treatment of OPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengli Chen
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China
| | - Ting Cheng
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China
| | - Chen Xu
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China
| | - Min Pan
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China
| | - Jiadi Wu
- Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, P. R, China
| | - Tianming Wang
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China.,Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, P. R, China
| | - Daqiang Wu
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China.,Institute of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China.,Cas Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Sciences, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Membrane-less Organelles & Cellular Dynamics, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, P.r, China
| | - Guiming Yan
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China.,Institute of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China
| | - Changzhong Wang
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China.,Institute of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China
| | - Jing Shao
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine (College of Life Science), Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China.,Institute of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Anhui Academy of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, Anhui P. R, China
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45
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Interleukin-17A Contributed to the Damage of Blood-CNS Barriers During Streptococcus suis Meningitis. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:2116-2128. [PMID: 35044625 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-02749-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is an emerging zoonotic agent that can cause meningitis in humans with high mortality and morbidity. Meningitic S. suis can induce higher level of IL-17 than non-meningitic S. suis. Besides, IL-17A plays various roles on bacterial clearance or disruption of blood-CNS barriers through the downregulation and reorganization of tight junction (TJ) molecules. However, it remains to be elucidated for the role of IL-17A on the infection with meningitic S. suis. Here, we found that meningitic S. suis infection could not only cause acute death due to the damage of multiple organs, but also cause meningitis and clinical nervous signs since 60 h of post-infection due to the penetration of blood-CNS barriers after lasting bacteremia. In contrast, the mice with deficiency of il17a gene could not significantly change the acute inflammatory response and acute death, but it could not show obvious meningitis and clinical nervous signs caused by the meningitic S. suis infection. In addition, we also found that IL-17A could inhibit the transcription and expression of TJ proteins that facilitated the leakage of blood-CNS barriers since 60 h of post-infection during meningitic S. suis infection. Thus, our findings demonstrated that IL-17A could downregulate TJ proteins, which undoubtedly facilitated the leakage of blood-CNS barriers for bacterial invasion and then caused S. suis meningitis, providing potential targets for future prevention and treatment of this disease.
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Saul-McBeth J, Conti HR. Understanding the Protective Role of IL-17 During Oropharyngeal Candidiasis. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2542:361-373. [PMID: 36008677 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2549-1_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Oropharyngeal candidiasis is an opportunistic mucosal infection caused predominantly by Candida albicans. While healthy individuals are protected, susceptibility is associated with immunodeficiency. In particular, patients with defects related to T helper-17 (Th17) cells and interleukin (IL)-17 signaling are highly susceptible to mucocutaneous forms of candidiasis. Since mice are naïve to Candida albicans, induction of oropharyngeal candidiasis enables a thorough understanding of IL-17 and its related immune components during acute infection. Here we describe a murine model of oropharyngeal candidiasis. This protocol allows for translatable and reproducible infection with results that can be obtained between 2 and 5 days following infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Saul-McBeth
- The University of Toledo, Department of Biological Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Heather R Conti
- The University of Toledo, Department of Biological Sciences, Toledo, OH, USA.
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47
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Sakuma M, Ohta K, Fukada S, Kato H, Naruse T, Nakagawa T, Shigeishi H, Nishi H, Takechi M. Expression of anti-fungal peptide, β-defensin 118 in oral fibroblasts induced by C. albicans β-glucan-containing particles. J Appl Oral Sci 2022; 30:e20210321. [PMID: 35507985 PMCID: PMC9064192 DOI: 10.1590/1678-7757-2021-0321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Methodology: Results: Conclusion:
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48
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Phan QT, Lin J, Solis NV, Eng M, Swidergall M, Wang F, Li S, Gaffen SL, Chou TF, Filler SG. The Globular C1q Receptor Is Required for Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Signaling during Candida albicans Infection. mBio 2021; 12:e0271621. [PMID: 34724825 PMCID: PMC8561387 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02716-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
During oropharyngeal candidiasis, Candida albicans activates the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which induces oral epithelial cells to endocytose the fungus and synthesize proinflammatory mediators. To elucidate EGFR signaling pathways that are stimulated by C. albicans, we used proteomics to identify 1,214 proteins that were associated with EGFR in C. albicans-infected cells. Seven of these proteins were selected for additional study. Among these proteins, WW domain-binding protein 2, Toll-interacting protein, interferon-induced transmembrane protein 3 (IFITM3), and the globular C1q receptor (gC1qR) were found to associate with EGFR in viable oral epithelial cells. Each of these proteins was required for maximal endocytosis of C. albicans, and all regulated fungus-induced production of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and/or IL-8, either positively or negatively. gC1qR was found to function as a key coreceptor with EGFR. Interacting with the C. albicans Als3 invasin, gC1qR was required for the fungus to induce autophosphorylation of both EGFR and the ephrin type A receptor 2. The combination of gC1qR and EGFR was necessary for maximal endocytosis of C. albicans and secretion of IL-1β, IL-8, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) by human oral epithelial cells. In mouse oral epithelial cells, inhibition of gC1qR failed to block C. albicans-induced phosphorylation, and knockdown of IFITM3 did not inhibit C. albicans endocytosis, indicating that gC1qR and IFITM3 function differently in mouse versus human oral epithelial cells. Thus, this work provides an atlas of proteins that associate with EGFR and identifies several that play a central role in the response of human oral epithelial cells to C. albicans infection. IMPORTANCE Oral epithelial cells play a key role in the pathogenesis of oropharyngeal candidiasis. In addition to being target host cells for C. albicans adherence and invasion, they secrete proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines that recruit T cells and activated phagocytes to foci of infection. It is known that C. albicans activates EGFR on oral epithelial cells, which induces these cells to endocytose the organism and stimulates them to secrete proinflammatory mediators. To elucidate the EGFR signaling pathways that govern these responses, we analyzed the epithelial cell proteins that associate with EGFR in C. albicans-infected epithelial cells. We identified four proteins that physically associate with EGFR and that regulate different aspects of the epithelial response to C. albicans. One of these is gC1qR, which is required for C. albicans to activate EGFR, induce endocytosis, and stimulate the secretion of proinflammatory mediators, indicating that gC1qR functions as a key coreceptor with EGFR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quynh T. Phan
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Jianfeng Lin
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Norma V. Solis
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Michael Eng
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Marc Swidergall
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Feng Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Shan Li
- Department of Pediatrics, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Sarah L. Gaffen
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Tsui-Fen Chou
- Department of Pediatrics, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
| | - Scott G. Filler
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
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49
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Crosstalk between the oral microbiota, mucosal immunity, and the epithelial barrier regulates oral mucosal disease pathogenesis. Mucosal Immunol 2021; 14:1247-1258. [PMID: 34040155 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-021-00413-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Oral mucosal disease (OMD), which is also called soft tissue oral disease, is described as a series of disorders or conditions affecting the mucosa and soft tissue in the oral cavity. Its etiology is unclear, but emerging evidence has implicated the influence of the composition of the oral mucosa and saliva-resident microbiota. In turn, this dysbiosis effects the immune response balance and epithelial barrier function, followed by the occurrence and progression of OMD. In addition, oral microbial dysbiosis is diverse in different types of diseases and different disease progressions, suggesting that key causal pathogens may exist in various oral pathologies. This narrative literature review primarily discusses the most recent findings focusing on how microbial dysbiosis communicates with mucosal adaptive immune cells and the epithelial barrier in the context of five representative OMDs, including oral candidiasis (OC), oral lichen planus (OLP), recurrent aphthous ulcer (RAU), oral leukoplakia (OLK), and oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), to provide new insight into the pathogenetic mechanisms of OMDs.
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50
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Break TJ, Oikonomou V, Dutzan N, Desai JV, Swidergall M, Freiwald T, Chauss D, Harrison OJ, Alejo J, Williams DW, Pittaluga S, Lee CCR, Bouladoux N, Swamydas M, Hoffman KW, Greenwell-Wild T, Bruno VM, Rosen LB, Lwin W, Renteria A, Pontejo SM, Shannon JP, Myles IA, Olbrich P, Ferré EMN, Schmitt M, Martin D, Barber DL, Solis NV, Notarangelo LD, Serreze DV, Matsumoto M, Hickman HD, Murphy PM, Anderson MS, Lim JK, Holland SM, Filler SG, Afzali B, Belkaid Y, Moutsopoulos NM, Lionakis MS. Response to Comments on "Aberrant type 1 immunity drives susceptibility to mucosal fungal infections". Science 2021; 373:eabi8835. [PMID: 34529475 PMCID: PMC10120387 DOI: 10.1126/science.abi8835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Puel and Casanova and Kisand et al. challenge our conclusions that interferonopathy and not IL-17/IL-22 autoantibodies promote candidiasis in autoimmune polyendocrinopathy–candidiasis–ectodermal dystrophy. We acknowledge that conclusive evidence for causation is difficult to obtain in complex human diseases. However, our studies clearly document interferonopathy driving mucosal candidiasis with intact IL-17/IL-22 responses in Aire-deficient mice, with strong corroborative evidence in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Break
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology & Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Vasileios Oikonomou
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology & Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Nicolas Dutzan
- Oral Immunity and Inflammation Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jigar V. Desai
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology & Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Marc Swidergall
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Tilo Freiwald
- Immunoregulation Section, Kidney Diseases Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Daniel Chauss
- Immunoregulation Section, Kidney Diseases Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Oliver J. Harrison
- Metaorganism Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Julie Alejo
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute (NCI), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Drake W. Williams
- Oral Immunity and Inflammation Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Stefania Pittaluga
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute (NCI), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Chyi-Chia R. Lee
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute (NCI), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Nicolas Bouladoux
- Metaorganism Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Muthulekha Swamydas
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology & Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kevin W. Hoffman
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Teresa Greenwell-Wild
- Oral Immunity and Inflammation Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Vincent M. Bruno
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Wint Lwin
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Andy Renteria
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology & Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sergio M. Pontejo
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - John P. Shannon
- Viral Immunity and Pathogenesis Unit, LCIM, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ian A. Myles
- Epithelial Therapeutics Unit, LCIM, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Peter Olbrich
- Immunopathogenesis Section, LCIM, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Elise M. N. Ferré
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology & Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Monica Schmitt
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology & Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Daniel Martin
- Genomics and Computational Biology Core, NIDCR, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Daniel L. Barber
- T Lymphocyte Biology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Norma V. Solis
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Mitsuru Matsumoto
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Institute for Enzyme Research, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan
| | | | - Philip M. Murphy
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mark S. Anderson
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jean K. Lim
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Scott G. Filler
- The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Behdad Afzali
- Immunoregulation Section, Kidney Diseases Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Yasmine Belkaid
- Metaorganism Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Niki M. Moutsopoulos
- Oral Immunity and Inflammation Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Michail S. Lionakis
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology & Microbiology (LCIM), National Institute of Allergy & Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
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