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Garre-Frutos F, Vadillo MA, González F, Lupiáñez J. On the reliability of value-modulated attentional capture: An online replication and multiverse analysis. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:5986-6003. [PMID: 38195787 PMCID: PMC11335866 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02329-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
Stimuli predicting rewards are more likely to capture attention, even when they are not relevant to our current goals. Individual differences in value-modulated attentional capture (VMAC) have been associated with various psychopathological conditions in the scientific literature. However, the claim that this attentional bias can predict individual differences requires further exploration of the psychometric properties of the most common experimental paradigms. The current study replicated the VMAC effect in a large online sample (N = 182) and investigated the internal consistency, with a design that allowed us to measure the effect during learning (rewarded phase) and after acquisition, once feedback was omitted (unrewarded phase). Through the rewarded phase there was gradual increase of the VMAC effect, which did not decline significantly throughout the unrewarded phase. Furthermore, we conducted a reliability multiverse analysis for 288 different data preprocessing specifications across both phases. Specifications including more blocks in the analysis led to better reliability estimates in both phases, while specifications that removed more outliers also improved reliability, suggesting that specifications with more, but less noisy, trials led to better reliability estimates. Nevertheless, in most instances, especially those considering fewer blocks of trials, reliability estimates fell below the minimum recommended thresholds for research on individual differences. Given the present results, we encourage researchers working on VMAC to take into account reliability when designing studies aimed at capturing individual differences and provide recommendations to improve methodological practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Garre-Frutos
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Campus of Cartuja, 18011, Granada, Spain.
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.
| | - Miguel A Vadillo
- Department of Basic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Felisa González
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Campus of Cartuja, 18011, Granada, Spain
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Juan Lupiáñez
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Campus of Cartuja, 18011, Granada, Spain
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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2
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Mejía MA, Valdés-Sosa M, Bobes MA. Pupil dilation reflects covert familiar face recognition under interocular suppression. Conscious Cogn 2024; 123:103726. [PMID: 38972288 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2024.103726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
In prosopagnosia, brain lesions impair overt face recognition, but not face detection, and may coexist with residual covert recognition of familiar faces. Previous studies that simulated covert recognition in healthy individuals have impaired face detection as well as recognition, thus not fully mirroring the deficits in prosopagnosia. We evaluated a model of covert recognition based on continuous flash suppression (CFS). Familiar and unfamiliar faces and houses were masked while participants performed two discrimination tasks. With increased suppression, face/house discrimination remained largely intact, but face familiarity discrimination deteriorated. Covert recognition was present across all masking levels, evinced by higher pupil dilation to familiar than unfamiliar faces. Pupil dilation was uncorrelated with overt performance across subjects. Thus, CFS can impede overt face recognition without disrupting covert recognition and face detection, mirroring critical features of prosopagnosia. CFS could be used to uncover shared neural mechanisms of covert recognition in prosopagnosic patients and neurotypicals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mitchell Valdés-Sosa
- Cuban Center for Neuroscience, Ave. 25 & 158, No. 15202. Cubanacan, Playa, Havana, Cuba.
| | - Maria Antonieta Bobes
- Cuban Center for Neuroscience, Ave. 25 & 158, No. 15202. Cubanacan, Playa, Havana, Cuba.
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3
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Meyen S, Vadillo MA, von Luxburg U, Franz VH. No evidence for contextual cueing beyond explicit recognition. Psychon Bull Rev 2024; 31:907-930. [PMID: 37845567 PMCID: PMC11192686 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02358-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Many studies claim that visual regularities can be learned unconsciously and without explicit awareness. For example in the contextual cueing paradigm, studies often make claims using a standard reasoning based on two results: (1) a reliable response time (RT) difference between repeated vs. new stimulus displays and (2) a close-to-chance sensitivity when participants are asked to explicitly recognize repeated stimulus displays. From this pattern of results, studies routinely conclude that the sensitivity of RT responses is higher than that of explicit responses-an empirical situation we call Indirect Task Advantage (ITA). Many studies further infer from an ITA that RT effects were driven by a form of recognition that exceeds explicit memory: implicit recognition. However, this reasoning is flawed because the sensitivity underlying RT effects is never computed. To properly establish a difference, a sensitivity comparison is required. We apply this sensitivity comparison in a reanalysis of 20 contextual cueing studies showing that not a single study provides consistent evidence for ITAs. Responding to recent correlation-based arguments, we also demonstrate the absence of evidence for ITAs at the level of individual participants. This lack of ITAs has serious consequences for the field: If RT effects can be fully explained by weak but above-chance explicit recognition sensitivity, what is the empirical content of the label "implicit"? Thus, theoretical discussions in this paradigm-and likely in other paradigms using this standard reasoning-require serious reassessment because the current data from contextual cueing studies is insufficient to consider recognition as implicit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Meyen
- Department of Computer Science, University of Tübingen, Sand 6, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
| | | | - Ulrike von Luxburg
- Department of Computer Science, University of Tübingen, Sand 6, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
- Tübingen AI Center, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Volker H Franz
- Department of Computer Science, University of Tübingen, Sand 6, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
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4
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Stein T, van Gaal S, Fahrenfort JJ. How (not) to demonstrate unconscious priming: Overcoming issues with post-hoc data selection, low power, and frequentist statistics. Conscious Cogn 2024; 119:103669. [PMID: 38395013 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2024.103669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
One widely used scientific approach to studying consciousness involves contrasting conscious operations with unconscious ones. However, challenges in establishing the absence of conscious awareness have led to debates about the extent and existence of unconscious processes. We collected experimental data on unconscious semantic priming, manipulating prime presentation duration to highlight the critical role of the analysis approach in attributing priming effects to unconscious processing. We demonstrate that common practices like post-hoc data selection, low statistical power, and frequentist statistical testing can erroneously support claims of unconscious priming. Conversely, adopting best practices like direct performance-awareness contrasts, Bayesian tests, and increased statistical power can prevent such erroneous conclusions. Many past experiments, including our own, fail to meet these standards, casting doubt on previous claims about unconscious processing. Implementing these robust practices will enhance our understanding of unconscious processing and shed light on the functions and neural mechanisms of consciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Stein
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Simon van Gaal
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Johannes J Fahrenfort
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Applied and Experimental Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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5
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Lee DYH, Shanks DR. Conscious and unconscious memory and eye movements in context-guided visual search: A computational and experimental reassessment of Ramey, Yonelinas, and Henderson (2019). Cognition 2023; 240:105539. [PMID: 37579672 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023]
Abstract
Are eye movements unconsciously guided towards target locations in familiar scenes? In a recent eyetracking study, Ramey, Yonelinas, and Henderson (2019) measured eye-movement efficiency (scanpath ratio) and memory judgments when participants searched for targets in repeated and novel scenes. When trials judged new with high confidence were selected, scanpath ratio was lower for old scenes (misses) than for new scenes (correct rejections). In addition, familiarity as measured by recognition confidence did not significantly predict scanpath ratio. Ramey et al. attributed these results to unconscious learning guiding eye movements. In a re-assessment of Ramey et al.'s data, we show that their findings can be accounted for by a single-system computational model in which eye movements and memory judgments are driven by a common latent memory representation. In particular, (a) the scanpath ratio difference between high-confidence misses and correct rejections is a consequence of regression to the mean, while (b) the null correlation between familiarity and scanpath ratio, partly a natural consequence of the low reliability of the scanpath ratio measure, is also reproduced by the model. Two pre-registered experiments confirm a novel prediction of the alternative single-system model. This work offers a parsimonious account of Ramey et al.'s findings without recourse to unconscious guidance of eye movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daryl Y H Lee
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, UK.
| | - David R Shanks
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, UK
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6
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Yu R. Perceptual and semantic same-different processing under subliminal conditions. Conscious Cogn 2023; 111:103523. [PMID: 37100000 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2023.103523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Although other types of subliminal integrative processing are widely refuted by recent studies, subliminal same-different processing (SSDP) remains unchallenged to this day. Using shapes, categorical images, and Chinese characters as stimuli, the current study assessed whether SSDP can occur on a perceptual and semantic basis. Although some significant results were found, the effects are much weaker than previous studies, with Bayes factors suggesting that these effects are not reliable. It is therefore concluded that substantiating claims of SSDP requires more reliable evidence than currently available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongjun Yu
- Department of Management, Marketing, and Information Systems, Hong Kong Baptist University, 999077, Hong Kong, China.
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7
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Zher-Wen, Yu R. Unconscious integration: Current evidence for integrative processing under subliminal conditions. Br J Psychol 2023; 114:430-456. [PMID: 36689339 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Integrative processing is traditionally believed to be dependent on consciousness. While earlier studies within the last decade reported many types of integration under subliminal conditions (i.e. without perceptual awareness), these findings are widely challenged recently. This review evaluates the current evidence for 10 types of subliminal integration that are widely studied: arithmetic processing, object-context integration, multi-word processing, same-different processing, multisensory integration and 5 different types of associative learning. Potential methodological issues concerning awareness measures are also taken into account. It is concluded that while there is currently no reliable evidence for subliminal integration, this does not necessarily refute 'unconscious' integration defined through non-subliminal (e.g. implicit) approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zher-Wen
- Department of Management, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China.,Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Rongjun Yu
- Department of Management, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
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Barth M, Stahl C, Haider H. Parallel Acquisition of Uncorrelated Sequences does Not Provide Firm Evidence for a Modular Sequence-Learning System. J Cogn 2023; 6:12. [PMID: 36721800 PMCID: PMC9854281 DOI: 10.5334/joc.258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Dual-systems theories of sequence learning assume that sequence learning may proceed within a unidimensional learning system that is immune to cross-dimensional interference because information is processed and represented in dimension-specific, encapsulated modules. Important evidence for such modularity comes from studies investigating the absence or presence of interference between multiple uncorrelated sequences (e.g., a sequence of color stimuli and a sequence of motor keypresses). Here we question the premise that the parallel acquisition of uncorrelated sequences provides convincing evidence for a modularized learning system. In contrast, we demonstrate that parallel acquisition of multiple uncorrelated sequences is well predicted by a computational model that assumes a single learning system with joint representations of stimulus and response features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marius Barth
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, DE
| | | | - Hilde Haider
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, DE
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9
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Learning to suppress a distractor may not be unconscious. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022; 85:796-813. [PMID: 36417127 PMCID: PMC10066157 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-022-02608-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe additional singleton task has become a popular paradigm to explore visual statistical learning and selective attention. In this task, participants are instructed to find a different-shaped target among a series of distractors as fast as possible. In some trials, the search display includes a singleton distractor with a different color, making search more difficult. This singleton distractor appears more often in one location than in the remaining locations. The typical results of these experiments show that participants learn to ignore the area of the screen that is more likely to contain the singleton distractor. It is often claimed that this learning takes place unconsciously, because at the end of the experiment participants seem to be unable to identify the location where the singleton distractor appeared most frequently during the task. In the present study, we tested participants’ awareness in three high-powered experiments using alternative measures. Contrary to previous studies, the results show clear evidence of explicit knowledge about which area of the display was more likely to contain the singleton distractor, suggesting that this type of learning might not be unconscious.
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A Model Study on Raw Material Chemical Composition to Predict Sinter Quality Based on GA-RNN. COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE 2022; 2022:3343427. [PMID: 35463237 PMCID: PMC9019411 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3343427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The quality control process for sintered ore is cumbersome and time- and money-consuming. When the assay results come out and the ratios are found to be faulty, the ratios cannot be changed in time, which will produce sintered ore of substandard quality, resulting in a waste of resources and environmental pollution. For the problem of lagging sinter detection results, Long Short-Term Memory and Genetic Algorithm-Recurrent Neural Networks prediction algorithms were used for comparative analysis, and the article used GA-RNN quality prediction model for prediction. Through correlation analysis, the chemical composition of the sintered raw material was determined as the input parameter and the physical and metallurgical properties of the sintered ore were determined as the output parameters, thus successfully establishing a GA-RNN-based sinter quality prediction model. Based on 150 sets of original data, 105 sets of data were selected as the training sample set and 45 sets of data were selected as the test sample set. The results obtained were compared to the real value with an average prediction error of 1.24% for the drum index, 0.92% for the low-temperature reduction chalking index (RDI), 0.95% for the reduction index (RI), 0.40% for the load softening temperature T10%, and 0.43% for the load softening temperature T40%, with all within the running time thresholds. The study of this model enables the prediction of the quality of sintered ore prior to sintering, thus improving the yield of sintered ore, increasing corporate efficiency, saving energy, and reducing environmental pollution.
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11
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Rothkirch M, Shanks DR, Hesselmann G. The Pervasive Problem of Post Hoc Data Selection in Studies on Unconscious Processing. Exp Psychol 2022; 69:1-11. [PMID: 35272479 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Studies on unconscious mental processes typically require that participants are unaware of some information (e.g., a visual stimulus). An important methodological question in this field of research is how to deal with data from participants who become aware of the critical stimulus according to some measure of awareness. While it has previously been argued that the post hoc selection of participants dependent on an awareness measure may often result in regression-to-the-mean artifacts (Shanks, 2017), a recent article (Sklar et al., 2021) challenged this conclusion claiming that the consideration of this statistical artifact might lead to unjustified rejections of true unconscious influences. In this reply, we explain this pervasive statistical problem with a basic and concrete example, show that Sklar et al. fundamentally mischaracterize it, and then refute the argument that the influence of the artifact has previously been overestimated. We conclude that, without safeguards, the method of post hoc data selection should never be employed in studies on unconscious processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Rothkirch
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Germany
| | - David R Shanks
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, UK
| | - Guido Hesselmann
- Department of General and Biological Psychology, Psychologische Hochschule Berlin, Germany
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12
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Abstract
Studies of unconscious mental processes often compare a performance measure (e.g., some assessment of perception or memory) with a measure of awareness (e.g., a verbal report or forced-choice response) of the critical cue or contingency taken either concurrently or separately. The resulting patterns of bivariate data across participants lend themselves to several analytic approaches for inferring the existence of unconscious mental processes, but it is rare for researchers to consider the underlying generative processes that might cause these patterns. We show that bivariate data are generally insufficient to discriminate single-process models, with a unitary latent process determining both performance and awareness, from dual-process models, comprising distinct latent processes for performance and awareness. Future research attempting to isolate and investigate unconscious processes will need to employ richer types of data and analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Shanks
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, UK
| | - Simone Malejka
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Germany
| | - Miguel A Vadillo
- Departamento de Psicología Básica, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
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13
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Raising awareness about measurement error in research on unconscious mental processes. Psychon Bull Rev 2021; 29:21-43. [PMID: 34131891 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-021-01923-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Experimental psychologists often neglect the poor psychometric properties of the dependent measures collected in their studies. In particular, a low reliability of measures can have dramatic consequences for the interpretation of key findings in some of the most popular experimental paradigms, especially when strong inferences are drawn from the absence of statistically significant correlations. In research on unconscious cognition, for instance, it is commonly argued that the lack of a correlation between task performance and measures of awareness or explicit recollection of the target stimuli provides strong support for the conclusion that the cognitive processes underlying performance must be unconscious. Using contextual cuing of visual search as a case study, we show that given the low reliability of the dependent measures collected in these studies, it is usually impossible to draw any firm conclusion about the unconscious character of this effect from correlational analyses. Furthermore, both a psychometric meta-analysis of the available evidence and a cognitive-modeling approach suggest that, in fact, we should expect to see very low correlations between performance and awareness at the empirical level, even if both constructs are perfectly related at the latent level. Convincing evidence for the unconscious character of contextual cuing and other effects will most likely demand richer and larger data sets, coupled with more powerful analytic approaches.
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