Surface charging and dimensions of chitosan coacervated nanoparticles

Biopolymeric Nanoparticles-Multifunctional Materials of the Future

Nanotechnology plays an important role in biological research, especially in the development of delivery systems with lower toxicity and greater efficiency. These include not only metallic nanoparticles, but also biopolymeric nanoparticles. Biopolymeric nanoparticles (BPNs) are mainly developed for their provision of several advantages, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and minimal toxicity, in addition to the general advantages of nanoparticles. Therefore, given that biopolymers are biodegradable, natural, and environmentally friendly, they have attracted great attention due to their multiple applications in biomedicine, such as drug delivery, antibacterial activity, etc. This review on biopolymeric nanoparticles highlights their various synthesis methods, such as the ionic gelation method, nanoprecipitation method, and microemulsion method. In addition, the review also covers the applications of biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles in different areas-especially in the pharmaceutical, biomedical, and agricultural domains. In conclusion, the present review highlights recent advances in the synthesis and applications of biopolymeric nanoparticles and presents both fundamental and applied aspects that can be used for further development in the field of biopolymeric nanoparticles.

Effect of polyampholyte net charge on complex coacervation between polyampholytes and inorganic polyoxometalate giant anions

The effect of net charge of zwitterionic polymers on the phase behavior and viscoelastic properties of hybrid polyampholyte-polyoxometalate (POM) complexes in salted aqueous solutions is investigated with polyampholyte copolymers consisting of both positively and negatively charged monomers. Zwitterionic polyampholytes of varied net charge, abbreviated as PA_xM_y, are synthesized by varying the feeding molar ratio of negatively charged 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid (AMPS) to positively charged [3-(methacryloylamino)propyl]trimethylammonium chloride (MAPTAC) monomers in aqueous solution. The coacervate formation between PA_xM_y and inorganic anionic metatungstate POM ({W₁₂}) in LiCl added aqueous solutions can be enhanced by increasing the molar fraction of positively charged MAPTAC monomer and LiCl concentration. The salt-broadened coacervation, clearly distinct from the salt-suppressed one between oppositely charged polyelectrolytes, suggests the account of zwitterion-anion pairing for PA_xM_y-{W₁₂} coacervate formation due to stronger binding of multivalent {W₁₂} giant ions with PA_xM_y than simple ions. Importantly, as AMPS or MAPTAC monomer fraction in polyampholytes is varied by merely ±5% from the effective net neutral case, the viscoelasticity of PA_xM_y-{W₁₂} coacervates can be modified by 4-5 folds, suggesting a new tuning parameter to fine control the macroionic interactions and material properties of biomimetic complex coacervates.

Adsorption removal of anionic dyes from aqueous solutions by chitosan nanoparticles deposited on the fibrous carrier

The synthesis, characterization and environmental application of chitosan based material stable in acidic media for adsorption of anionic dyes were investigated. The adsorption material is chitosan nanoparticles immobilized on a fibrous carrier (CPF). The choice of optimal conditions for the preparation of chitosan particles and their immobilization on a chemically activated polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fiber is justified. Immobilized nanoparticles showed high adsorption rates and dye binding capacity (300-1050 mg g^-1) depending on the dye type. Anionic phthalocyanine dyes having different molecular sizes, different nature and number of anionic groups were used as model adsorbates. The experimental isotherm data and a linear correlation coefficients (r_L² > 0.99) have shown that the dyes adsorption on CPF is best predicted by the Langmuir isotherm. The adsorption rate has been found to conform to pseudo-second-order kinetics with a good correlation (R² > 0.99) with intra-particle diffusion as one of the rate determining steps. It has been is established that the sorption rate and the limiting sorption capacity decrease with the increment in the dye molecule size. The process of adsorption of the dyes on the CPF is pH-insensitive in the pH range of 2-8. The adsorption saturated CPF could be effectively regenerated by a simple alkaline washing.

Antivenom Production against Bothrops jararaca and Bothrops erythromelas Snake Venoms Using Cross-Linked Chitosan Nanoparticles as an Immunoadjuvant

In Brazil, envenomation by snakes of the genus Bothrops is clinically relevant, particularly for the species Bothrops jararaca and B. erythromelas. The most effective treatment for envenomation by snakes is the administration of antivenoms associated with adjuvants. Novel adjuvants are required to reduce side effects and maximize the efficiency of conventional serum and vaccine formulations. The polymer chitosan has been shown to have immunoadjuvant properties, and it has been used as a platform for delivery systems. In this context, we evaluated the potential immunoadjuvant properties of chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) loaded with B. jararaca and B. erythromelas venoms in the production of sera against these venoms. Stable CNPs were obtained by ionic gelation, and mice were immunized subcutaneously for 6 weeks with 100 µL of each snake venom at concentrations of 5.0 or 10.0% (w/w), encapsulated in CNPs or associated with aluminium hydroxide (AH). The evaluation of protein interactions with the CNPs revealed their ability to induce antibody levels equivalent to those of AH, even with smaller doses of antigen. In addition, the CNPs were less inflammatory due to their modified release of proteins. CNPs provide a promising approach for peptide/protein delivery from snake venom and will be useful for new vaccines.

Chitosan–PVA monodisperse millimeter-sized spheres prepared by electrospraying reduce the thromboembolic risk in hemorrhage control

Chitosan–PVA monodisperse millimeter-sized spheres are efficient in hemorrhage control and also reduce the risk of thromboembolic complication.

Controlling Properties and Cytotoxicity of Chitosan Nanocapsules by Chemical Grafting

The tunability of the properties of chitosan-based carriers opens new ways for the application of drugs with low water-stability or high adverse effects. In this work, the combination of a nanoemulsion with a chitosan hydrogel coating and the following poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) grafting is proven to be a promising strategy to obtain a flexible and versatile nanocarrier with an improved stability. Thanks to chitosan amino groups, a new easy and reproducible method to obtain nanocapsule grafting with PEG has been developed in this work, allowing a very good control and tunability of the properties of nanocapsule surface. Two different PEG densities of coverage are studied and the nanocapsule systems obtained are characterized at all steps of the optimization in terms of diameter, Z potential and surface charge (amino group analysis). Results obtained are compatible with a conformation of PEG molecules laying adsorbed on nanoparticle surface after covalent linking through their amino terminal moiety. An improvement in nanocapsule stability in physiological medium is observed with the highest PEG coverage density obtained. Cytotoxicity tests also demonstrate that grafting with PEG is an effective strategy to modulate the cytotoxicity of developed nanocapsules. Such results indicate the suitability of chitosan as protective coating for future studies oriented toward drug delivery.

Chitosan/Sterculia striata polysaccharides nanocomplex as a potential chloroquine drug release device

Nanoparticles are produced by means of polyelectrolyte complexation (PEC) of oppositely charged polycationic chitosan (CH) with polyanionic polysaccharide extracted from Sterculia striata exudates (rhamnogalacturonoglycan (RG)-type polysaccharide). The nanoparticles formed with low-molar-mass CH are larger than those formed with high-molar-mass CH. This behavior is in contrast with that previously observed for other systems and may be attributed to different mechanisms related to the association of CH with RG of higher persistence length chain than that of CH. Nanoparticles harnessed with a charge ratio (n(+)/n(-)) of <1 are smaller than particles with an excess of polycations. Particles with hydrodynamic sizes smaller than 100nm are achieved using a polyelectrolyte concentration of 10(-4)gmL(-1) and charge ratio (n(+)/n(-)) of <1. The CH/RG nanoparticles are associated with chloroquine (CQ) with an efficiency of 28% and release it for up to ∼60% within ∼10h, whereas in the latter, only ∼40% of the CQ was released after 24h. The main factor that influenced drug release rate is the nanoparticle charge ratio.

Delivery of Splice Switching Oligonucleotides by Amphiphilic Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles

Splice switching oligonucleotides (SSOs) are a class of single-stranded antisense oligonucleotides (ssONs) being used as gene therapeutics and demonstrating great therapeutic potential. The availability of biodegradable and biocompatible delivery vectors that could improve delivery efficiencies, reduce dosage, and, in parallel, reduce toxicity concerns could be advantageous for clinical translation. In this work we explored the use of quaternized amphiphilic chitosan-based vectors in nanocomplex formation and delivery of splice switching oligonucleotides (SSO) into cells, while providing insights regarding cellular uptake of such complexes. Results show that the chitosan amphiphilic character is important when dealing with SSOs, greatly improving colloidal stability under serum conditions, as analyzed by dynamic light scattering, and enhancing cellular association. Nanocomplexes were found to follow an endolysosomal route with a long lysosome residence time. Conjugation of a hydrophobic moiety, stearic acid, to quaternized chitosan was a necessary condition to achieve transfection, as an unmodified quaternary chitosan was completely ineffective. We thus demonstrate that amphiphilic quaternized chitosan is a biomaterial that holds promise and warrants further development as a platform for SSO delivery strategies.

Nose-to-brain delivery: evaluation of polymeric nanoparticles on olfactory ensheathing cells uptake

The nasal route has received a great deal of attention as a convenient and reliable method for the brain target on administration of drugs. When drugs are loaded into nanoparticles (NPs) the interaction with mucosa transports directly into the brain, skipping the blood-brain barrier and achieving rapid cerebrospinal fluid levels. Poly-lactic acid (PLA), poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), and chitosan (CS) were chosen to prepare NPs. After optimization of CS nanocarriers, our goal was to evaluate the different type of NPs uptake into olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs). We then correlated obtained biological data to zeta potential measurements of cells treated with NPs. Rodhamine-loaded NPs were used to study the uptake of OECs carried out by confocal microscopy at different times (1, 2, and 4 h). Our results showed that uptake of rodhamine-NPs by OECs was time dependent and it was influenced by the carrier charge. Confocal imaging of OECs demonstrated that NPPLGA showed a higher increase in uptake compared with NPPLA and NPCS after 1 h and it increased at 2-4 h. Zeta potential values of treated cells were more amplified with respect to untreated cells. The highest values were showed by unloaded NPPLGA, confirming microscopy data.

Equilibrium and kinetic aspects of sodium cromoglycate adsorption on chitosan: mass uptake and surface charging considerations

Chitosan has more and more been suggested as a material for use as adsorbent in the treatment of effluents as well as in the synthesis of drug-loaded nanoparticles for controlled release. In both cases, a good understanding of the process of adsorption, both kinetically and in terms of equilibrium, has an importance of its own. In this manuscript we study the interaction between sodium cromoglycate, a drug used in asthma treatment, and chitosan. Equilibrium experiments showed that Sips (or Freundlich-Langmuir) isotherm described well the resultant data and adsorption possibly occurred as in multilayers. A model based on ordinary reaction-rate theory, compounded of two processes, each one with a correlated velocity constant, described the kinetics of sorption. Kinetic and equilibrium data suggested the possibility of surface rearrangement, favored by the increase of temperature.

A new controlled-release liquid delivery system based on diclofenac potassium and low molecular weight chitosan complex solubilized in polysorbates

A complex of low molecular weight chitosan (LMWC) with oleic acid and diclofenac potassium (DP) was prepared and dispersed in high concentrations of polysorbate 20, 60 and 80 in water to form a solution which releases its components slowly. The formed complex was characterized using different analytical methods. The size of the resulted nanoparticles and the effect of tweens on size were followed using dynamic light scattering (DLS). The release of DP from this delivery system was monitored by altering the molecular weight of chitosan and the type and concentration of the polysorbates used. The most suitable preparation consisted of DP, LMWC 13 kDa, and oleic acid. This was dispersed in 5% Tween 80 and the release was followed by the adaptation of USP II apparatus using a cellophane bag. This preparation offers a release of up to 24 h.