Chitosan coated nanostructured lipid carriers for brain delivery of proteins by intranasal administration

Chitosan Nanoparticles for Intranasal Drug Delivery

This manuscript explores the use of nanostructured chitosan for intranasal drug delivery, targeting improved therapeutic outcomes in neurodegenerative diseases, psychiatric care, pain management, vaccination, and diabetes treatment. Chitosan nanoparticles are shown to enhance brain delivery, improve bioavailability, and minimize systemic side effects by facilitating drug transport across the blood-brain barrier. Despite substantial advancements in targeted delivery and vaccine efficacy, challenges remain in scalability, regulatory approval, and transitioning from preclinical studies to clinical applications. The future of chitosan-based nanomedicines hinges on advancing clinical trials, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration, and innovating in nanoparticle design to overcome these hurdles and realize their therapeutic potential.

Chitosan-coated nanoparticles in innovative cancer bio-medicine

In the recent decade, nanoparticles (NPs) have had enormous implications in cancer biomedicine, including research, diagnosis, and therapy. However, their broad application still faces obstacles due to some practical limitations and requires further development. Recently, there has been more interest in the coated class of nanoparticles to address those challenges. Chitosan-coated NPs are simple to produce, biodegradable, biocompatible, exhibit antibacterial activity, and have less cytotoxicity. This study provides an updated and comprehensive overview of the application of chitosan-coated NPs as a promising class of NPs in cancer biomedicine. Additionally, we discussed chitosan-coated lipid, metal, and polymer-based nanoparticles in biomedical applications. Furthermore, different coating methods and production/characterization procedures were reviewed. Moreover, the biological and physicochemical advantages of chitosan-coated NPs, including facilitated controlled release, greater physicochemical stability, improved cell/tissue interaction, and enhanced bioavailability of medications, were highlighted. Finally, the prospects of chitosan-coated NPs in cancer biomedicine were discussed.

Novel green-based polyglycerol polymeric nanoparticles loaded with ferulic acid: A promising approach for hepatoprotection

In the pursuit of eco-friendly and sustainable materials, polyglycerol diacid polymers hold immense promise for drug delivery compared to those derived from fossil fuels. Harnessing this potential, we aimed to prepare nanoparticles (NPs) derived from sustainable polymers, loaded with ferulic acid (FA), a natural polyphenolic compound known for its shielding effect against liver-damaging agents, including carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Glycerol was esterified with renewable monomers, such as succinic acid, adipic acid, and/or FA, resulting in the creation of a novel class of polyglycerol diacid polymers. Characterization via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance confirmed the successful synthesis of these polymers with <7 % residual monomers. FA-loaded NPs were fabricated using the newly synthesized polymers. To further augment their potential, the NPs were coated with chitosan. The chitosan-coated NPs boasted an optimal PS of 290 ± 5.03 nm, showing superior physical stability, and a commendable EE% of 58.79 ± 0.43%w/v. The cytotoxicity was examined on fibroblast cells using the SRB assay. In-vivo experiments employing a CCl4-induced liver injury model yielded compelling evidence of the heightened hepatoprotective effects conferred by chitosan-coated particles. This demonstrates the benefits of incorporating sustainable polymers into innovative composites for efficient drug delivery, indicating their potential for creating versatile platforms for various therapeutic applications.

RNA-encapsulating lipid nanoparticles in cancer immunotherapy: From pre-clinical studies to clinical trials

Nanoparticle-based delivery systems such as RNA-encapsulating lipid nanoparticles (RNA LNPs) have dramatically advanced in function and capacity over the last few decades. RNA LNPs boast of a diverse array of external and core configurations that enhance targeted delivery and prolong circulatory retention, advancing therapeutic outcomes. Particularly within the realm of cancer immunotherapies, RNA LNPs are increasingly gaining prominence. Pre-clinical in vitro and in vivo studies have laid a robust foundation for new and ongoing clinical trials that are actively enrolling patients for RNA LNP cancer immunotherapy. This review explores RNA LNPs, starting from their core composition to their external membrane formulation, set against a backdrop of recent clinical breakthroughs. We further elucidate the LNP delivery avenues, broach the prevailing challenges, and contemplate the future perspectives of RNA LNP-mediated immunotherapy.

Navigating the Nose-to-Brain Route: A Systematic Review on Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Central Nervous System Disorders

Background: The blood–brain barrier (BBB) regulates brain substance entry, posing challenges for treating brain diseases. Traditional methods face limitations, leading to the exploration of non-invasive intranasal drug delivery. This approach exploits the direct nose-to-brain connection, overcoming BBB restrictions. Intranasal delivery enhances drug bioavailability, reduces dosage, and minimizes systemic side effects. Notably, lipid nanoparticles, such as solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers, offer advantages like improved stability and controlled release. Their nanoscale size facilitates efficient drug loading, enhancing solubility and bioavailability. Tailored lipid compositions enable optimal drug release, which is crucial for chronic brain diseases. This review assesses lipid nanoparticles in treating neuro-oncological and neurodegenerative conditions, providing insights for effective nose-to-brain drug delivery. Methods: A systematic search was conducted across major medical databases (PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, and Scopus) up to 6 January 2024. The search strategy utilized relevant Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) terms and keywords related to “lipid nanoparticles”, “intranasal administration”, “neuro-oncological diseases”, and “neurodegenerative disorders”. This review consists of studies in vitro, in vivo, or ex vivo on the intranasal administration of lipid-based nanocarriers for the treatment of brain diseases. Results: Out of the initial 891 papers identified, 26 articles met the eligibility criteria after a rigorous analysis. The exclusion of 360 articles was due to reasons such as irrelevance, non-reporting selected outcomes, the article being a systematic literature review or meta-analysis, and lack of method/results details. This systematic literature review, focusing on nose-to-brain drug delivery via lipid-based nanocarriers for neuro-oncological, neurodegenerative, and other brain diseases, encompassed 60 studies. A temporal distribution analysis indicated a peak in research interest between 2018 and 2020 (28.3%), with a steady increase over time. Regarding drug categories, Alzheimer’s disease was prominent (26.7%), followed by antiblastic drugs (25.0%). Among the 65 drugs investigated, Rivastigmine, Doxorubicin, and Carmustine were the most studied (5.0%), showcasing a diverse approach to neurological disorders. Notably, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were predominant (65.0%), followed by nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) (28.3%), highlighting their efficacy in intranasal drug delivery. Various lipids were employed, with glyceryl monostearate being prominent (20.0%), indicating preferences in formulation. Performance assessment assays were balanced, with in vivo studies taking precedence (43.3%), emphasizing the translation of findings to complex biological systems for potential clinical applications. Conclusions: This systematic review reveals the transformative potential of intranasal lipid nanoparticles in treating brain diseases, overcoming the BBB. Positive outcomes highlight the effectiveness of SLNs and NLCs, which are promising new approaches for ailments from AD to stroke and gliomas. While celebrating progress, addressing challenges like nanoparticle toxicity is also crucial.

Impact of calcitriol and PGD2-G-loaded lipid nanocapsules on oligodendrocyte progenitor cell differentiation and remyelination

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating and inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) in need of a curative treatment. MS research has recently focused on the development of pro-remyelinating treatments and neuroprotective therapies. Here, we aimed at favoring remyelination and reducing neuro-inflammation in a cuprizone mouse model of brain demyelination using nanomedicines. We have selected lipid nanocapsules (LNC) coated with the cell-penetrating peptide transactivator of translation (TAT), loaded with either a pro-remyelinating compound, calcitriol (Cal-LNC TAT), or an anti-inflammatory bioactive lipid, prostaglandin D2-glycerol ester (PGD2-G) (PGD2-G-LNC TAT). Following the characterization of these formulations, we showed that Cal-LNC TAT in combination with PGD2-G-LNC TAT increased the mRNA expression of oligodendrocyte differentiation markers both in the CG-4 cell line and in primary mixed glial cell (MGC) cultures. However, while the combination of Cal-LNC TAT and PGD2-G-LNC TAT showed promising results in vitro, no significant impact, in terms of remyelination, astrogliosis, and microgliosis, was observed in vivo in the corpus callosum of cuprizone-treated mice following intranasal administration. Thus, although calcitriol's beneficial effects have been abundantly described in the literature in the context of MS, here, we show that the different doses of calcitriol tested had a negative impact on the mice well-being and showed no beneficial effect in the cuprizone model in terms of remyelination and neuro-inflammation, alone and when combined with PGD2-G-LNC TAT.

Chitosan-coated nanostructured lipid carriers for effective brain delivery of Tanshinone IIA in Parkinson's disease: interplay between nuclear factor-kappa β and cathepsin B

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with increased oxidative stress, the underlying vital process contributing to cell death. Tanshinone IIA (TAN) is a phytomedicine with a documented activity in treating many CNS disorders, particularly PD owing to its unique anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect. However, its clinical utility is limited by its poor aqueous solubility, short half-life, and hence low concentration reaching targeted cells. This work aimed to develop a biocompatible chitosan-coated nanostructured lipid carriers (CS-NLCs) for effective brain delivery of TAN for PD management. The proposed nanosystem was successfully prepared using a simple melt-emulsification ultra-sonication method, optimized and characterized both in vitro and in vivo in a rotenone-induced PD rat model. The developed TAN-loaded CS-NLCs (CS-TAN-NLCs) showed good colloidal properties (size ≤ 200 nm, PDI ≤ 0.2, and ζ-potential + 20 mV) and high drug entrapment efficiency (> 97%) with sustained release profile for 24 h. Following intranasal administration, CS-TAN-NLCs succeeded to achieve a remarkable antiparkinsonian and antidepressant effect in diseased animals compared to both the uncoated TAN-NLCs and free TAN suspension as evidenced by the conducted behavioral tests and improved histopathological findings. Furthermore, biochemical evaluation of oxidative stress along with inflammatory markers, nuclear factor-kabba β (NF-Kβ) and cathepsin B further confirmed the potential of the CS-TAN-NLCs in enhancing brain delivery and hence the therapeutic effect of TAN of treatment of PD. Accordingly, CS-TAN-NLCs could be addressed as a promising nano-platform for the effective management of PD.

Nose-to-Brain (N2B) Delivery: An Alternative Route for the Delivery of Biologics in the Management and Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders

In recent years, there have been a growing number of small and large molecules that could be used to treat diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). Nose-to-brain delivery can be a potential option for the direct transport of molecules from the nasal cavity to different brain areas. This review aims to provide a compilation of current approaches regarding drug delivery to the CNS via the nose, with a focus on biologics. The review also includes a discussion on the key benefits of nasal delivery as a promising alternative route for drug administration and the involved pathways or mechanisms. This article reviews how the application of various auxiliary agents, such as permeation enhancers, mucolytics, in situ gelling/mucoadhesive agents, enzyme inhibitors, and polymeric and lipid-based systems, can promote the delivery of large molecules in the CNS. The article also includes a discussion on the current state of intranasal formulation development and summarizes the biologics currently in clinical trials. It was noted that significant progress has been made in this field, and these are currently being applied to successfully transport large molecules to the CNS via the nose. However, a deep mechanistic understanding of this route, along with the intimate knowledge of various excipients and their interactions with the drug and nasal physiology, is still necessary to bring us one step closer to developing effective formulations for nasal-brain drug delivery.

Formulation and evaluation of anion transporters in nanostructured lipid carriers

Six novel click-tambjamines (1-6) bearing an alkyl chain of varying length linked to the imine moiety have been formulated in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) to evaluate their transmembrane anion transport activity both when free (i.e., not encapsulated) and nanoformulated. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are an example of drug delivery systems (DDSs) that stand out because of their versatility. In this work we show that NLCs can be used to efficiently formulate highly lipophilic anionophores and experiments conducted in model liposomes reveal that these formulations are adequate to deliver anionophores without compromising their transport activity. This result paves the way to facilitate the study of highly lipophilic anionophores and their potential use as future drugs.

Levodopa-loaded nanoparticles for the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) resulting in dopamine (DA) deficiency, which manifests itself in motor symptoms including tremors, rigidity and bradykinesia. Current PD treatments aim at symptom reduction through oral delivery of levodopa (L-DOPA), a precursor of DA. However, L-DOPA delivery to the brain is inefficient and increased dosages are required as the disease progresses, resulting in serious side effects like dyskinesias. To improve PD treatment efficacy and to reduce side effects, recent research focuses on the encapsulation of L-DOPA into polymeric- and lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs). These formulations can protect L-DOPA from systemic decarboxylation into DA and improve L-DOPA delivery to the central nervous system. Additionally, NPs can be modified with proteins, peptides and antibodies specifically targeting the blood-brain barrier (BBB), thereby reducing required dosages and free systemic DA. Alternative delivery approaches for NP-encapsulated L-DOPA include intravenous (IV) administration, transdermal delivery using adhesive patches and direct intranasal administration, facilitating increased therapeutic DA concentrations in the brain. This review provides an overview of the recent advances for NP-mediated L-DOPA delivery to the brain, and debates challenges and future perspectives on the field.

Theoretical design for covering Engeletin with functionalized nanostructure-lipid carriers as neuroprotective agents against Huntington's disease via the nasal-brain route

Objective: To propose a theoretical formulation of engeletin-nanostructured lipid nanocarriers for improved delivery and increased bioavailability in treating Huntington's disease (HD). Methods: We conducted a literature review of the pathophysiology of HD and the limitations of currently available medications. We also reviewed the potential therapeutic benefits of engeletin, a flavanol glycoside, in treating HD through the Keap1/nrf2 pathway. We then proposed a theoretical formulation of engeletin-nanostructured lipid nanocarriers for improved delivery across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and increased bioavailability. Results: HD is an autosomal dominant neurological illness caused by a repetition of the cytosine-adenine-guanine trinucleotide, producing a mutant protein called Huntingtin, which degenerates the brain's motor and cognitive functions. Excitotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, elevated concentration of ROS and RNS, neuroinflammation, and protein aggregation significantly impact HD development. Current therapeutic medications can postpone HD symptoms but have long-term adverse effects when used regularly. Herbal medications such as engeletin have drawn attention due to their minimal side effects. Engeletin has been shown to reduce mitochondrial dysfunction and suppress inflammation through the Keap1/NRF2 pathway. However, its limited solubility and permeability hinder it from reaching the target site. A theoretical formulation of engeletin-nanostructured lipid nanocarriers may allow for free transit over the BBB due to offering a similar composition to the natural lipids present in the body a lipid solubility and increase bioavailability, potentially leading to a cure or prevention of HD. Conclusion: The theoretical formulation of engeletin-nanostructured lipid nanocarriers has the potential to improve delivery and increase the bioavailability of engeletin in the treatment of HD, which may lead to a cure or prevention of this fatal illness.

Local Delivery Strategies for Peptides and Proteins into the CNS: Status Quo, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

Over the past decades, peptides and proteins have been increasingly important in the treatment of various human diseases and conditions owing to their specificity, potency, and minimized off-target toxicity. However, the existence of the practically impermeable blood brain barrier (BBB) limits the entry of macromolecular therapeutics into the central nervous systems (CNS). Consequently, clinical translation of peptide/protein therapeutics for the treatment of CNS diseases has been limited. Over the past decades, developing effective delivery strategies for peptides and proteins has gained extensive attention, in particular with localized delivery strategies, due to the fact that they are capable of circumventing the physiological barrier to directly introduce macromolecular therapeutics into the CNS to improve therapeutic effects and reduce systemic side effects. Here, we discuss various local administration and formulation strategies that have shown successes in the treatment of CNS diseases using peptide/protein therapeutics. Lastly, we discuss challenges and future perspectives of these approaches.

Lipid-Based Nanocarriers in the Treatment of Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM): Challenges and Opportunities

Glioblastoma multiforme (also known as glioblastoma; GBM) is one of the most malignant types of brain tumors that occurs in the CNS. Treatment strategies for glioblastoma are majorly comprised of surgical resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy along with combination therapy. Treatment of GBM is itself a tedious task but the involved barriers in GBM are one of the main impediments to move one step closer to the treatment of GBM. Basically, two of the barriers are of utmost importance in this regard, namely blood brain barrier (BBB) and blood brain tumor barrier (BBTB). This review will address different challenges and barriers in the treatment of GBM along with their etiology. The role and recent progress of lipid-based nanocarriers like liposomes, solid lipid nanocarriers (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), lipoplexes, and lipid hybrid carriers in the effective management of GBM will be discussed in detail.

Neurodegenerative disorders: Assessing the impact of natural vs drug-induced treatment options

Neurodegenerative illnesses refer to the gradual, cumulative loss of neural activity. Neurological conditions are considered to be the second leading cause of mortality in the modern world and the two most prevalent ones are Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. The negative side effects of pharmaceutical use are a major global concern, despite the availability of many different treatments for therapy. We concentrated on different types of neurological problems and their influence on targets, in vitro, in vivo, and in silico methods toward neurological disorders, as well as the molecular approaches influencing the same, in the first half of the review. The bulk of the second half of the review focuses on the many categories of treatment possibilities, including natural and artificial. Nevertheless, herbal treatment solutions are piquing scholarly attention due to their anti-oxidative properties and accessibility. However, more quality investigations and innovations are undoubtedly needed to back up these conclusions.

Recent Progress of Lipid Nanoparticles-Based Lipophilic Drug Delivery: Focus on Surface Modifications

Numerous drugs have emerged to treat various diseases, such as COVID-19, cancer, and protect human health. Approximately 40% of them are lipophilic and are used for treating diseases through various delivery routes, including skin absorption, oral administration, and injection. However, as lipophilic drugs have a low solubility in the human body, drug delivery systems (DDSs) are being actively developed to increase drug bioavailability. Liposomes, micro-sponges, and polymer-based nanoparticles have been proposed as DDS carriers for lipophilic drugs. However, their instability, cytotoxicity, and lack of targeting ability limit their commercialization. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have fewer side effects, excellent biocompatibility, and high physical stability. LNPs are considered efficient vehicles of lipophilic drugs owing to their lipid-based internal structure. In addition, recent LNP studies suggest that the bioavailability of LNP can be increased through surface modifications, such as PEGylation, chitosan, and surfactant protein coating. Thus, their combinations have an abundant utilization potential in the fields of DDSs for carrying lipophilic drugs. In this review, the functions and efficiencies of various types of LNPs and surface modifications developed to optimize lipophilic drug delivery are discussed.

Biomaterials-Enhanced Intranasal Delivery of Drugs as a Direct Route for Brain Targeting

Intranasal (IN) drug delivery is a non-invasive and effective route for the administration of drugs to the brain at pharmacologically relevant concentrations, bypassing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and minimizing adverse side effects. IN drug delivery can be particularly promising for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. The drug delivery mechanism involves the initial drug penetration through the nasal epithelial barrier, followed by drug diffusion in the perivascular or perineural spaces along the olfactory or trigeminal nerves, and final extracellular diffusion throughout the brain. A part of the drug may be lost by drainage through the lymphatic system, while a part may even enter the systemic circulation and reach the brain by crossing the BBB. Alternatively, drugs can be directly transported to the brain by axons of the olfactory nerve. To improve the effectiveness of drug delivery to the brain by the IN route, various types of nanocarriers and hydrogels and their combinations have been proposed. This review paper analyzes the main biomaterials-based strategies to enhance IN drug delivery to the brain, outlining unsolved challenges and proposing ways to address them.

Biopolymer coating for particle surface engineering and their biomedical applications

Surface engineering of particles based on a polymeric coating is of great interest in materials design and applications. Due to the disadvantages of non-biodegradability and undesirable biocompatibility, the application of petroleum-based synthetic polymers coating in the biomedical field has been greatly limited. In addition, there is lack of a universal surface modification method to functionalize particles of different compositions, sizes, shapes, and structures. Thus, it is imperative to develop a versatile biopolymeric coating with good biocompatibility and tunable biodegradability for the preparation of functional particle materials regardless of their surface chemical and physical structures. Recently, the natural polysaccharide polymers (e.g. chitosan and cellulose), polyphenol-based biopolymers (e.g. polydopamine and tannic acid), and proteins (e.g. amyloid-like aggregates) have been utilized in surface modification of particles, and applications of these modified particles in the field of biomedicine have been also intensively exploited. In this review, the preparation of the above three coatings on particles surface are summarized, and the applications of these materials in drug loading/release, biomineralization, cell immobilization/protection, enzyme immobilization/protection, and antibacterial/antiviral are exemplified. Finally, the challenges and the future research directions on biopolymer coating for particles surface engineering are prospected.

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This review highlights the importance of particle surface engineering in the materials field. .

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This review summarizes biopolymer coating for particle surface engineering and their biomedical applications. .

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This review discusses the key challenges and directions for future research and development of particle surface engineering .

Lipid nanoparticles strategies to modify pharmacokinetics of central nervous system targeting drugs: Crossing or circumventing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to manage neurological disorders

The main limitation to the success of central nervous system (CNS) therapies lies in the difficulty for drugs to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and reach the brain. Regarding its structure and enzymatic complexity, crossing the BBB is a challenge, although several alternatives have been identified. For instance, the use of drugs encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles has been described as one of the most efficient approaches to bypass the BBB, as they allow the passage of drugs through this barrier, improving brain bioavailability. In particular, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) have been a focus of research related to drug delivery to the brain. These systems provide protection of lipophilic drugs, improved delivery and bioavailability, having a major impact on treatments outcomes. In addition, the use of lipid nanoparticles administered via routes that transport drugs directly into the brain seems a promising solution to avoid the difficulties in crossing the BBB. For instance, the nose-to-brain route has gained considerable interest, as it has shown efficacy in 3D human nasal models and in animal models. This review addresses the state of the art on the use of lipid nanoparticles to modify the pharmacokinetics of drugs employed in the management of neurological disorders. A description of the structural components of the BBB, the role of the neurovascular unit and limitations for drugs to entry into the CNS is first addressed, along with the developments to increase drug delivery to the brain, with a special focus on lipid nanoparticles. In addition, the obstacle of BBB complexity in the creation of new effective drugs for the treatment of the most prevalent neurological disorders is also addressed. Finally, the proposed strategies for lipid nanoparticles to reach the CNS, crossing or circumventing the BBB, are described. Although promising results have been reported, especially with the nose-to-brain route, they are still ongoing to assess its real efficacy in vivo in the management of neurological disorders.

Formulation of intranasal surface engineered nanostructured lipid carriers of rotigotine: Full factorial design optimization, in vitro characterization, and pharmacokinetic evaluation

The objective of the present research was to develop, optimize, and evaluate rotigotine (RT)-loaded chitosan (CH) coated nanostructured lipid carriers (RT-CH-NLCs) for nose-to-brain delivery. The NLCs were prepared by homogenization and sonication technique as well as optimized by using three factors at three-level Box-Behnken design. The prepared NLCs were evaluated for particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, drug release, and ex vivo permeation. The pharmacokinetic study was conducted on albino Wistar rats to evaluate the bioavailability and neuropharmacokinetic parameters after intranasal administration of the optimized formulation (RT-CH-NLCs-OPT). The optimized formulation showed the particle size (170.48 ± 8.37 nm), PDI (0.19 ± 0.03), zeta potential (+ 26.73 mV), and entrapment efficiency (82.37 ± 2.48 %). In vitro drug release study displayed a sustained drug release pattern from RT-CH-NLCs-OPT (86.73±8.58 % in 24 h) in comparison to RT-Dis (98.61±7.24 % in 16 h). The permeability coefficient (PC) was found to be 11.39 ± 1.08×10^-4 cm.h^-1 and 2.34 folds higher than RT-Dis (4.85±1.53×10^-4 cm.h^-1). The relative bioavailability of RT from RT-CH-NLCs-OPT was 3.2-fold greater as compared to RT-Dis. The absolute bioavailability of RT after intranasal administration of RT-CH-NLCs-OPT was 2.1-fold higher than RT-CH-NLCs-OPT administered intravenously. The brain targeting and targeting potential was displayed by DTE (422.03 %) and DTP (76.03 %) after intranasal administration of RT-CH-NLCs-OPT as compared to RT-Dis (DTE 173.91 % and DTP 59.97 %). Furthermore, confocal laser scanning microscopy results confirmed better brain targeting for RT-CH-NLCs-OPT as compared to RT-Dis. From these findings, it could be concluded that RT-CH-NLCs could serve as a promising strategy for targeting RT through the intranasal route.

Intranasal Delivery of Functionalized Polymeric Nanomaterials to the Brain

Intravenous delivery of nanomaterials containing therapeutic agents and various cargos for treating neurological disorders is often constrained by low delivery efficacy due to difficulties in passing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Nanoparticles (NPs) administered intranasally can move along olfactory and trigeminal nerves so that they do not need to pass through the BBB, allowing non-invasive, direct access to selective neural pathways within the brain. Hence, intranasal (IN) administration of NPs can effectively deliver drugs and genes into targeted regions of the brain, holding potential for efficacious disease treatment in the central nervous system (CNS). In this review, current methods for delivering conjugated NPs to the brain are primarily discussed. Distinctive potential mechanisms of therapeutic nanocomposites delivered via IN pathways to the brain are then discussed. Recent progress in developing functional NPs for applications in multimodal bioimaging, drug delivery, diagnostics, and therapeutics is also reviewed. This review is then concluded by discussing existing challenges, new directions, and future perspectives in IN delivery of nanomaterials.

Using nanotechnology to deliver biomolecules from nose to brain - peptides, proteins, monoclonal antibodies and RNA

There is a growing number of biomolecules, including peptides, proteins, monoclonal antibodies and RNA, that could be potentially used for the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases. However, the realization of their potential is being hampered by the extraordinary difficulties these complex biomolecules have to reach the brain in therapeutically meaningful amounts. Nose-to-brain (N-to-B) delivery is now being investigated as a potential option for the direct transport of biomolecules from the nasal cavity to different brain areas. Here, we discuss how different technological approaches enhance this N-to-B transport, with emphasis on those that have shown a potential for clinical translation. We also analyse how the physicochemical properties of nanocarriers and their modification with cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) and targeting ligands affect their efficacy as N-to-B carriers for biomolecules.

Dual effect of TAT functionalized DHAH lipid nanoparticles with neurotrophic factors in human BBB and microglia cultures

Background

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are an accelerating global health problem. Nevertheless, the stronghold of the brain- the blood–brain barrier (BBB) prevents drug penetrance and dwindles effective treatments. Therefore, it is crucial to identify Trojan horse-like drug carriers that can effectively cross the blood–brain barrier and reach the brain tissue. We have previously developed polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)-based nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), namely DHAH-NLC. These carriers are modulated with BBB-permeating compounds such as chitosan (CS) and trans-activating transcriptional activator (TAT) from HIV-1 that can entrap neurotrophic factors (NTF) serving as nanocarriers for NDs treatment. Moreover, microglia are suggested as a key causative factor of the undergoing neuroinflammation of NDs. In this work, we used in vitro models to investigate whether DHAH-NLCs can enter the brain via the BBB and investigate the therapeutic effect of NTF-containing DHAH-NLC and DHAH-NLC itself on lipopolysaccharide-challenged microglia.

Methods

We employed human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) to capitalize on the in vivo-like TEER of this BBB model and quantitatively assessed the permeability of DHAH-NLCs. We also used the HMC3 microglia cell line to assess the therapeutic effect of NTF-containing DHAH-NLC upon LPS challenge.

Results

TAT-functionalized DHAH-NLCs successfully crossed the in vitro BBB model, which exhibited high transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) values (≈3000 Ω*cm²). Specifically, the TAT-functionalized DHAH-NLCs showed a permeability of up to 0.4% of the dose. Furthermore, using human microglia (HMC3), we demonstrate that DHAH-NLCs successfully counteracted the inflammatory response in our cultures after LPS challenge. Moreover, the encapsulation of glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GNDF)-containing DHAH-NLCs (DHAH-NLC-GNDF) activated the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, suggesting the triggering of the endogenous anti-oxidative system present in microglia.

Conclusions

Overall, this work shows that the TAT-functionalized DHAH-NLCs can cross the BBB, modulate immune responses, and serve as cargo carriers for growth factors; thus, constituting an attractive and promising novel drug delivery approach for the transport of therapeutics through the BBB into the brain.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12987-022-00315-1.

Carbohydrate anchored lipid nanoparticles

Nanotechnology has been a dynamic field for formulation scientists with multidisciplinary research being conducted worldwide. Advancements in development of functional nanosystems have led to evolution of breakthrough technologies. Lipidic nanosystems, in particular, are highly preferred owing to their non-immunogenic safety profiles along with a range of versatile intrinsic properties. Surface modification of lipid nanoparticles by anchoring carbohydrates to these systems is one such attractive drug delivery technology. Carbohydrates confer interesting properties to the nanosystems such as stealth, biostability, bioavailability, reduced toxicity due to decreased immunogenic response, targeting potential as well as ease of commercial availability. The carbohydrate anchored systems can be developed using methods such as adsorption, incorporation (nanoprecipitation or solvent displacement method), crosslinking and grafting. Current review provides a detailed overview of potential lipid based nanoparticulate systems with an emphasis on liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructures lipid carriers and micelles. Review further explores basics of surface modification, methods applied therein, advantages of carbohydrates as surface modifiers, their versatile applications, techniques for characterization of carbohydrate anchored systems and vital regulatory aspects concerned with these specialized systems.

Evaluation of Recent Intranasal Drug Delivery Systems to the Central Nervous System

Neurological diseases continue to increase in prevalence worldwide. Combined with the lack of modifiable risk factors or strongly efficacious therapies, these disorders pose a significant and growing burden on healthcare systems and societies. The development of neuroprotective or curative therapies is limited by a variety of factors, but none more than the highly selective blood-brain barrier. Intranasal administration can bypass this barrier completely and allow direct access to brain tissues, enabling a large number of potential new therapies ranging from bioactive peptides to stem cells. Current research indicates that merely administering simple solutions is inefficient and may limit therapeutic success. While many therapies can be delivered to some degree without carrier molecules or significant modification, a growing body of research has indicated several methods of improving the safety and efficacy of this administration route, such as nasal permeability enhancers, gelling agents, or nanocarrier formulations. This review shall discuss promising delivery systems and their role in expanding the clinical efficacy of this novel administration route. Optimization of intranasal administration will be crucial as novel therapies continue to be studied in clinical trials and approved to meet the growing demand for the treatment of patients with neurological diseases.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Intranasal Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Nose-to-Brain Delivery

Nose-to-brain drug delivery has been of great interest for the treatment of many central nervous system (CNS) diseases and psychiatric disorders over past decades. Several nasally administered formulations have been developed to circumvent the blood-brain barrier and directly deliver drugs to the CNS through the olfactory and trigeminal pathways. However, the nasal mucosa's drug absorption is insufficient and the volume of the nasal cavity is small, which, in combination, make nose-to-brain drug delivery challenging. These problems could be minimized using formulations based on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) or nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), which are effective nose-to-brain drug delivery systems that improve drug bioavailability by increasing drug solubility and permeation, extending drug action, and reducing enzymatic degradation. Various research groups have reported in vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of SLNs and NLCs nose-to-brain delivery systems. This review was undertaken to provide an overview of these studies and highlight research performed on SLN and NLC-based formulations aimed at improving the treatment of CNS diseases such neurodegenerative diseases, epilepsy, and schizophrenia. We discuss the efficacies and brain targeting efficiencies of these formulations based on considerations of their pharmacokinetic parameters and toxicities, point out some gaps in current knowledge, and propose future developmental targets.

Direct nose to the brain nanomedicine delivery presents a formidable challenge

This advanced review describes the anatomical and physiological barriers and mechanisms impacting nanomedicine translocation from the nasal cavity directly to the brain. There are significant physiological and anatomical differences in the nasal cavity, olfactory area, and airflow reaching the olfactory epithelium between humans and experimentally studied species that should be considered when extrapolating experimental results to humans. Mucus, transporters, and tight junction proteins present barriers to material translocation across the olfactory epithelium. Uptake of nanoparticles through the olfactory mucosa and translocation to the brain can be intracellular via cranial nerves (intraneuronal) or other cells of the olfactory epithelium, or extracellular along cranial nerve pathways (perineural) and surrounding blood vessels (perivascular, the glymphatic system). Transport rates vary greatly among the nose to brain pathways. Nanomedicine physicochemical properties (size, surface charge, surface coating, and particle stability) can affect uptake efficiency, which is usually less than 5%. Incorporation of therapeutic agents in nanoparticles has been shown to produce pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic benefits. Assessment of adverse effects has included olfactory mucosa toxicity, ciliotoxicity, and olfactory bulb and brain neurotoxicity. The results have generally suggested the investigated nanomedicines do not present significant toxicity. Research needs to advance the understanding of nanomedicine translocation and its drug cargo after intranasal administration is presented. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Neurological Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials.

Lipid Nanocarriers Overlaid with Chitosan for Brain Delivery of Berberine via the Nasal Route

This research aimed to design, optimize, and evaluate berberine-laden nanostructured lipid carriers overlaid with chitosan (BER-CTS-NLCs) for efficient brain delivery via the intranasal route. The nanostructured lipid carriers containing berberine (BER-NLCs) were formulated via hot homogenization and ultrasonication strategy and optimized for the influence of a variety of causal variables, including the amount of glycerol monostearate (solid lipid), poloxamer 407 (surfactant) concentration, and oleic acid (liquid lipid) amount, on size of the particles, entrapment, and the total drug release after 24 h. The optimal BER-NLCs formulation was then coated with chitosan. Their diameter, in vitro release, surface charge, morphology, ex vivo permeability, pH, histological, and in vivo (pharmacokinetics and brain uptake) parameters were estimated. BER-CTS-NLCs had a size of 180.9 ± 4.3 nm, sustained-release properties, positive surface charge of 36.8 mV, and augmented ex-vivo permeation via nasal mucosa. The histopathological assessment revealed that the BER-CTS-NLCs system is safe for nasal delivery. Pharmacokinetic and brain accumulation experiments showed that animals treated intranasally with BER-CTS-NLCs had substantially greater drug levels in the brain. The ratios of BER brain/blood levels at 30 min, AUCbrain/AUCblood, drug transport percentage, and drug targeting efficiency for BER-CTS-NLCs (IN) were higher compared to BER solution (IN), suggesting enhanced brain targeting. The optimized nanoparticulate system is speculated to be a successful approach for boosting the effect of BER in treating CNS diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, through intranasal therapy.

Nanocarrier mediated drug delivery as an impeccable therapeutic approach against Alzheimer's disease

For the past several years, dementia, is one of the predominantly observed groups of symptoms in a geriatric population. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive memory related neurodegenerative disease, for which the current Food and drug administration approved therapeutics are only meant for a symptomatic management rather than targeting the root cause of AD. These therapeutics belong to two classes, Acetylcholine Esterase inhibitors and N-methyl D-aspartate antagonist. Furthermore, to facilitate neuroprotective action in AD, the drugs are majorly expected to reach the specific target area in the brain for the desired efficacy. Thus, there is a huge requirement for drug discovery and development for facilitating the entry of drugs more in brain to exert a specific action. The very first line of defense and the major limitation for the entry of drugs into the brain is the Blood Brain Barrier, followed by Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier. More than a barrier, these mainly act as selectively permeable membranes, which allows entry of specific molecules into the brain. Furthermore, specific enzymes result in the degradation of xenobiotics. All these mechanisms pose as hurdles in the way of effective drug delivery in the brain. Thus, novel techniques need to be harbored for the facilitation of the delivery of such drugs into the brain. Nanocarriers are advantageous for facilitating the specific targeted drug treatment in AD. As nanomedicines are one of the novels and most useful approaches for AD, thus the present review mainly focuses on understanding the advanced use of nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery in the management of AD.

Nanotechnology-based medicinal products and patents: a promising way to treat psoriasis

Psoriasis is an autoimmune skin disorder that is characterised by chronic inflammation and erythematous scaly patches. It has a significant impact on the patient's quality of life and can cause psychological stress. There are several aspects which cause psoriasis for instance, environmental issues, immune disorders, bacterial infections, and genetic issues. Plentiful therapeutic means or treatments are accessible, but not any of them can completely and effectively cure psoriasis without hindering patient compliance. Hence, it becomes challenging to discover a new drug moiety or any drug delivery method to cure psoriasis. Conventional treatment of psoriasis involves anti-inflammatory agents, immune suppressants, phototherapy, and biologic treatment, those were given in different forms such as topical, oral, or systemic formulations, but these all were unsuccessful to accomplish complete reduction of psoriasis as well as causing adverse side effects. In terms of dose frequency, doses, efficacy, and side effects, nanotechnology-based new formulations are the most promising prospects for addressing the challenges and limits associated with present psoriasis formulations. Hence, our major goal of this review is to present various advanced nanotechnological approaches for effective topical treatment of psoriasis. In short, nano-formulations continue to be formed as very promising modality in the treatment of psoriasis as they suggest improved penetration, targeted delivery, increased safety, and efficacy.

Designing nanoformulation for the nose-to-brain delivery in Parkinson's disease: Advancements and barrier

Parkinson's disease (PD), a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, which results in the loss of motor activity. In the management of PD, the primary aim is to increase the dopamine content in the brain either by delivering the precursors of dopamine or by inhibiting the molecules responsible for dopamine degradation. Due to the low bioavailability, a higher dosage of drugs needs to be administered repeatedly for achieving the desired therapeutic effect. This repeated high dose not only increases the severe side effects but also produces tolerance in the body. Often, direct administration of drugs fails to ameliorate the symptoms as the unmodified drugs cannot cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Nanotherapeutic is at the forefront of the alternative treatment against the central nervous system (CNS) disorders due to the ability to circumvents the BBB. Here, all the available treatments for PD have been discussed with their limitation. The current trends of nanotherapeutics for PD have been explored. Suitability and formulation prospects for nasal delivery have been analyzed in detail to explore new research scope. The most effective approach is the nose-to-brain delivery for targeting drugs directly to the brain. This delivery bypasses the BBB and concentrates more drugs at the target site. Thus, developments of nose-to-brain delivery of nanoformulations explicit the new scope to manage PD better. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

Engineered Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers as New Generations of Blood-Brain Barrier Transmitters

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is considered as the most challenging barrier in brain drug delivery. Indeed, there is a definite link between the BBB integrity defects and central nervous systems (CNS) disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases and brain cancers, increasing concerns in the contemporary era because of the inability of most therapeutic approaches. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) have already been identified as having several advantages in facilitating the transportation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic agents across the BBB. This review first explains BBB functions and its challenges in brain drug delivery, followed by a brief description of nanoparticle-based drug delivery for brain diseases. A detailed presentation of recent progressions in optimizing SLNs and NLCs for controlled release drug delivery, gene therapy, targeted drug delivery, and diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases and brain cancers is approached. Finally, the problems, challenges, and future perspectives in optimizing these carriers for potential clinical application were described briefly.

Convolutions in the rendition of nose to brain therapeutics from bench to bedside: Feats & fallacies

Brain, a subtle organ of multifarious nature presents plethora of physiological, metabolic and bio-chemical convolutions that impede the delivery of biomolecules and thereby resulting in truncated therapeutic outcome in pathological conditions of central nervous system (CNS). The absolute bottleneck in the therapeutic management of such devastating CNS ailments is the BBB. Another pitfall is the lack of efficient technological platforms (due to high cost and low approval rates) as well as limited clinical trials (due to failures of neuro‑leads in late-stage pipelines) for CNS disorders which has become a literal brain drain with poorest success rates compared to other therapeutic areas, owing to time consuming processes, tremendous convolutions and conceivable adverse effects. With the advent of intranasal delivery (via direct N2B or indirect nose to blood to brain), several novel drug delivery carriers viz. unmodified or surface modified nanoparticle based carriers, lipid based colloidal nanocarriers and drysolid/liquid/semisolid nanoformulations or delivery platforms have been designed as a means to deliver therapeutic agents (small and large molecules, peptides and proteins, genes) to brain, bypassing BBB for disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), epilepsy, schizophrenia and CNS malignancies primarily glioblastomas. Intranasal application offers drug delivery through both direct and indirect pathways for the peripherally administered psychopharmacological agents to CNS. This route could also be exploited for the repurposing of conventional drugs for new therapeutic uses. The limited clinical translation of intranasal formulations has been primarily due to existence of barriers of mucociliary clearance in the nasal cavity, enzyme degradation and low permeability of the nasal epithelium. The present review literature aims to decipher the new paradigms of nano therapeutic systems employed for specific N2B drug delivery of CNS drugs through in silico complexation studies using rationally chosen mucoadhesive polymers (exhibiting unique physicochemical properties of nanocarrier's i.e. surface modification, prolonging retention time in the nasal cavity, improving penetration ability, and promoting brain specific delivery with biorecognitive ligands) via molecular docking simulations. Further, the review intends to delineate the feats and fallacies associated with N2B delivery approaches by understanding the physiological/anatomical considerations via decoding the intranasal drug delivery pathways or critical factors such as rationale and mechanism of excipients, affecting the permeability of CNS drugs through nasal mucosa as well as better efficacy in terms of brain targeting, brain bioavailability and time to reach the brain. Additionally, extensive emphasis has also been laid on the innovative formulations under preclinical investigation along with their assessment by means of in vitro /ex vivo/in vivo N2B models and current characterization techniques predisposing an efficient intranasal delivery of therapeutics. A critical appraisal of novel technologies, intranasal products or medical devices available commercially has also been presented. Finally, it could be warranted that more reminiscent pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationships or validated computational models are mandated to obtain effective screening of molecular architecture of drug-polymer-mucin complexes for clinical translation of N2B therapeutic systems from bench to bedside.

Multifunctional lipidic nanocarriers for effective therapy of glioblastoma: recent advances in stimuli-responsive, receptor and subcellular targeted approaches

Background

Glioblastoma, or glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), remains a fatal cancer type despite the remarkable progress in understanding the genesis and propagation of the tumor. Current treatment modalities, comprising mainly of surgery followed by adjuvant chemoradiation, are insufficient for improving patients' survival owing to existing hurdles, including the blood–brain barrier (BBB). In contemporary practice, the prospect of long-term survival or cure continues to be a challenge for patients suffering from GBM. This review provides an insight into the drug delivery strategies and the significant efforts made in lipid-based nanoplatform research to circumvent the challenges in optimal drug delivery in GBM.

Area covered

Owing to the unique properties of lipid-based nanoplatforms and advancements in clinical translation, this article describes the application of various stimuli-responsive lipid nanocarriers and tumor subcellular organelle-targeted therapy to give an idea about the strategies that can be applied to enhance site-specific drug delivery for GBM. Furthermore, active targeting of drugs via surface-modified lipid-based nanostructures and recent findings in alternative therapeutic platforms such as gene therapy, immunotherapy, and multimodal therapy have also been overviewed.

Expert opinion

Lipid-based nanoparticles stand out among the other nanocarriers explored for GBM drug delivery, as they support both passive and active drug targeting by crossing/bypassing the BBB at the same time minimizing toxicity and projects better pharmacological parameters. Although these nanocarriers could be a plausible choice for treating GBM, in-depth research is essential to advance neuro-oncology research and enhance outcomes in patients with brain tumors.

Chitosan Nanoparticles at the Biological Interface: Implications for Drug Delivery

The unique properties of chitosan make it a useful choice for various nanoparticulate drug delivery applications. Although chitosan is biocompatible and enables cellular uptake, its interactions at cellular and systemic levels need to be studied in more depth. This review focuses on the various physical and chemical properties of chitosan that affect its performance in biological systems. We aim to analyze recent research studying interactions of chitosan nanoparticles (NPs) upon their cellular uptake and their journey through the various compartments of the cell. The positive charge of chitosan enables it to efficiently attach to cells, increasing the probability of cellular uptake. Chitosan NPs are taken up by cells via different pathways and escape endosomal degradation due to the proton sponge effect. Furthermore, we have reviewed the interaction of chitosan NPs upon in vivo administration. Chitosan NPs are immediately surrounded by a serum protein corona in systemic circulation upon intravenous administration, and their biodistribution is mainly to the liver and spleen indicating RES uptake. However, the evasion of RES system as well as the targeting ability and bioavailability of chitosan NPs can be improved by utilizing specific routes of administration and covalent modifications of surface properties. Ongoing clinical trials of chitosan formulations for therapeutic applications are paving the way for the introduction of chitosan into the pharmaceutical market and for their toxicological evaluation. Chitosan provides specific biophysical properties for effective and tunable cellular uptake and systemic delivery for a wide range of applications.

Nano-lipidic formulation and therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease via intranasal route

AIM

The inability of drug molecules to cross the 'Blood-Brain Barrier' restrict the effective treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Lipid nanocarriers have proven to be a novel paradigm in brain targeting of bioactive by facilitating suitable therapeutic concentrations to be attained in the brain.

METHODS

The relevant information regarding the title of this review article was collected from the peer-reviewed published articles. Also, the physicochemical properties, and their in vitro and in vivo evaluations were presented in this review article.

RESULTS

Administration of lipid-based nano-carriers have abilities to target the brain, improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics properties of drugs, and mitigate the side effects of encapsulated therapeutic active agents.

CONCLUSION

Unlike oral and other routes, the Intranasal route promises high bioavailability, low first-pass effect, better pharmacokinetic properties, bypass of the systemic circulation, fewer incidences of unwanted side effects, and direct delivery of anti-AD drugs to the brain via circumventing 'Blood-Brain Barrier'.

Extracellular vesicles for the treatment of central nervous system diseases

The interest in extracellular vesicles (EVs) increased during the last decade. It is now established that these vesicles play a role in the pathogenesis of central nervous system diseases (CNS), which explains why they are studied as biomarkers in these pathologies. On the other hand, EVs can also present therapeutic properties, often similar to their parent cells, as observed with mesenchymal stem cell-derived EVs. They can then be used as therapeutics, alone or combined with a bioactive molecule, for the treatment of CNS diseases, as they can cross the blood-brain barrier more easily than synthetic nanomedicines and are less immunogenic. A few clinical trials are currently on-going but there are still challenges to overcome for further clinical translation such as the scale-up of the production, the lack of standardization for isolation and characterization methods and the low encapsulation efficiency.

Prior nasal delivery of antagomiR-122 prevents radiation-induced brain injury

Radiation-induced brain injury is a major adverse event in head and neck tumor treatment, influencing the quality of life for the more than 50% of patients who undergo radiation therapy and experience long-term survival. However, no effective treatments are available for these patients, and preventative drugs and effective drug-delivery methods must be developed. Based on our results, miR-122-5p was upregulated in the mouse radiation-induced brain injury (RBI) model and patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) who received radiation therapy. Intranasal administration of a single antagomiR-122-5p dose before irradiation effectively alleviated radiation-induced cognitive impairment, neuronal injury, and neuroinflammation in the mouse RBI model. Results further indicated that miR-122-5p inhibition in microglia reduced the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and enhanced the phagocytic function to protect against radiation-induced neuronal injury in cell models. Further, we profiled transcriptome data and verified that Tensin 1 (TNS1) may be the target of miR-122-5p in RBI. In summary, our results reveal a distinct role for miR-122-5p in regulating neuroinflammation in RBI, indicating that a non-invasive strategy for intranasal miR-122-5p administration may be an attractive therapeutic target in RBI, providing new insights for clinical trials. Further systematic safety assessment, optimization of drug administration, and clarity of mechanism will accelerate the process into clinical practice.

Systematically designed chitosan-coated solid lipid nanoparticles of ferulic acid for effective management of Alzheimer's disease: A preclinical evidence

Ferulic acid (FA) is a ubiquitous natural plant bioactive with distinctive promise in neurodegenerative disorders. However, its therapeutic efficacy gets compromised owing to its poor aqueous solubility, inadequate permeability across lipophilic barriers, and extensive first-pass metabolism. The current studies, therefore, were undertaken to systematically develop chitosan-coated solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) using QbD paradigms for improved efficacy of FA in the management of Alzheimer's disease (AD). SLNs of FA were formulated employing Compritol as lipid and polysorbate 80 as surfactant and optimised using a 3² Central Composite Design (CCD). The optimized formulation, surface-coated with chitosan using ionic gelation, exhibited particle size of 185 nm, entrapment efficiency of 51.2 % and zeta potential of 12.4 mV. FTIR and DSC studies verified the compatibility of FA with formulation excipients, PXRD construed significant loss of drug crystallinity, while FESEM depicted existence of uniform spherical nanoparticles with little aggregation. Notable improvement in ex vivo mucoadhesion and permeation studies using goat nasal mucosa, coupled with extension in in vitro drug release, was obtained with SLNs. Substantial improvement with SLNs in cognitive ability through the reduction in escape latency time during behavioural studies, together with significant improvement in various biochemical parameters and body weight gain was observed in AD-induced rats. Histopathological images of different rat organs showed no perceptible change(s) in tissue morphology. Overall, these preclinical findings successfully demonstrate improved anti-AD efficacy, superior nasal mucoadhesion and permeation, extended drug release, improved patient compliance potential, safety and robustness of the developed lipidic nanoconstructs of FA through intranasal route.

A comparison study of lipid and polymeric nanoparticles in the nasal delivery of meloxicam: Formulation, characterization, and in vitro evaluation

With the increasingly widespread of central nervous system (CNS) disorders and the lack of sufficiently effective medication, meloxicam (MEL) has been reported as a possible medication for Alzheimer's disease (AD) management. Unfortunately, following the conventional application routes, the low brain bioavailability of MEL forms a significant limitation. The intranasal (IN) administration route is considered revolutionary for CNS medications delivery. The objective of the present study was to develop two types of nanocarriers, poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), for the IN delivery of MEL adapting the Quality by Design approach (QbD). Turning then to further enhance the optimized nanoformulation behavior by chitosan-coating. SLNs showed higher encapsulation efficacy (EE) and drug loading (DL) than PLGA NPs 87.26% (EE) and 2.67% (DL); 72.23% (EE) and 2.55% (DL), respectively. MEL encapsulated into the nanoformulations improved in vitro release, mucoadhesion, and permeation behavior compared to the native drug with greater superiority of chitosan-coated SLNs (C-SLNs). In vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC) results estimated a significant in vivo brain distribution of the nanoformulations compared to native MEL with estimated greater potential in the C-SLNs. Hence, MEL encapsulation into C-SLNs towards IN route can be promising in enhancing its brain bioavailability.

New advances in brain-targeting nano-drug delivery systems for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease worldwide and its incidence is increasing due to the ageing population. Currently, the main limitations of AD treatment are low blood-brain barrier permeability, severe off-target of drugs, and immune abnormality. In this review, four hypotheses for Alzheimer's pathogenesis and three challenges for Alzheimer's drug delivery are discussed. In addition, this article summarises the different strategies of brain targeting nano-drug delivery systems (NDDSs) developed in the last 10 years. These strategies include receptor-mediated (transferrin receptor, low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein, lactoferrin receptor, etc.), adsorption-mediated (cationic, alkaline polypeptide, cell-penetrating peptides, etc.), and transporter-mediated (P-gp, GLUT1, etc.). Moreover, it provides insights into novel strategies used in AD, such as exosomes, virus-like particles, and cell membrane coating particles. Hence, this review will help researchers to understand the current progress in the field of NDDSs for the central nervous system and find new directions for AD therapy.HighlightsCharacteristics and challenges based on the pathogenesis of AD were discussed.Recent advances in novel brain-targeting NDDSs for AD over the past 10 years were summarised.

Enhanced alveo pulmonary deposition of nebulized ciclesonide for attenuating airways inflammations: a strategy to overcome metered dose inhaler drawbacks

Ciclesonide (CIC), an inhaled corticosteroid for bronchial asthma is currently available as metered dose inhaler (CIC–MDI) which possesses a major challenge in the management of the elderly, critically ill patients and children. In this work, nebulized CIC nano-structure lipid particles (CIC-NLPs) were prepared and evaluated for their deep pulmonary delivery and cytotoxicity to provide additional clinical benefits to patients in controlled manner and lower dose. The bio-efficacy following nebulization in ovalbumin (OVA) induced asthma Balb/c mice compared to commercial (CIC–MDI) was also assessed. The developed NLPs of 222.6 nm successfully entrapped CIC (entrapment efficiency 93.3%) and exhibited favorable aerosolization efficiency (mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) 2.03 μm and fine particle fraction (FPF) of 84.51%) at lower impactor stages indicating deep lung deposition without imparting any cytotoxic effect up to a concentration of 100 μg/ml. The nebulization of 40 µg dose of the developed CIC-NLPs revealed significant therapeutic impact in the mitigation of the allergic airways inflammations when compared to 80 µg dose of the commercial CIC–MDI inhaler (Alvesco^®). Superior anti-inflammatory and antioxidative stress effects characterized by significant decrease (p< .0001) in inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and 13, serum IgE levels, malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), TNF-α, and activated nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activity were obvious with concomitant increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Histological examination with inhibition of inflammatory cell infiltration in the respiratory tract was correlated well with observed biochemical improvement.