How ants shape biodiversity

Slit in a Nest Site Influences the Nest Site Selection in Cavity Nesting Ant Colonies

For ants, nests provide a refuge against predators and protection from environmental factors. Thus, choosing a good nest site is important for an ant colony, but nest sites are limited resources. Ants of the genus Temnothorax inhabit small cavities in, e.g., acorns, twigs and under rocks. Earlier, it was shown that the ants are able to choose a superior site. In this study, using binary choice tests, we studied the nest site selection by Temnothorax crassispinus ant colonies that typically inhabit empty acorns. For this purpose, we used artificial nest sites without and with an additional slit in the nest wall, mimicking the cracks in potential nest sites under natural conditions. We found that the ant colonies preferred artificial nest sites without these slits. However, no difference in the number of colonies inhabited nest sites with a slit vs. those without a slit was found when the slits were closed using transparent food foil, which prevented the air flow while keeping an inflow of light. What is more, additional light through the hole in the red filter covering the artificial nest sites had no influence on the nest site selection. The results of this study suggest that the air flow through a slit in the nest site wall, rather than additional light, influences the nest site selection. The absence of cracks, e.g., in acorns, could be an indication of the durability of potential nest sites. Thus, choosing a cavity without such damage could be beneficial for the ant colonies.

Long-term strict ant-plant mutualism identity characterises growth rate and leaf shearing resistance of an Amazonian myrmecophyte

Over 125 million years of ant-plant interactions have culminated in one of the most intriguing evolutionary outcomes in life history. The myrmecophyte Duroia hirsuta (Rubiaceae) is known for its mutualistic association with the ant Myrmelachista schumanni and several other species, mainly Azteca, in the north-western Amazon. While both ants provide indirect defences to plants, only M. schumanni nests in plant domatia and has the unique behaviour of clearing the surroundings of its host tree from heterospecific plants, potentially increasing resource availability to its host. Using a 12-year survey, we asked how the continuous presence of either only M. schumanni or only Azteca spp. benefits the growth and defence traits of host trees. We found that the continuous presence of M. schumanni improved relative growth rates and leaf shearing resistance of Duroia better than trees with Azteca. However, leaf herbivory, dry matter content, trichome density, and secondary metabolite production were the same in all trees. Survival depended directly on ant association (> 94% of trees died when ants were absent). This study extends our understanding of the long-term effects of strict ant-plant mutualism on host plant traits in the field and reinforces the use of D. hirsuta-M. schumanni as a model system suitable for eco-co-evolutionary research on plant-animal interactions.

The genomic and cellular basis of biosynthetic innovation in rove beetles

How evolution at the cellular level potentiates macroevolutionary change is central to understanding biological diversification. The >66,000 rove beetle species (Staphylinidae) form the largest metazoan family. Combining genomic and cell type transcriptomic insights spanning the largest clade, Aleocharinae, we retrace evolution of two cell types comprising a defensive gland-a putative catalyst behind staphylinid megadiversity. We identify molecular evolutionary steps leading to benzoquinone production by one cell type via a mechanism convergent with plant toxin release systems, and synthesis by the second cell type of a solvent that weaponizes the total secretion. This cooperative system has been conserved since the Early Cretaceous as Aleocharinae radiated into tens of thousands of lineages. Reprogramming each cell type yielded biochemical novelties enabling ecological specialization-most dramatically in symbionts that infiltrate social insect colonies via host-manipulating secretions. Our findings uncover cell type evolutionary processes underlying the origin and evolvability of a beetle chemical innovation.

Global biogeographic regions for ants have complex relationships with those for plants and tetrapods

On a global scale, biodiversity is geographically structured into regions of biotic similarity. Delineating these regions has been mostly targeted for tetrapods and plants, but those for hyperdiverse groups such as insects are relatively unknown. Insects may have higher biogeographic congruence with plants than tetrapods due to their tight ecological and evolutionary links with the former, but it remains untested. Here, we develop a global regionalization for a major and widespread insect group, ants, based on the most comprehensive distributional and phylogenetic information to date, and examine its similarity to regionalizations for tetrapods and vascular plants. Our ant regionalization supports the newly proposed Madagascan and Sino-Japanese realms based on tetrapod delineations, and it recovers clusters observed in plants but not in tetrapods, such as the Holarctic and Indo-Pacific realms. Quantitative comparison suggests strong associations among different groups-plants showed a higher congruence with ants than with tetrapods. These results underscore the wide congruence of diverse distribution patterns across the tree of life and the similarities shared by insects and plants that are not captured by tetrapod groups. Our analysis highlights the importance of developing global biogeographic maps for insect groups to obtain a more comprehensive geographic picture of life on Earth.

Plant-ant interactions mediate herbivore-induced conspecific negative density dependence in a subtropical forest

The early growth stage of plants is vital to community diversity and community regeneration. The Janzen-Connell hypothesis predicts that conspecific density dependence lowers the survival of conspecific seedlings by attracting specialist natural enemies, promoting the recruitment and performance of heterospecific neighbors. Recent work has underscored how this conspecific negative density dependence may be mediated by mutualists - such as how mycorrhizal fungi may mediate the accrual of host-specific pathogens beneath the crown of conspecific adult trees. Aboveground mutualist and enemy interactions exist as well, however, and may provide useful insight into density dependence that are as of yet unexplored. Using a long-term seedling demographic dataset in a subtropical forest plot in central China, we confirmed that conspecific neighborhoods had a significant negative effect on seedling survival in this subtropical forest. Furthermore, although we detected more leaf damage in species that were closely related to ants, we found that the presence of ants had significant positive effects on seedling survival. Beside this, we also found a negative effect of ant appearance on seedling growth which may reflect a trade-off between survival and growth. Overall, our findings suggested that ants and conspecific neighborhoods played important but inverse roles on seedling survival and growth. Our results suggest ants may mediate the influence of conspecific negative density dependence on seedling survival at community level.

Prolonged faunal turnover in earliest ants revealed by North American Cretaceous amber

All ∼14,000 extant ant species descended from the same common ancestor, which lived ∼140-120 million years ago (Ma).1,2 While modern ants began to diversify in the Cretaceous, recent fossil evidence has demonstrated that older lineages concomitantly occupied the same ancient ecosystems.3 These early-diverging ant lineages, or stem ants, left no modern descendants; however, they dominated the fossil record throughout the Cretaceous until their ultimate extinction sometime around the K-Pg boundary. Even as stem ant lineages appear to be diverse and abundant throughout the Cretaceous, the extent of their longevity in the fossil record and circumstances contributing to their extinction remain unknown.3 Here we report the youngest stem ants, preserved in ∼77 Ma Cretaceous amber from North Carolina, which illustrate unexpected morphological stability and lineage persistence in this enigmatic group, rivaling the longevity of contemporary ants. Through phylogenetic reconstruction and morphometric analyses, we find evidence that total taxic turnover in ants was not accompanied by a fundamental morphological shift, in contrast to other analogous stem extinctions such as theropod dinosaurs. While stem taxa showed broad morphological variation, high-density ant morphospace remained relatively constant through the last 100 million years, detailing a parallel, but temporally staggered, evolutionary history of modern and stem ants.

Ant evolution: Amber revelations of extinction, survival and recovery

Ant fossils from the Cretaceous are rare but critical for understanding the early evolution of this incredibly successful group of animals. New amber fossils fill important gaps, revealing patterns of death, survival, and radiation around the end Cretaceous extinction.

The Angiosperm Terrestrial Revolution buffered ants against extinction

With ~14,000 extant species, ants are ubiquitous and of tremendous ecological importance. They have undergone remarkable diversification throughout their evolutionary history. However, the drivers of their diversity dynamics are not well quantified or understood. Previous phylogenetic analyses have suggested patterns of diversity dynamics associated with the Angiosperm Terrestrial Revolution (ATR), but these studies have overlooked valuable information from the fossil record. To address this gap, we conducted a comprehensive analysis using a large dataset that includes both the ant fossil record (~24,000 individual occurrences) and neontological data (~14,000 occurrences), and tested four hypotheses proposed for ant diversification: co-diversification, competitive extinction, hyper-specialization, and buffered extinction. Taking into account biases in the fossil record, we found three distinct diversification periods (the latest Cretaceous, Eocene, and Oligo-Miocene) and one extinction period (Late Cretaceous). The competitive extinction hypothesis between stem and crown ants is not supported. Instead, we found support for the co-diversification, buffered extinction, and hyper-specialization hypotheses. The environmental changes of the ATR, mediated by the angiosperm radiation, likely played a critical role in buffering ants against extinction and favoring their diversification by providing new ecological niches, such as forest litter and arboreal nesting sites, and additional resources. We also hypothesize that the decline and extinction of stem ants during the Late Cretaceous was due to their hyper-specialized morphology, which limited their ability to expand their dietary niche in changing environments. This study highlights the importance of a holistic approach when studying the interplay between past environments and the evolutionary trajectories of organisms.

Non-native ants are breaking down biogeographic boundaries and homogenizing community assemblages

As geographic distance increases, species assemblages become more distinct, defining global biogeographic realms with abrupt biogeographic boundaries. Yet, it remains largely unknown to what extent these realms may change because of human-mediated dispersal of species. Focusing on the distributions of 309 non-native ant species, we show that historical biogeographic patterns have already broken down into tropical versus non-tropical regions. Importantly, we demonstrate that these profound changes are not limited to the distribution patterns of non-native ants but fundamentally alter biogeographic boundaries of all ant biodiversity (13,774 species). In total, 52% of ant assemblages have become more similar, supporting a global trend of biotic homogenization. Strikingly, this trend was strongest on islands and in the tropics, which harbor some of the most vulnerable ecosystems. Overall, we show that the pervasive anthropogenic impacts on biodiversity override biogeographic patterns resulting from millions of years of evolution, and disproportionally affect particular regions.

Influences of wildfire on the forest ecosystem and climate change: A comprehensive study

Wildfires have complex impacts on forests, including changes in vegetation, threats to biodiversity, and emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, which exacerbate climate change. The influence of wildfires on animal habitats is particularly noteworthy, as they can lead to significant changes in native environments. The extent of these alterations in species and habitats plays a crucial role in shaping forest ecology. Drought, disease, insect infestations, overgrazing, or their combined effects can amplify the negative effects on specific plant genera and entire ecosystems. In addition to the immediate consequences of plant mortality and altered community dynamics, forest fires have far-reaching implications. They often increase flowering and seed production, further influencing ecological communities. However, one concerning trend is the decline in the diversity of forest biological species within fire-affected areas. Beyond their ecological impacts, wildfires emit substantial quantities of greenhouse gases and fine particulates into the atmosphere, triggering profound changes in climate patterns and contributing to global warming. As vegetation burns during these fires, the carbon stored within is released, rendering large forest fires detrimental to biodiversity and the emission of CO2, a significant contributor to global warming. Measuring the global impact of wildfires on ecological communities and greenhouse gas emissions has become increasingly vital. These research endeavors shed light on the intricate relationships and feedback loops linking wildfires, ecosystem inhabitants, and the evolving climate landscape.

Fight and rescue or give up and flee? Behavioural responses of different ant species tending the mutualist walnut aphid Panaphis juglandis to native and exotic lady beetles

Mutualism between ants and honeydew-producing hemipterans is a highly successful evolutionary innovation that attains the status of ecological keystone across many terrestrial ecosystems, involving a multitude of actors through direct or cascading effects. In these relationships, ants often protect their hemipteran partners against their arthropod natural enemies, sometimes interfering with the biological control of pest species. However, the dynamics of these interactions are highly variable based on the specific identity of all the actors involved, and baseline data remain scarce. We performed a field experiment exposing colonies of the walnut aphid Panaphis juglandis attended by five European ant species (Camponotus piceus, Ca. vagus, Crematogaster scutellaris, Dolichoderus quadripunctatus, Lasius emarginatus) to a native and an exotic lady beetle (Adalia bipunctata and Harmonia axyridis), documenting the behavioural interactions between these insects and the performance of ants in the protection of the aphids. Our results reveal a significant behavioural diversity among the ant species involved, with D. quadripunctatus and L. emarginatus being the most aggressive and having the best performance as aphid defenders, and Ca. piceus being least effective and often fleeing away. Cr. scutellaris displayed a rare rescue behaviour attempting to pull away the aphids that the lady beetles grabbed. On the other hand, behavioural responses to A. bipunctata and H. axyridis were similar. Further investigations are needed to understand the eco-ethological implications of these differences, while a better understanding of ant behavioural diversity may help refine biological control strategies.

Bacterial diversity in arboreal ant nesting spaces is linked to colony developmental stage

The omnipresence of ants is commonly attributed to their eusocial organization and division of labor, however, bacteria in their nests may facilitate their success. Like many other arboreal ants living in plant-provided cavities, Azteca ants form dark-colored "patches" in their nesting space inside Cecropia host plants. These patches are inhabited by bacteria, fungi and nematodes and appear to be essential for ant colony development. Yet, detailed knowledge of the microbial community composition and its consistency throughout the life cycle of ant colonies was lacking. Amplicon sequencing of the microbial 16S rRNA genes in patches from established ant colonies reveals a highly diverse, ant species-specific bacterial community and little variation within an individual ant colony, with Burkholderiales, Rhizobiales and Chitinophagales being most abundant. In contrast, bacterial communities of early ant colony stages show low alpha diversity and no ant species-specific community composition. We suggest a substrate-caused bottleneck after vertical transmission of the bacterial patch community from mother to daughter colonies. The subsequent ecological succession is driven by environmental parameters and influenced by ant behavior. Our study provides key information for future investigations determining the functions of these bacteria, which is essential to understand the ubiquity of such patches among arboreal ants.

Non-native ants drive dramatic declines in animal community diversity: A meta-analysis

Non-native ants can cause ecosystem-wide ecological change, and these changes are generally assumed to be negative. Despite this, the evidence base has never been holistically synthesised to quantify whether and to what degree non-native ants impact native species diversity.In this study, we performed a meta-analysis of the effects of ant invasion on animal communities. We extracted data from 46 published articles investigating abundance (156 effect sizes) and richness (53 effect sizes) responses of animal taxa to ant invasion in locations relatively unimpacted by other stressors (e.g. human disturbance, other non-native species) to help isolate the effects of invasion.Overall, local animal diversity declined severely, with species abundance and richness lower by 42.79% and 53.56%, respectively, in areas with non-native ants compared with intact uninvaded sites. We then combined responses of individual animal taxa extracted from an article into a single response to represent the 'community' abundance (40 effect sizes) or richness (28 effect sizes) response to non-native ants represented in each article. Local communities decreased substantially in total abundance (52.67%) and species richness (53.47%) in invaded sites.These results highlight non-native ants as the drivers, rather than passengers, of large net-negative reductions to animal community diversity in relatively undisturbed systems around the world, approximately halving local species abundance and richness in invaded areas. Improved international prevention processes, early detection systems harnessing emerging technologies, and well-designed control measures deployable by conservation practitioners are urgently needed if these effects are to be mitigated, prevented or reversed.

Cohabitation with aggressive hosts: description of a new microhisterid species in nests of a ponerine ant with ecological notes

A new clown beetle species, Bacanius neoponerae, is described from Mexican nests of the arboreal ponerine ant Neoponera villosa found in the tank bromeliad Aechmea bracteata. Adult beetles were found in brood chambers or inner refuse piles, but also outside the ant nests, in decaying organic matter between the bromeliad leaves. No direct interactions between ants and microhisterid beetles could be observed. Several lines of evidence suggest a close relationship either with the ants, specific microhabitats within the ant nests or the bromeliads. Sample site elevation, colony size, monthly rainfall and collecting site were the main variables predicting the association. Almost half of the N. villosa colonies were associated with the microhisterids, and larger colonies favored their presence, especially during the driest months of the year. Two specimens were found in a nest of another ant species, Camponotus atriceps, also inhabiting A. bracteata. The new species is the seventh of the genus Bacanius reported from Mexico. This is the second time a species of this genus is associated with ants, and the fourth record of a histerid beetle cohabiting with ponerine ants. The small size of these beetles and their very protective body structure may facilitate their cohabitation with such aggressive hosts.

Ants of Mexico: Distribution and species richness in environments with varying levels of human impact

Background

Anthropogenic disturbance, primarily driven by land-use changes, has caused alterations in ecosystems and biodiversity, including the ant community. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyse the current landscape of ant species richness and distribution in environments with varying degrees of disturbance in Mexico. Additionally, we sought to identify ant species of ecological, economic and health significance within the country.

New information

The present study shows that Mexico has a total of 33,286 records of 1,104 ant species belonging to 10 subfamilies. These species were recorded in a wide variety of environments with different levels of human impact. It was observed that both highly-disturbed environments and undisturbed environments had the highest number of ant records. In undisturbed environments, greater species richness was recorded, with a total of 704 species. Furthermore, the most representative ant species for the country were identified in ecological, economic and human health contexts. Within these species, a group composed of four exotic species (Tapinomamelanocephalum, Paratrechinalongicornis, Wasmanniaauropunctata and Linepithemahumile) deserves special attention, as they have achieved extensive dispersion throughout the country and have been associated with negative impacts in ecological, economic and human health realms.

Cold comfort: metabolic rate and tolerance to low temperatures predict latitudinal distribution in ants

Metabolic compensation has been proposed as a mean for ectotherms to cope with colder climates. For example, under the metabolic cold adaptation and the metabolic homeostasis hypotheses (MCA and MHH), it has been formulated that cold-adapted ectotherms should display both higher (MCA) and more thermally sensitive (MHH) metabolic rates (MRs) at lower temperatures. However, whether such compensation can truly be associated with distribution, and whether it interplays with cold tolerance to predict species' climatic niches, remains largely unclear despite broad ecological implications thereof. Here, we teased apart the relationship between MRs, cold tolerance and distribution, to test the MCA/MHH among 13 European ant species. We report clear metabolic compensation effects, consistent with the MCA and MHH, where MR parameters strongly correlated with latitude and climatic factors across species' distributions. The combination of both cold tolerance and MRs further upheld the best predictions of species' environmental temperatures and limits of northernmost distribution. To our knowledge, this is the first study showing that the association of metabolic data with cold tolerance supports better predictive models of species' climate and distribution in social insects than models including cold tolerance alone. These results also highlight that adaptation to higher latitudes in ants involved adjustments of both cold tolerance and MRs, to allow this extremely successful group of insects to thrive under colder climates.

The genomic and cellular basis of biosynthetic innovation in rove beetles

How evolution at the cellular level potentiates change at the macroevolutionary level is a major question in evolutionary biology. With >66,000 described species, rove beetles (Staphylinidae) comprise the largest metazoan family. Their exceptional radiation has been coupled to pervasive biosynthetic innovation whereby numerous lineages bear defensive glands with diverse chemistries. Here, we combine comparative genomic and single-cell transcriptomic data from across the largest rove beetle clade, Aleocharinae. We retrace the functional evolution of two novel secretory cell types that together comprise the tergal gland-a putative catalyst behind Aleocharinae's megadiversity. We identify key genomic contingencies that were critical to the assembly of each cell type and their organ-level partnership in manufacturing the beetle's defensive secretion. This process hinged on evolving a mechanism for regulated production of noxious benzoquinones that appears convergent with plant toxin release systems, and synthesis of an effective benzoquinone solvent that weaponized the total secretion. We show that this cooperative biosynthetic system arose at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary, and that following its establishment, both cell types underwent ∼150 million years of stasis, their chemistry and core molecular architecture maintained almost clade-wide as Aleocharinae radiated globally into tens of thousands of lineages. Despite this deep conservation, we show that the two cell types have acted as substrates for the emergence of adaptive, biochemical novelties-most dramatically in symbiotic lineages that have infiltrated social insect colonies and produce host behavior-manipulating secretions. Our findings uncover genomic and cell type evolutionary processes underlying the origin, functional conservation and evolvability of a chemical innovation in beetles.

Predatory Abilities of Two Mediterranean Ants on the Eggs and Larvae of the Codling Moth Cydia pomonella

The predatory ability of ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) against insect pests can offer an important service to agricultural activities and may sometimes be directly exploited in biological control strategies. The codling moth Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) is a major agricultural pest of fruit orchards, whose biological control is complicated by the fact that the larvae spend most of their life protected within the fruits they damage. In a recent experiment in Europe, pear trees in which ant activity was artificially increased by the addition of sugary liquid dispensers (artificial nectaries) suffered less damage caused by the larvae to their fruits. While some ants were already known to prey upon the mature larvae or pupae of C. pomonella in the soil, prevention of fruit damage would require predation upon eggs or newly hatched larvae, which have not yet excavated into the fruits. We verified whether two different Mediterranean ants frequently observed in fruit orchards, Crematogaster scutellaris and Tapinoma magnum, were able to prey upon C. pomonella eggs and larvae in laboratory conditions. Our experiments demonstrated that both species similarly attacked and killed young C. pomonella larvae. On the other hand, the eggs mostly attracted the attention of T. magnum but were never damaged. Further field assessments are required to understand whether ants may also interfere with oviposition by adults or whether larger ant species, although generally rarer in orchards, may also prey upon eggs.

The global distribution of known and undiscovered ant biodiversity

Invertebrates constitute the majority of animal species and are critical for ecosystem functioning and services. Nonetheless, global invertebrate biodiversity patterns and their congruences with vertebrates remain largely unknown. We resolve the first high-resolution (~20-km) global diversity map for a major invertebrate clade, ants, using biodiversity informatics, range modeling, and machine learning to synthesize existing knowledge and predict the distribution of undiscovered diversity. We find that ants and different vertebrate groups have distinct features in their patterns of richness and rarity, underscoring the need to consider a diversity of taxa in conservation. However, despite their phylogenetic and physiological divergence, ant distributions are not highly anomalous relative to variation among vertebrate clades. Furthermore, our models predict that rarity centers largely overlap (78%), suggesting that general forces shape endemism patterns across taxa. This raises confidence that conservation of areas important for small-ranged vertebrates will benefit invertebrates while providing a "treasure map" to guide future discovery.

Behavioral, ecological and evolutionary mechanisms underlying caterpillar-ant symbioses

At least 30 different groups in seventeen butterfly and moth families (Lepidoptera) include ant-associated caterpillars. The life histories of more than 900 ant-associated species have been documented from the butterfly families Lycaenidae and Riodinidae, with relationships ranging from parasitism to mutualism. Caterpillars that appear to secrete food rewards for ants are not necessarily mutualists, and a number of species are known to manipulate ants with deceptive chemical and vibratory signals. The functional variability of different exocrine glands deployed as 'ant organs' makes them prone to convergence, and it remains unclear whether ant association originated more than once in lycaenids and riodinids. The relative costs and benefits of caterpillar integration with ants is context dependent: both top-down and bottom-up effects influence the evolution of ant associations.

Parallel evolutionary paths of rove beetle myrmecophiles: replaying a deep-time tape of life

The rise of ants over the past ~100 million years reshaped the biosphere, presenting ecological challenges for many organisms, but also opportunities. No insect group has been so adept at exploiting niches inside ant colonies as the rove beetles (Staphylinidae) - a global clade of>64,000 predominantly free-living predators from which numerous socially parasitic 'myrmecophile' lineages have emerged. Myrmecophilous staphylinids are specialized for colony life through changes in behavior, chemistry, anatomy, and life history that are often strikingly convergent, and hence potentially adaptive for this symbiotic way of life. Here, we examine how the interplay between ecological pressures and molecular, cellular, and neurobiological mechanisms shape the evolutionary trajectories of symbiotic lineages in this ancient, convergent system.

Ecological radiations of insects in the Mesozoic

The Mesozoic is a key era for the rise of the modern insect fauna. Among the most important evolutionary events in Mesozoic insects are the radiation of holometabolous insects, the origin of eusocial and parasitoid insects, diversification of pollinating insects, and development of advanced mimicry and camouflage. These events are closely associated with the diversification of insect ecological behaviors and colonization of new ecospaces. At the same time, insects had evolved more complex and closer ecological associations with various plants and animals. Mesozoic insects played a key and underappreciated ecological role in reconstructing and maintaining terrestrial ecosystems. A greater understanding of the history of insects may help to mitigate future changes in insect diversity and abundance.

The response of ants to climate change

Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) are one of the most dominant terrestrial organisms worldwide. They are hugely abundant, both in terms of sheer numbers and biomass, on every continent except Antarctica and are deeply embedded within a diversity of ecological networks and processes. Ants are also eusocial and colonial organisms-their lifecycle is built on the labor of sterile worker ants who support a small number of reproductive individuals. Given the climatic changes that our planet faces, we need to understand how various important taxonomic groups will respond; this includes the ants. In this review, we synthesize the available literature to tackle this question. The answer is complicated. The ant literature has focused on temperature, and we broadly understand the ways in which thermal changes may affect ant colonies, populations, and communities. In general, we expect that species living in the Tropics, and in thermally variable microhabitats, such as the canopy and leaf litter environments, will be negatively impacted by rising temperatures. Species living in the temperate zones and those able to thermally buffer their nests in the soil or behaviorally avoid higher temperatures, however, are likely to be unaffected or may even benefit from a changed climate. How ants will respond to changes to other abiotic drivers associated with climate change is largely unknown, as is the detail on how altered ant populations and communities will ramify through their wider ecological networks. We discuss how eusociality may allow ants to adapt to, or tolerate, climate change in ways that solitary organisms cannot and we identify key geographic and phylogenetic hotspots of climate vulnerability and resistance. We finish by emphasizing the key research questions that we need to address moving forward so that we may fully appreciate how this critical insect group will respond to the ongoing climate crisis.