Young children's transfer of strategies: Utilization deficiencies, executive function, and metacognition

Of popsicles and crackers: when spatio-temporal memory is not integrated into children's decision-making

Prior research has used innovative paradigms to show that some non-human animal species demonstrate behavioural choices (i.e. foraging for a food item at a specific location, and at a time that guarantees it has not yet decayed), reflecting episodic-like or 'WWW' memory (memory for 'what' happened, 'where' and 'when'). These results raised the question of whether similar approaches could be used to examine memory in young children in order to reduce verbal demands. The present research examines the extent to which children's WWW memory aligns with memory-based choices in 3- to 5-year-olds (n = 95; study 1) and in 7- to 11-year-olds and adults (n = 168; study 2). Results indicate that preschoolers' struggle with choice-based tasks probably reflects difficulty integrating their WWW memory with an understanding that certain items decay over time. Moreover, a convergence between verbal recall measures and choice-based measures is observable in 7-year-olds and beyond, reflecting a stronger integration of memory signals, understanding of state transformation, and decision-making. This article is part of the theme issue 'Elements of episodic memory: lessons from 40 years of research'.

The successful use of a search strategy improves with visuospatial working memory in 2- to 4.5-year-olds

Using spatial cues such as shape, orientation, and pattern aids visuospatial working memory because it allows strategies that reduce the load on this cognitive resource. One such strategy, namely taking advantage of patterned spatial distributions, remains understudied to date. This strategy demands keeping track of already-searched locations and excluding them from further search and so correlates with visuospatial working memory. The use of such strategies should, in principle, develop in early childhood, but because most studies focus on chunking, the development of other strategies reducing the load on working memory is understudied in young children. Therefore, in this study we tested whether children aged 2 to 4.5 years (N = 97) could take advantage of spatial cues in their search and whether this ability correlated with their age, verbal ability, and visuospatial working memory. The results showed that the ability to use a patterned spatial distribution (searching a row of locations from one side to the other instead of a random search) significantly improved with visuospatial working memory but not with age or verbal ability. These results suggest that visuospatial abilities may rapidly develop from 2 to 4.5 years of age, and given their impact on later mathematic achievement, demand increased attention in cognitive developmental research and early childhood education.

Judgments of relevance in preschoolers: a study of training and transfer of self-cueing strategies

Introduction

When facing a task, children must analyze it precisely to fully identify what its goal is. This is particularly difficult for young children, who mainly rely on environmental cues to get there. Research suggests that training children to look for the most relevant perceptual cues is promising. Furthermore, as transferring skills to a new task is difficult, the question of whether young children are able to transfer such training remains open. The aim of this study was to test the extent to which two strategies of goal self-cueing-labeling and pointing-can help 4-year-old children to identify the relevant cues to clearly identify the goal of the task. The effects of explicit strategy training were tested in a near transfer task.

Method

Ninety-nine typically developing 4 year olds took part in the study. They were divided into three groups: two were trained collectively in one of the two strategies and the third group as a control group with no strategy training. All children performed a cued card-sorting task four times: Pre-test, Collective training, Post-test, and Transfer with new cards.

Results

Results confirmed the beneficial effect of strategy training on goal identification, particularly after training (Post-test). In the transfer phase, all three groups performed equally well.

Discussion

This study contributes to our understanding of how young children seek information when they look for the most relevant cues for identifying the goal of a task, and the benefits they may derive in a transfer task. It seems that the use of visual cues and self-cueing strategies helps preschoolers to clearly identify the goal of a task. Results are discussed in the light of the self-regulated learning framework. Some possible classroom applications are suggested.

Development of complex executive function over childhood: Longitudinal growth curve modeling of performance on the Groton Maze Learning Task

This longitudinal study modeled children's complex executive function (EF) development using the Groton Maze Learning Task (GMLT). Using a cohort-sequential design, 147 children (61 males, 5.5-11 years) were recruited from six multicultural primary schools in Melbourne and Perth, Australia. Race/ethnicity data were not available. Children were assessed on the GMLT at 6-month intervals over 2-years between 2010 and 2012. Growth curve models describe age-related change from 5.5 to 12.5 years old. Results showed a quadratic growth trajectory on each measure of error-that is, those that reflect visuospatial memory, executive control (or the ability to apply rules for action), and complex EF. The ability to apply rules for action, while a rate-limiting factor in complex EF, develops rapidly over early-to-mid childhood.

MetaCogs: Mitigating Executive Dysfunction via Agent-Based Modeling for Metacognitive Strategy Development

Executive functions (EF) are a collection of cognitive domains governing task initiation, motor planning, attention, and goal-oriented action. Difficulties with EF have marked impacts on adaptive living skills, learning outcomes, and quality of life for people with cognitive and psychosocial disabilities, as well as the broader population. While there is considerable research interest in EF training intervention for disabled populations, very few studies explore metacognitive intervention for people with cognitive disabilities. Metacognition comprises conscious beliefs and strategies around task management and goal setting. Metacognitive awareness has been shown to mediate the effects of executive function on self-regulated learning. Metacognitive interventions have also shown promise in general education, military training, and medical practice. We present a virtual reality experience deploying agent-based modeling to support explicit metacognitive strategy instruction for undergraduate students of all neurotypes. Our results support that explicit instructional material explaining executive function and metacognition in relation to problem-solving experiences influenced participant self-concept and awareness of personal traits and cognitive processes.

A Randomized Controlled Trial of Working Memory Training in Pediatric Sickle Cell Disease

OBJECTIVE

Youth with sickle cell disease (SCD) are at risk for neurocognitive deficits including problems with working memory (WM), but few interventions to improve functioning exist. This study sought to determine the feasibility and efficacy of home-based, digital WM training on short-term memory and WM, behavioral outcomes, and academic fluency using a parallel group randomized controlled trial design.

METHODS

47 children (7-16 years) with SCD and short-term memory or WM difficulties were randomized to Cogmed Working Memory Training at home on a tablet device (N = 24) or to a standard care Waitlist group (N = 23) that used Cogmed after the waiting period. Primary outcomes assessed in clinic included performance on verbal and nonverbal short-term memory and WM tasks. Secondary outcomes included parent-rated executive functioning and tests of math and reading fluency.

RESULTS

In the evaluable sample, the Cogmed group (N = 21) showed greater improvement in visual WM compared with the Waitlist group (N = 22; p = .03, d = 0.70 [CI95 = 0.08, 1.31]). When examining a combined sample of participants, those who completed ≥10 training sessions exhibited significant improvements in verbal short-term memory, visual WM, and math fluency. Adherence to Cogmed was lower than expected (M = 9.07 sessions, SD = 7.77), with 19 participants (41%) completing at least 10 sessions. Conclusions: Visual WM, an ability commonly affected by SCD, is modifiable with cognitive training. Benefits extended to verbal short-term memory and math fluency when patients completed a sufficient training dose. Additional research is needed to identify ideal candidates for training and determine whether training gains are sustainable and generalize to real-world outcomes.

Deciding What to Do: Developments in Children’s Spontaneous Monitoring of Cognitive Demands

How do children decide which tasks to take on? Understanding whether and when children begin to monitor cognitive demands to guide task selection is important as children gain increasing independence from adults in deciding which tasks to attempt themselves. In this article, we review evidence suggesting a developmental transition in children's consideration of cognitive demands when making choices about tasks: Although younger children are capable of monitoring cognitive demands to guide task selection, spontaneous monitoring of cognitive demands begins to emerge around 5-7 years. We describe frameworks for understanding when and why children begin to monitor cognitive demands, and propose additional factors that likely influence children's decisions to pursue or avoid cognitively demanding tasks.

Evidence of a Phonological Similarity Effect After Rehearsal Training in Adolescents With Intellectual Disability

A phonological similarity effect (PSE) in adolescents with an intellectual disability (ID) has previously been shown with auditory stimuli, but studies using visual stimuli are scarce. In the case of visually presented items, PSE requires verbal recoding before it appears. Using visual items, we trained 15 participants with ID to use rehearsal strategies. Another group of 13 participants took part in nonstrategic training. In both groups, PSE was tested before and after training. Participants in the strategy-training group, who showed no PSE at pretest, began to show such an effect during the training stage and maintained it until posttest as was observed through microgenetic analysis. Participants with ID showing no PSE with visual material can thus be trained to show this effect through extensive use of cumulative rehearsal. Such training would lead them to recode items verbally, which in turn would make phonological similarities more salient and lead to a PSE.

Understanding visual attention in childhood: Insights from a new visual foraging task

A recently developed visual foraging task, involving multiple targets of different types, can provide a rich and dynamic picture of visual attention performance. We measured the foraging performance of 66 children aged 4–7 years, along with measures of two conceptually related constructs, self-regulation and verbal working memory. Our results show that foraging patterns of young children differ from adult patterns. Children have difficulty with foraging for two target types, not only when they are defined by a conjunction of features but, unlike adults, also when they forage simultaneously for two target types that are distinguished from distractors by a single feature. Importantly, such feature/conjunction differences between adults and children are not seen in more traditional single-target visual search tasks. Interestingly, the foraging patterns of the youngest children were slightly more adult-like than of the oldest ones, which may suggest that older children attempt to use strategies that they have not yet fully mastered. The older children were, however, able to complete more trials, during both feature and conjunction foraging. Self-regulation and verbal working memory did not seem to affect foraging strategies, but both were connected with faster and more efficient foraging. We propose that our visual foraging paradigm is a promising avenue for studying the development of visual cognitive abilities.