Drug dog affects: Accounting for the broad social, emotional and health impacts of general drug detection dog operations in Australia

Sniffing out what Australians know and believe about Drug Detector Dogs

The ways in which drugs are policed, differs from country to country, with Drug Detector Dogs (DDDs) a commonly used detection strategy in Australia. However, their effectiveness has been scrutinized by Australian media and research. Despite this, their work and lives "on the job" continue to be portrayed in a positive light on popular television shows such as Border Security. The aim of the current study was to ascertain public perceptions and knowledge surrounding DDDs using a sample of 129 Australians. Results revealed participants believed DDDs were equally as interesting and as happy as companion dogs. However, while there was general support for both dog roles in human lives, participants were relatively less supportive of the use of DDDs. Importantly, findings suggest general Australians have little awareness of the lives of DDDs "off the job," including housing and handling practices that directly impact animal welfare. We suggest that greater transparency around these aspects of the dogs' lives and welfare experience be made publicly available so that the DDD industry can maintain their social license to operate.

A systematic review of interventions that impact alcohol and other drug-related harms in licensed entertainment settings and outdoor music festivals

BACKGROUND

Harms associated with the use of alcohol and other drugs (AOD) in licensed entertainment settings (LES) and outdoor music festivals (OMF) are ongoing public health and criminal justice concerns. This systematic review provides a comprehensive, synthesized report on the evidence base of interventions that impact harm in these settings, and how they affect health, behavioral, and criminal justice outcomes.

METHODS

Nine databases were searched for experimental and observational studies published between 2010 and 2021. Studies were included if they were peer-reviewed, published in English, described interventions which could impact AOD-related harms in LES or OMF (and were delivered in these environments), and reported on health, criminal justice and/or behavioral outcomes. Methodological quality was assessed using the Effective Public Health Practice Project's Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies and the Critical Appraisal Skills Program for qualitative studies. A narrative synthesis was conducted to synthesize outcomes across studies. The review protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42020140004).

RESULTS

Of the 48,303 studies screened, 100 met the inclusion criteria. 86 focused solely on reducing alcohol-related harm, 7 on reducing illicit drug-related harm, and 7 on both. Most (n = 88) focused on LES and evaluated changes in laws and regulations (n = 28) and/or multicomponent interventions/policies (n = 41). Multicomponent interventions showed the best results for both health (62% positive) and criminal justice (84% positive) outcomes, with 71% of studies being rated as strong quality. There was also good evidence to support the careful application of trading hour restrictions and limited but promising evidence to support medical services and drug checking.

CONCLUSION

The breadth, quality and volume of evidence regarding what works in reducing AOD-related harm in recreational settings have increased in the past decade, particularly regarding LES. Findings support onsite medical services (reducing ambulance transfer rates), multicomponent interventions targeting alcohol accessibility and availability (reducing assaults), and drug checking services, but suggest other interventions such as drug detection dogs may exacerbate harm. Further, higher quality research is required to address identified gaps in the evidence base, particularly on optimal interventions within OMF, around illicit drugs more broadly and in the Global South.

Drug-related deaths at Australian music festivals

BACKGROUND

Illicit drug use is overrepresented in music festival attendees compared with the general population. Drug use often involves a wide range of substances with the potential to cause drug toxicity. Law enforcement-centred strategies intended to deter drug use and supply at these mass gatherings have been implemented throughout Australia. However, many have been criticised for their lack of effectiveness, with evidence suggesting that they can inadvertently increase the risk of drug harm. Drug deaths are often multifactorial, providing added challenges in the development of prevention strategies. This study aimed to determine the frequency of deaths involving alcohol and other drugs at music festivals in Australia and to identify potential risk factors that may inform future harm reduction strategies.

METHODS

A descriptive case series study was conducted using the National Coronial Information System (NCIS) to investigate drug-related deaths at music festivals throughout Australia between 1 July 2000 (Queensland from 1 January 2001) and 31 December 2019, using a list of keywords comprising music festival names and terms.

RESULTS

There were 64 deaths, of which most involved males (73.4%) aged in their mid-20s (range 15-50 years). Drug toxicity was the most common primary cause of death (46.9%) followed by external injuries (37.5%). The drug most commonly detected or reported as being used was MDMA (65.6%), followed by alcohol (46.9%) and cannabis (17.2%), with most cases reporting the use of two or more drugs (including alcohol) and 36% reporting a history of drug misuse in the coroner's findings. Most deaths were unintentional, with less than a fifth of cases (17.2%) involving intentional self-harm. Clinical intervention was involved in 64.1% of cases and most festivals occurred in inner city locations (59.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that drug-related deaths at music festivals in Australia typically involve young people using multiple illicit substances in combination with alcohol. Most are unintentional and could potentially be prevented through the implementation of a range of harm reduction strategies, including mobile medical care, drug checking services, and increased consumer education and awareness.

Comparing police use of drug detection dogs amongst injecting and non-injecting groups of people who regularly use drugs in Australia

INTRODUCTION

Drug detection dogs are utilised across multiple settings, however existing literature focuses predominantly on festival-based encounters. We compare drug dog encounters in non-festival settings among two samples of people who regularly use drugs, and investigate factors associated with witness only versus stop and/or search encounters.

METHODS

Australians who regularly (i.e., ≥monthly) use ecstasy and/or other illegal stimulants (n = 777; Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)) or inject illegal drugs (n = 862; Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS)) were surveyed between April-June, 2019. Univariable regression analyses were used to test for differences in drug dog encounters between samples, and to identify factors associated with a more intensive drug dog encounter (namely those that involved a stop and/or search).

RESULTS

People who inject drugs were less likely to witness drug dogs than those who regularly use ecstasy and/or other illegal stimulants (odds ratio (OR) 0.46; 95 % CI 0.30-0.69). They were significantly more likely than EDRS participants to report being stopped and searched (3.29; 1.68-6.44) however. Among those carrying drugs at their last stop and/or search encounter, the majority of both samples reported that their drugs were not detected by police. IDRS participants aged 35-49 were more likely to report a stop and/or search encounter than those aged 17-34; no significant associations were found among the EDRS sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite participants who use ecstasy and/other stimulants being more likely than those who regularly inject drugs to report encountering drug dogs in non-festival settings, participants who inject drugs were more likely to report an intensive or invasive drug dog encounter and/or receiving a formal criminal justice consequence. This study reinforces questions about the efficacy and appropriateness of drug dog operations.

A step change model analysis of the establishment of pill testing in one Australian jurisdiction

This paper applies the theory of change model (Kotter in Harv Bus Rev 2:59-67, 1995; Moore et al. in Viet Nam J Public Health 1(1):66-75, 2013) to describe the pathway that lead to Australia's first pill testing/drug checking services in Canberra, in the Australian Capital Territory. The paper takes each step of the model and illustrates the key activities that largely occurred over an approximately 24 month period resulting in the service being operational on 29 April 2018. The paper demonstrates that leadership, advocacy and activism are key components, alongside evidence, to bringing about public policy change. It provides a unique insight to the extensive efforts undertaken to achieving the first legally sanctioned pill testing at festivals in Australia and provides a positive case study for those seeking to introduce contested harm reduction services in the drug and alcohol field.

Co-designing drug alerts for health and community workers for an emerging early warning system in Victoria, Australia

BACKGROUND

Alerts about changes in unregulated drug markets may be useful for supporting health and community workers to anticipate, prevent, and respond to unexpected adverse drug events. This study aimed to establish factors influencing the successful design and implementation of drug alerts for use in clinical and community service settings in Victoria, Australia.

METHODS

An iterative mixed methods design was used to co-produce drug alert prototypes with practitioners and managers working across various alcohol and other drug services and emergency medicine settings. A quantitative needs-analysis survey (n = 184) informed five qualitative co-design workshops (n = 31). Alert prototypes were drafted based on findings and tested for utility and acceptability. Applicable constructs from the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research helped to conceptualise factors that impact successful alert system design.

RESULTS

Timely and reliable alerts about unexpected drug market changes were important to nearly all workers (98%) yet many reported insufficient access to this kind of information (64%). Workers considered themselves 'conduits' for information-sharing and valued alerts for increasing exposure to drug market intelligence; facilitating communication about potential threats and trends; and improving capacity for effective responding to drug-related harm. Alerts should be 'shareable' across a range of clinical and community settings and audiences. To maximise engagement and impact, alerts must command attention, be easily recognisable, be available on multiple platforms (electronic and printable formats) in varying levels of detail, and be disseminated via appropriate notification mechanisms to meet the needs of diverse stakeholder groups. Three drug alert prototypes (SMS prompt, summary flyer, and a detailed poster) were endorsed by workers as useful for supporting their work responding to unexpected drug-related harms.

DISCUSSION

Alerts informed by coordinated early warning networks that offer close to real-time detection of unexpected substances can provide rapid, evidence-based drug market intelligence to inform preventive and responsive action to drug-related harm. The success of alert systems requires adequate planning and resourcing to support design, implementation, and evaluation, which includes consultation with all relevant audiences to understand how to maximise engagement with information, recommendations, and advice. Our findings about factors impacting successful alert design have utility to inform the development of local early warning systems.

Encounters with police drug detection dogs at music festivals amongst people who regularly use ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants in Australia

INTRODUCTION

Despite increasing evidence challenging the effectiveness and legality of police drug dog operations, these strategies remain common. We aimed to describe drug dog encounters at music festivals, behavioural adaptations taken in anticipation of their presence and consequences of encounters amongst a sample of people who regularly use MDMA/ecstasy.

METHODS

Data were collected via interviewer-administered questionnaires in April-June 2019. Australians aged 16 years or older who used MDMA/ecstasy and/or other stimulants monthly in the last 6 months were recruited from capital cities via social media and word-of-mouth (n = 797). Participants reported recent drug dog encounters, encounter settings and actions taken in anticipation of and in response to encounters.

RESULTS

In this sample, encounters with drug dogs at festivals were common (60%), with most participants (92%) reporting anticipating the encounter. Most (86%) of this group reported behavioural adaptations to avoid a detection, with concealing drugs well (57%) and consuming prior to entering the festival (20%) most reported. Only 4% of those who expected drug dog presence chose not to carry or consume drugs. One-quarter (26%) of those who reported an encounter were stopped by police and 4% were searched (bodily/bag search).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Most participants anticipated drug dog presence at festivals, however, were not deterred from carrying or consuming drugs. Some reported adaptations to avoid detection may increase drug-related health, social and legal harms. Our study suggests drug dog presence at festivals does not deter carriage/use of illegal drugs, and echoes concerns regarding the efficacy and appropriateness of this policing initiative.

Drug policing down under: An investigation of panic consumption, internal concealment and the use of drug amnesty bins among a sample of Australian festivalgoers

BACKGROUND

The use of drug detection dogs and other punitive policing methods remain common at music festivals in Australia and elsewhere, despite concern about iatrogenic effects and recommendations for their overhaul. While drug amnesty bins are a commonly implemented strategy purported to mitigate risk associated with policing, the efficacy of this intervention is debated. This paper investigates two of the most concerning iatrogenic effects of drug policing practices at Australian festivals - internal concealment and panic consumption - and explores the potential efficacy of drug amnesty bins.

METHODS

A stepped, mixed methods study (qual→QUANT→qual) comprised qualitative interviews with key informants and festivalgoers, and a quantitative online survey completed by almost 2000 Australian festivalgoers (52% male; median age 20 years old). Descriptive statistics were performed alongside bivariable and multivariable logistic regressions predicting internal concealment and panic consumption. Inductive thematic analysis was used to examine the qualitative data.

RESULTS

Among respondents who had ever used illicit drugs at festivals (n=1065), 23% reported hiding drugs internally to evade police detection and 17% reported panic consumption. Female respondents and respondents expecting dogs were at greater odds of reporting internal concealment. The qualitative data provided greater insight into the risky nature of internal concealment practices and panic incited by police at the gates. When asked if they would have considered discarding their drugs into a drug amnesty bin had they been concerned about detection, less than a quarter (24%) said they definitely or probably would have.

CONCLUSION

This paper adds to the evidence regarding iatrogenic effects of punitive drug policing practices at festivals. The findings have implications for shifting away from punitive policies to ones focused on public health. Additionally, the findings suggest drug amnesty bins should not be viewed as an adequate response for averting harms from drug policing.

Barriers to help-seeking among music festival attendees in New South Wales, Australia

Introduction

Prompt help‐seeking behaviour by music festival attendees can reduce risks associated with drug use; however, little is known about perceived barriers to help‐seeking when experiencing or witnessing illness at music festivals. We explored potential barriers and their association with festivalgoer characteristics.

Methods

We conducted an on‐site cross‐sectional survey of attendees at New South Wales music festivals in 2019/2020. Perceived barriers to help‐seeking in the hypothetical event of the respondent or a friend becoming unwell at the festival were assessed, and regression analyses were conducted to identify characteristics associated with these barriers.

Results

Across six festivals, 1229 people were surveyed and four‐fifths (83.2%) reported ≥1 barrier: 32.7% fear of getting in trouble with the police, 20.6% not knowing where to find help, 17.2% not knowing how unwell someone might be and 15.3% concern about friends or relatives finding out. In multivariable analyses, people of diverse sexuality and people using drugs that day had greater odds of reporting fear of trouble with the police. People reporting drug use that day had lower odds of reporting not knowing where to find help. Men, gender‐diverse people and people using drugs that day had greater odds of reporting concern about friends or relatives finding out.

Discussion and Conclusions

Our data substantiate concerns regarding policing strategies and their impact on festivals. Initiatives to support conversations about drugs with friends and families may be best targeted to younger people and those from gender‐diverse backgrounds.

A qualitative investigation exploring why dance festivals are risky environments for drug use and potential adverse outcomes

Background

Dance festivals have been shown to be high-risk events for use of drugs such as ecstasy/MDMA and possible adverse effects associated with use. However, few studies have examined what makes festivals such risky environments. We aimed to determine festival-specific risk factors for adverse outcomes related to drug use.

Methods

In-depth interviews were conducted with 35 key informants in North America who deemed themselves experts in new psychoactive substances, and identified as drug checkers, sellers, or experienced users. Interviews were coded in an inductive manner, and we conducted thematic analysis to identify relevant themes.

Results

We identified four main themes focusing on festival attendance as a risk factor for risky drug use and related outcomes: attendees inexperienced with electronic dance music parties and party drugs, risky drug purchasing, risky drug use practices, and festival-specific environmental risk factors. Festivals attract a wide array of people not experienced with party drugs, yet drugs like ecstasy are commonly sought by such individuals inside festivals. Relying on strangers inside to purchase drugs is a risk factor for purchasing adulterated product. Fear of security/police at festivals leads to risky drug-taking such as ingesting one’s full batch of drugs at the entrance. These risks are compounded by environmental factors including crowding, hot temperature, and lack of water (which lead to dehydration), long/consecutive event days (which can lead to exhaustion), and inadequate medical emergency response.

Conclusions

We determined modifiable risk factors which can both inform future research and future prevention and harm reduction efforts in this scene.

Correlates of higher-risk drug-related behaviours at music festivals in New South Wales, Australia

INTRODUCTION

There are few contemporary data on illicit drug use at music festivals. We describe drug use patterns and prevalence of specific higher-risk drug-related behaviours, and their associations with festivalgoer characteristics.

METHODS

We approached attendees at six major music festivals in New South Wales, Australia, from November 2019 to March 2020. Participants self-completed an anonymous survey on prior and intended drug use and associated higher-risk behaviours; double dropping; higher-volume ethanol alongside drug use; higher quantity 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA); mixing stimulants; and preloading. Logistic regression and UpSet analyses were performed to identify festivalgoer characteristics and the intersection of high-risk behaviours, respectively.

RESULTS

Of 1229 participants, 372 (30.3%) used or planned to use drugs at the festival. In multivariable analyses, men and those purchasing drugs both inside and outside the venue had greater odds of engaging in higher-risk behaviours. Of those using MDMA, 47.9% reported double dropping. People using drugs for the first time had 3.3 (95% confidence interval 1.2-8.7) greater odds of higher-volume ethanol alongside drug use. People reporting that police/police dog presence influenced their decision to take drugs had 2.2 (95% confidence interval 1.4-3.6) greater odds of preloading. In UpSet analysis, preloading was the most common intersection (17% of those using drugs).

DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Engagement in the five higher-risk drug behaviours was common, particularly amongst males and those using drugs for the first time, while police/police dog presence appeared to influence higher-risk behaviours amongst festival attendees. This information can be used to inform harm reduction advice, public health and law enforcement strategies.