Characterisation of the cutaneous pathology in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor erlotinib

Major hurdles to the use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in clinical prevention/interception studies: Do preclinical studies with EGFR inhibitors suggest approaches to overcome some of the limitations

There are major hurdles to the use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) and any other agents with significant toxicities (which means practically the preponderance of potential effective agents) in the context of prevention/anti-progression (interception) studies. We will discuss epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors as examples, both in a primary prevention setting, where agent(s) are administered to individuals with no cancer but who might be considered at higher risk due to a variety of factors, and in anti-progression/interception studies, where agent(s) are administered to persons with known preinvasive lesions (e.g., colon adenomas, lung nodules, ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), or pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN) lesions in the pancreas) in an attempt to reverse or inhibit progression of these lesions. Multiple potential hurdles will be examined, including: a) toxicity of agents, b) the likely range of subtypes of cancers affected by a given treatment (e.g., EGFR inhibitors against EGFR mutant lung adenocarcinomas), c) the availability of practical endpoints besides the blocking of cancer formation or pharmacokinetics related to the agents administered in a primary prevention study, and d) the interpretation of the regression or blockage of new preinvasive lesions in the anti-progression study. Such an anti-progression approach may help address some of the factors commented on regarding primary prevention (toxicity, potential target organ cancer subtypes) but still leaves major questions regarding interpretation of modulation of preinvasive endpoints when it may not be clear how frequently they progress to clinical cancer. Additionally, we address whether certain recent preclinical findings might be able to reduce the toxicities associated with these agents and perhaps even increase their potential efficacy. Antibodies and TKIs other than the EGFR inhibitors are not discussed because few if any had been tested as monotherapies in humans, making their efficacy harder to predict, and because a number have relatively rare but quite striking toxicities. Furthermore, most of the practical hurdles raised regarding the EGFR inhibitors are relevant to the other TKIs. Finally, we briefly discuss whether early detection employing blood or serum samples may allow identification of high-risk groups more amenable to agents with greater toxicity.

Xijiao Dihuang decoction relieves the erlotinib-induced dermatitis

BACKGROUND

Erlotinib treatment can lead to skin diseases that drastically affected the quality of life of patients. Quercetin (Que), the active component in Xijiao Dihuang Decoction (XDD), was identified to improve inflammatory skin diseases. However, the mechanism of XDD treating erlotinib-induced cutaneous toxicity was not clear at the molecular level.

METHODS

Keratinocytes were treated with erlotinib, and the expression of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines was revealed by ELISA and qRT-PCR. The macrophage polarization was determined by flow cytometry. The key component of XDD, Que, and the target genes of dermatitis were selected via network pharmacology analysis. The binding effects of Que and target genes were verified using molecular docking and cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA)-western blot assay. Animal experiments were performed in vivo to verify the therapeutic effect of XDD on erlotinib-induced skin toxicity.

RESULTS

Erlotinib induced M1 polarization of macrophages after stimulating epidermal keratinocytes. While this effect was associated with increased production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such production was prominently decreased by XDD treatment. By combining network pharmacological analysis, molecular docking, and CETSA, it was confirmed that Que had a binding relationship with IL-2 and CXCL8. In vivo results implied that erlotinib abated tumor growth and stimulated dermatitis in HR-1 nude mice, while Que alleviated erlotinib-induced skin damage without affecting this tumor repression effect.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that XDD could relieve the dermatitis induced by erlotinib and provide a favorable theoretical basis for the clinical relief by using this method.

Drug eruptions with novel targeted therapies - immune checkpoint and EGFR inhibitors

Given the increasing use of novel targeted therapies, dermatologists are constantly confronted with novel cutaneous side effects of these agents. A rapid diagnosis and appropriate management of these side effects are crucial to prevent impairment of the patients' quality of life and interruptions of essential cancer treatments. Immune checkpoint and EGFR inhibitors are frequently used targeted therapies for various malignancies and are associated with a distinct spectrum of cutaneous adverse events. Exanthematous drug eruptions represent a particular diagnostic challenge in these patients. Immune checkpoint inhibitors can elicit a plethora of immune-related exanthemas, most commonly maculopapular, lichenoid, and psoriasiform eruptions. Additionally, autoimmune bullous dermatoses and exanthemas associated with connective tissue diseases may arise. In cases of severe, atypical or therapy-resistant presentations an extensive dermatological investigation including a skin biopsy is recommended. Topical and systemic steroids are the mainstay of treatment. Papulopustular eruptions represent the major cutaneous adverse effect of EGFR inhibitor therapy, occurring in up to 90 % of patients within the first two weeks of therapy, depending on the agent. Besides topical antibiotics and steroids, oral tetracyclines are the first choice in systemic treatment and can also be used as prophylaxis.

Cutaneous toxicity of FDA-approved small-molecule kinase inhibitors

INTRODUCTION

By 1 January 2021, the FDA has approved a total of 62 small-molecule kinase inhibitors (SMKIs). The increasing clinical use of small-molecule kinase inhibitors has led to some side effects, the most common of which is cutaneous toxicity, as reflected by approximately 90% (57 of 62) of the FDA-approved SMKIs have reported treatment-related cutaneous toxicities. Since these cutaneous toxicities may have a crucial influence on the emotional, physical and psychosocial health of the patients, it is of great importance for doctors, patients, oncologists and interrelated researchers to be aware of the cutaneous side effects of these drugs in order to make the diagnosis accurate and the treatment appropriate.

AREAS COVERED

This review aims to summarize the potential cutaneous toxicities and the frequency of occurrence of FDA-approved 62 SMKIs, and provide a succinct overview of the potential mechanisms of certain cutaneous toxicities. The literature review was performed based on PubMed database and FDA official website.

EXPERT OPINION

It is significant to determine the risk factors for SMKI-induced cutaneous toxicity. The mechanisms underlying SMKI-induced cutaneous toxicities remain unclear at present. Future research should focus on the mechanisms of SMKI-induced cutaneous toxicities to find out mechanistically driven therapies.

Association between miRNA signatures in serum samples from epidermal growth factor inhibitor treated patients and skin toxicity

Objective: Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors (EGFRI) are used as targeted cancer therapy. On average 70% of patients treated with EGFRIs suffer from skin toxicity. Studies showed a correlation between overall survival and the appearance of a skin rash, which is used as a biomarker for therapy efficacy. Micro RNAs (miRNA) as tumor or resistance biomarkers for cancer therapy are also highly investigated. In our study, we searched for associations of miRNA expression profiles in serum, with the severity of skin rash, in order to identify tentative therapy predictive biomarkers.

Materials and Methods: Five candidate miRNAs were selected, based on an earlier in vitro next-generation-sequencing-experiment and after literature search. MiR-21, miR-31, miR-17, miR-106b and miR-520e were investigated in serum samples from patients (n = 254) treated with EGFRI. The quantitative expression of miRNA was tested for association with the occurrence/severity of the rash.

Results: In our cohort of patients treated with EGFR inhibiting monoclonal antibodies, miR-21 and miR-520e serum concentrations were negatively correlated with severity of skin rash (p-value 0.000582 and 1.53e-07 linear-trend-test) whereas for miR-31, a positive correlation was observed (p-value 9.01e-06 linear-trend-test).

Conclusions: This suggests that miR-21, miR-31 and miR-520e expression might be a treatment dependent marker for EGFRI induced skin rash.

Human skin biomarkers relationship to response to treatment with tyrosine kinase inhibitors in advanced EGFR-mutated lung adenocarcinoma

Background

A relationship between the EGFR signaling pathway expression in skin and the use of targeted cancer therapies has been previously demonstrated. Consistent evidence to support the use of skin biopsies as a surrogate for therapeutic evaluation is needed. The purpose of this study was to establish the relationship between the expression of EGFR signaling pathway markers in skin samples from EGFR‐mutated metastatic lung adenocarcinoma patients and their response to tyrosine kinase inhibitors.

Methods

This was a prospective single blind analysis of 35 skin biopsies from 31 patients with confirmed advanced EGFR‐mutated lung adenocarcinoma. Immunohistochemistry was performed: EGFR, p27, Ki67, STAT3 and MAPK, as well as H&E histopathological analysis, in order to determine their treatment response to tyrosine kinase inhibitors.

Results

EGFR, Ki67, STAT3, stratum corneum thickness (number of layers and millimeters) from skin samples had a statistical correlation with an adequate treatment response (P = 0.025, 0.015, 0.017, 0.041, 0.039 respectively). EGFR, p27 and number of layers of the stratum corneum were related to a better median progression‐free survival (P = 0.025 and P = 0.030).

Conclusions

The relationship between EGFR pathway inhibition in the skin and oncological outcomes obtained explains the parallel biological effects of tyrosine kinase inhibitors. We hope that our work incites future research to help validate and assess the use of these markers as potential prognostic and predictive factors.

The investigation of the amounts and expressions of epidermal growth factor, epidermal growth factor receptor, and epidermal growth factor receptor gene polymorphisms in acne vulgaris

BACKGROUND

Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors (EGFRI) used in cancer chemotherapy cause acneiform folliculitis in 70%-100% of patients in a dose-dependent manner. Acneiform folliculitis is considered to be caused by an inflammatory process due to follicular hyperkeratosis and subsequently a set of changes both in epidermis and hair follicles as a result of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) blockade. Both acne vulgaris and acneiform folliculitis due to EGFRIs show similar changes in the pilosebaceous unit. Furthermore, in both groups of patients, topical application of recombinant human epidermal growth factor (EGF) has been reported to improve the disease.

AIMS

In this study, it was aimed to investigate the role of EGF and EGFR amount, expression, and EGFR gene polymorphisms in the etiopathogenesis of acne vulgaris.

PATIENTS/METHODS

156 acne vulgaris patients, within 18-25 years of age, who had 15 or more inflammatory acne lesions on dermatologic evaluation were included in this study. The absence of any known systemic or genetic disease or cancer and any systemic or topical treatment for the last 1 month were prerequisites. In the control group, 154 volunteers in the same age range who were examined at the outpatient clinic with diagnoses of melanocytic nevus, ephelid, cherry angioma, and callus and who had no more than 3 inflammatory acne lesions were recruited. The amounts of EGF and EGFR were determined by sandwich ELISA, expressions of EGF and EGFR by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; EGFR polymorphisms were examined by restriction enzyme digestion, Sanger, and high-resolution melting methods.

RESULTS

The patient and control groups were compared in terms of EGFR gene polymorphisms in addition to the amount and expressions of EGF and EGFR. The amount of EGF in the serum was found to be significantly higher in the acne group. (P = .0012). There was no significant difference in other parameters studied.

CONCLUSION

The results of our study showed a significant increase in the amount of EGF in the acne group. Though EGF may be incriminated in the etiopathogenesis of AV, the most likely explanation about its role may be controlling inflammation from the very first stage.

Combination of Erlotinib and Naproxen Employing Pulsatile or Intermittent Dosing Profoundly Inhibits Urinary Bladder Cancers

Daily dosing of either NSAIDs or EGFR inhibitors has been shown to prevent bladder cancer development in a N-butyl-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine (OH-BBN)-induced rat model. However, these inhibitors cause gastrointestinal ulceration and acneiform rash, respectively, limiting their continuous use in a clinical prevention setting. We studied chemopreventive efficacy of pulsatile dosing of EGFR inhibitor erlotinib (42 mg/kg BW, once/week) combined with intermittent or continuous low doses of the NSAID naproxen (30 mg/kg BW/day, 3 weeks on/off or 128 ppm daily in diet) in the OH-BBN induced rat bladder cancer model. The interventions were started either at 1 or 4 weeks (early intervention) or 3 months (delayed intervention) after the last OH-BBN treatment, by which time the rats had developed microscopic bladder lesions. All combination regimens tested as early versus late intervention led to the reduction of the average bladder tumor weights (54%-82%; P < 0.01 to P < 0.0001), a decrease in tumor multiplicity (65%-85%; P < 0.01 to P < 0.0001), and a decrease in the number of rats with large palpable tumors (>200 mg; 83%-90%; P < 0.01 to P < 0.0001). Levels of signal transduction markers, Ki-67, cyclin D1, IL1β, pSTAT3, and pERK, were significantly (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001) reduced in the treated tumors, demonstrating their potential utility as predictive markers for efficacy. These findings demonstrate that significant chemopreventive efficacy could be achieved with alternative intervention regimens designed to reduce the toxicity of agents, and that starting erlotinib and/or naproxen treatments at the time microscopic tumors were present still conferred the efficacy.

Agonistic anti-CD148 monoclonal antibody attenuates diabetic nephropathy in mice

CD148 is a transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) that is expressed in the renal vasculature, including the glomerulus. Previous studies have shown that CD148 plays a role in the negative regulation of growth factor signals (including epidermal growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor), suppressing cell proliferation and transformation. However, the role of CD148 in kidney disease remains unknown. Here, we generated an agonistic anti-CD148 antibody and evaluated its effects in murine diabetic nephropathy (DN). Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the mouse CD148 ectodomain sequence were generated by immunizing CD148 knockout (CD148KO) mice. The mAbs that increased CD148 activity were selected by biological (proliferation) and biochemical (PTP activity) assays. The mAb (18E1) that showed strong agonistic activity was injected (10 mg/kg ip) in streptozotocin-induced wild-type and CD148KO diabetic mice for 6 wk, and the renal phenotype was then assessed. The effects of 18E1 mAb in podocyte growth factor signals were also assessed in culture. Compared with control IgG, 18E1 mAb significantly decreased albuminuria and mesangial expansion without altering hyperglycemia and blood pressure in wild-type diabetic mice. Immunohistochemical evaluation showed that 18E1 mAb significantly prevented the reduction of podocyte number and nephrin expression and decreased glomerular fibronectin expression and renal macrophage infiltration. The 18E1 mAb showed no effects in CD148KO diabetic mice. Furthermore, we demonstrated that 18E1 mAb reduces podocyte epidermal growth factor receptor signals in culture and in diabetic mice. These findings suggest that agonistic anti-CD148 mAb attenuates DN in mice, in part by reducing epidermal growth factor receptor signals in podocytes. This antibody may be used for the treatment of early DN.

Bucillamine Prevents Afatinib-Mediated Inhibition of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Signaling

Molecular targeting therapies often cause characteristic adverse effects, such as skin rash during anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) therapies, making treatment continuation difficult. In contrast, skin symptoms induced by EGFR inhibition are strongly correlated with the overall survival of the therapies. Therefore, controlling adverse effects not only facilitates treatment continuation but also increases clinical benefits. In this study, we proposed a novel strategy for reducing EGFR–tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI)-induced adverse effects in nontumorous organs by repositioning approved medicines using a zebrafish model. We developed a model system for evaluating chemical quenchers of afatinib, a clinically available irreversible EGFR-TKI, by scoring the inhibition of afatinib-induced hyperformation of lateral line neuromasts in zebrafish larvae. Bucillamine, an antirheumatic drug, was identified as an afatinib quencher in the zebrafish system and inhibited TKI activity in vitro. In addition, bucillamine restored EGFR autophosphorylation and downstream signaling in afatinib-treated A431 cells. Thus, topical bucillamine is a potential reliever of irreversible EGFR-TKI-induced skin rash. The zebrafish model can be applied to a screening for quenchers of other anti-EGFR-targeting therapies, including reversible TKIs and biologics.

Polymorphisms of NF-κB pathway genes influence adverse drug reactions of gefitinib in NSCLC patients

Gefitinib is a widely used targeted therapeutic drug in East Asian non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. This research retrospectively investigated the relationship between the polymorphisms of genes involved in NF-κB pathways and gefitinib-related Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs). From 2011 to 2016, 109 NSCLC patients were enrolled in this study. Thirty-two SNPs of 15 genes were genotyped with a Sequenom MassARRAY system. We collected 34 paired RNA samples before and after gefitinib administration for the detection of whole blood RNA expression of genes in NF-κB pathways (NFKBIA, NFKB1, NFKB2, RELA, RELB, and TNFAIP3). IKBKB rs2272733 (CC vs non-CC: OR = 0.256, 95% CI 0.087-0.753, P = 0.013) and IKBKE rs12142086 (CC vs non-CC: OR = 3.640, 95% CI 1.320-10.039, P = 0.013) were significantly associated with gefitinib-induced skin toxicity. IKBKE rs2151222 was associated with diarrhea with the odds ratio of non-TT vs TT as 0.162 (non-TT vs TT: 95% CI 0.034-0.775, P = 0.023). Furthermore, RELA rs11227247 was a predictor for hepatic toxicity (GG vs non-GG: OR = 0.212, 95% CI 0.062-0.726, P = 0.013). None of the gene expression levels after drug administration were determined to be significant predictors for adverse drug reactions by a logistics regression analysis. Polymorphisms of IKBKB, IKBKE, and RELA are potential biomarkers for predicting gefitinib-related ADRs. Further studies are needed to understand the underlying mechanisms for diagnostic and prophylactic therapy applications.

Cutaneous reactions to targeted therapies in children with CNS tumors: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

MAPK (RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK-MAP) and mTOR inhibitors are novel treatments for pediatric central nervous system (CNS) tumors. The literature on common cutaneous adverse reactions to these therapies is sparse in the pediatric population. The aim of this study was to describe common cutaneous adverse reactions to BRAF, MEK, and mTOR inhibitors in children with CNS tumors.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, patients younger than 21 years of age receiving BRAF, MEK, and mTOR inhibitor monotherapy for a CNS tumor were enrolled over a one-year period. Full body skin examination, photographs of dermatologic findings, and initial treatment recommendations were included at the initial visit, and follow-up skin examinations were recommended every three months.

RESULTS

Twenty-two patients were enrolled in the study. Fifty percent (11/22) received trametinib, a MEK inhibitor, 27.3% (6/22) received dabrafenib, a BRAF inhibitor, and 22.7% (5/22) received everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor. Median age at visit was 11 years (range, 3-19). Median time from treatment initiation to skin examination was 4.5 months (range, 0-43). Ninety-six percent (21/22) of all patients had at least one skin reaction. The most common reactions across treatment groups included follicular/acneiform eruptions and xerosis. Two patients on MEK inhibitors and one patient on a BRAF inhibitor required therapy cessation due to severe cutaneous reactions.

CONCLUSIONS

Cutaneous reactions to targeted anticancer therapy in children are common, treatable, and rarely require drug dose reduction or discontinuation. Routine surveillance and early intervention may improve quality of life and facilitate continuation of life-saving therapy.

The contribution of tumor-associated macrophages in glioma neo-angiogenesis and implications for anti-angiogenic strategies

"Tumor-associated macrophages" (TAMs) form a significant cell population in malignant tumors and contribute to tumor growth, metastasis, and neovascularization. Gliomas are characterized by extensive neo-angiogenesis, and knowledge of the role of TAMs in neovascularization is important for future anti-angiogenic therapies. The phenotypes and functions of TAMs are heterogeneous and more complex than a classification into M1 and M2 inflammation response types would suggest. In this review, we provide an update on the current knowledge of the ontogeny of TAMs, focusing on diffuse gliomas. The role of TAMs in the regulation of the different processes in tumor angiogenesis is highlighted and the most recently discovered mechanisms by which TAMs mediate resistance against current antivascular therapies are mentioned. Novel compounds tested in clinical trials are discussed and brought in relation to different TAM-related angiogenesis pathways. In addition, potential therapeutic targets used to intervene in TAM-regulated tumor angiogenesis are summarized.

Daily or weekly dosing with EGFR inhibitors, gefitinib and lapatinib, and AKt inhibitor MK2206 in mammary cancer models

Daily vs. weekly dosing with EGFR inhibitors (gefitinib and lapatinib) and an AKT inhibitor (MK2206) were compared in two rodent breast cancer models. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were administered methylnitrosourea (MNU) at 50 days of age, and gefitinib (daily/weekly dosing at 10/70 mg/kg BW) or lapatinib (daily/weekly dosing at 75/525 mg/kg BW) were administered by gavage beginning 5 days after MNU. For the prevention studies, weekly or daily dosing with gefitinib or lapatinib reduced cancer multiplicity >75%, and all treatments reduced tumor weights by >90%. For the therapeutic studies, MNU-treated rats were followed until small palpable mammary cancers developed. The rats were then treated daily or weekly as above for 6 weeks. Either daily or weekly dosing with lapatinib or gefitinib caused regression in >50% of the tumors. Immunohistochemistry biomarker studies in palpable mammary cancers following a weekly dose of gefitinib showed that 1 day (but not 7 days) after treatment, the levels of phosphorylated EGFR1 were significantly decreased. In an ER-negative (ER⁻) Neu-overexpressing model employing MMTV-Neu/P53KO mice, daily (100 mg/kg BW/day, 5 days each week), or weekly dosing (500 or 250 mg/kg BW) with gefitinib reduced tumor multiplicity 65, 85 and 75%, respectively. In the MNU prevention model, daily dosing (100 mg/kg BW/day) with the allosteric AKT inhibitor MK2206 was ineffective, while weekly dosing (700 mg/kg BW) reduced the final tumor weight >70%. Combining weekly MK2206 with the aromatase inhibitor vorozole (0.12 mg/kg BW/day) showed that each compound alone reduced tumor multiplicity 40–50%. The combination reduced cancer multiplicity ~70%. These studies demonstrate the efficacy of weekly dosing with various protein kinase inhibitors; raising the possibility of employing these agents in a breast cancer preventive setting.

Targeted Therapies: Immunologic Effects and Potential Applications Outside of Cancer

Two pharmacologic approaches that are currently at the forefront of treating advanced cancer are those that center on disrupting critical growth/survival signaling pathways within tumor cells (commonly referred to as "targeted therapies") and those that center on enhancing the capacity of a patient's immune system to mount an antitumor response (immunotherapy). Maximizing responses to both of these approaches requires an understanding of the oncogenic events present in a given patient's tumor and the nature of the tumor-immune microenvironment. Although these 2 modalities were developed and initially used independently, combination regimens are now being tested in clinical trials, underscoring the need to understand how targeted therapies influence immunologic events. Translational studies and preclinical models have demonstrated that targeted therapies can influence immune cell trafficking, the production of and response to chemokines and cytokines, antigen presentation, and other processes relevant to antitumor immunity and immune homeostasis. Moreover, because these and other effects of targeted therapies occur in nonmalignant cells, targeted therapies are being evaluated for use in applications outside of oncology.

Effect of weekly or daily dosing regimen of Gefitinib in mouse models of lung cancer

Gefitinib showed response in phase II clinical trials and with better clinical response in lung cancer with activating mutations in the tyrosine kinase domain of the EGFR. Questions of toxicity and potential dosing regimens impede the use in a prevention setting. This study will provide scientific evidence for the utility of testing and comparing weekly and daily dosing regimens in clinical trials. We employed the adenocarcinoma (AD) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) models to compare the efficacy of Gefitinib in daily or weekly dosing regimens. We also assessed the effectiveness of Gefitinib in altering growth of the H3255 xenograft. Bioluminescent imaging (BLI) and tumor size was evaluated. Relative expression of phospho-EGFR, phospho-ERK and phospho-AKT in the xenograft were evaluated by Western Blot analysis. In the lung AD model, Gefitinib showed significant inhibition of tumor load when treated with weekly or weekly intermittent dosing regimens in AJ/p53^val135/wtmice whereas a daily dosing regimen did not decrease the tumor load significantly. In the H3255-Luciferase xenograft model, weekly treatment demonstrated better inhibition than daily treatment. The weekly dosing regimen exhibited greater inhibition of phospho-EGFR, phospho-ERK and phospho-AKT than the daily dosing regimen, which may be correlated with the antitumor effects of the different dosing regimens. Weekly dosing with Gefitinib had similar or better efficacy than the daily dosing regimen in pre-clinical models of NSCLC. The data provide scientific evidences for the utility of testing and comparing weekly and intermittent dosing regimens in clinical trials.

Loose Anchoring of Anagen Hairs and Pili Torti due to Erlotinib

Erlotinib is a selective epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor utilized in the treatment of solid tumors. Cutaneous side effects, including changes in hair texture and alopecia, have been described. In this case report, we describe two patients with a new finding of loose anagen hairs and pili torti leading to nonscarring marginal and diffuse alopecia and discuss potential mechanisms underlying erlotinib-induced hair changes.

Cutaneous Side Effects and Transepidermal Water Loss To Gefitinib: A Study of 11 Patients

Introduction

Cutaneous side effects caused by epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors occurred in 45–100% of patients which may lead to therapy modification or interruption. This study aimed to evaluate cutaneous side effects and transepidermal water loss (TEWL) values in non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) patients who received gefitinib EGFR inhibitor.

Methods

A descriptive observational study with cross-sectional design and a consecutive sampling method was conducted from 1 February to 4 March 2016. Eleven NSCLC patients with EGFR mutation who visited the Hemato-Oncology Clinic/Internal Medicine Department, Dr. Hasan Sadikin General Hospital, Bandung, Indonesia, were assessed through history taking, physical examination, and TEWL examination using Tewameter.

Results

Ten of the eleven patients experienced cutaneous side effects. The most frequently observed was xerosis cutis (8/10 patients), followed by acneiform eruptions (7/10 patients), and paronychia (3/10 patients). None of these patients experienced hair changes, mucositis, or drug hypersensitivity. Mean TEWL value of these patients was higher than normal (11.205 ± 1.881 g/m²/h).

Conclusions

Patients who received gefitinib EGFR inhibitor experienced cutaneous side effects including xerosis cutis, acneiform eruptions, and paronychia, and have mean TEWL values higher than normal. Therefore, it might affect the skin barrier function.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13555-016-0163-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Immune-Modulation by Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibitors: Implication on Anti-Tumor Immunity in Lung Cancer

Skin toxicity is the most common toxicity caused by Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) inhibitors, and has been associated with clinical efficacy. As EGFR inhibitors enhance the expression of antigen presenting molecules in affected skin keratinocytes, they may concurrently facilitate neo-antigen presentation in lung cancer tumor cells contributing to anti-tumor immunity. Here, we investigated the modulatory effect of the EGFR inhibitor, erlotinib on antigen presenting molecules and PD-L1, prominent immune checkpoint protein, of skin keratinocytes and lung cancer cell lines to delineate the link between EGFR signaling pathway inhibition and potential anti-tumor immunity. Erlotinib up-regulated MHC-I and MHC-II proteins on IFNγ treated keratinocytes but abrogated IFNγ-induced expression of PD-L1, suggesting the potential role of infiltrating autoreactive T cells in the damage of keratinocytes in affected skin. Interestingly, the surface expression of MHC-I, MHC-II, and PD-L1 was up-regulated in response to IFNγ more often in lung cancer cell lines sensitive to erlotinib, but only expression of PD-L1 was inhibited by erlotinib. Further, erlotinib significantly increased T cell mediated cytotoxicity on lung cancer cells. Lastly, the analysis of gene expression dataset of 186 lung cancer cell lines from Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia demonstrated that overexpression of PD-L1 was associated with sensitivity to erlotinib and higher expression of genes related to antigen presenting pathways and IFNγ signaling pathway. Our findings suggest that the EGFR inhibitors can facilitate anti-tumor adaptive immune responses by breaking tolerance especially in EGFR driven lung cancer that are associated with overexpression of PD-L1 and genes related to antigen presentation and inflammation.

Managing Cutaneous Side Effects From Targeted Molecular Inhibitors for Melanoma and Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer

BACKGROUND

Targeted anticancer therapies can cause cutaneous adverse events different from classical chemotherapeutic toxicities.

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature on dermatologic adverse events (DAEs) of targeted molecular inhibitors for melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancers with a focus on management options.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive literature search related to the side effects and management of these side effects from vemurafenib, dabrafenib, trametinib (BRAF inhibitors), pembrolizumab (antiprogrammed-death-receptor-1 antibody), imatinib (tyrosine kinase inhibitor), ipilimumab (anticytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 antibody), cetuximab (epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor), sorafenib (multikinase inhibitor), and vismodegib (smoothened receptor inhibitor).

RESULTS

No large controlled studies specifically examining the management of DAEs of targeted molecular inhibitors exist, although there are case report-based recommendations and algorithms developed by expert panels to manage these adverse events.

CONCLUSION

Many options for managing the cutaneous side effects of targeted molecular inhibitors are similar to those used in general dermatology practice. When used effectively, drug dosing and patient quality of life may be optimized.

Histopathologic features of erythematous papulopustular eruption to epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors in cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Erythematous papulopustular eruption (EPPE) is the most frequent skin adverse event to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors but its histopathologic features have been poorly studied. As EPPE is a strong predictor of patient's treatment response, the EPPE histopathologic features and their correlations with skin eruption severity and involved drug were investigated.

METHOD

An involved skin biopsy was carried out in 39 informed patients treated with EGFR inhibitors (mainly cetuximab and erlotinib). The cutaneous changes in hematoxylin-eosin stained sections were evaluated.

RESULTS

The EPPE to EGFR inhibitors is histopathologically characterized by neutrophilic subcorneal or intraepidermal pustules and polymorphous infiltrate of the superficial dermis during the earliest phases and by lymphocytic perifolliculitis and/or suppurative folliculitis at a later phase. The widespread dermis inflammation was more frequent in severe EPPEs and in patients treated with cetuximab, while the hair follicle inflammation was observed only in mild/moderate EPPEs.

CONCLUSION

Our study shows the histopathologic signs of EPPE and their correlation with clinical severity and the offending drug.

Modulation of influenza vaccine immune responses using an epidermal growth factor receptor kinase inhibitor

Systemic use of epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors (EGFRIs) has been shown to alter MHC expression and that of several chemokines, and to enhance immune cell recruitment into human skin. We hypothesized that EGFRIs may have value as cutaneous immune response modifiers, and determined the effects of topical application of an irreversible EGFRI on a well-established murine model of influenza vaccination. We found that a single topical application of an EGFRI led to increased levels of antibodies that inhibit influenza mediated hemagglutination and viral cytopathic effects. The topically applied EGFRI significantly enhanced the generation of vaccine-specific IL-4 and IFN-γ producing cells within skin-draining lymph nodes as early as one week following vaccination. The EGFRI/vaccine group showed a twelve-fold reduction in detectable pulmonary viral load four days after infection as compared to the vaccine alone control group. The reduction in the lung viral titers correlated with the survival rate, which demonstrated 100% protection in the EGFRI/vaccine immunized group but only 65% protection in the mice immunized with vaccine alone. These findings are significant because they demonstrate that inhibition of defined signaling pathways within the skin using small molecule kinase inhibitors provides a novel approach to enhance immune responses to vaccines.

Mechanisms underlying skin disorders induced by EGFR inhibitors

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a receptor tyrosine kinase that is frequently mutated or overexpressed in a large number of tumors such as carcinomas or glioblastoma. Inhibitors of EGFR activation have been successfully established for the therapy of some cancers and are more and more frequently being used as first or later line therapies. Although the side effects induced by inhibitors of EGFR are less severe than those observed with classic cytotoxic chemotherapy and can usually be handled by out-patient care, they may still be a cause for dose reduction or discontinuation of treatment that can reduce the effectiveness of antitumor therapy. The mechanisms underlying these cutaneous side effects are only partly understood. Important questions, such as the reasons for the correlation between the intensity of the side effects and the efficiency of treatment with EGFR inhibitors, remain to be answered. Optimized adjuvant strategies to accompany anti-EGFR therapy need to be found for optimal therapeutic application and improved quality of life of patients. Here, we summarize current literature on the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the cutaneous side effects induced by EGFR inhibitors and provide evidence that keratinocytes are probably the optimal targets for adjuvant therapy aimed at alleviating skin toxicities.

Analysis of sebum lipid composition and the development of acneiform rash before and after administration of egfr inhibitor

Treatment with an epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor (egfri) in patients having non-small-cell lung cancer can cause frequent and diverse skin toxicities, an acneiform rash being one of the commonest. Although the exact pathophysiology of this rash and its development mechanisms remain unknown, investigators have noted that egfri-induced skin toxicity might be partly associated with sebaceous gland function. Sebum is composed mainly of the lipids squalene (sq), wax ester (we), triglyceride, free fatty acid, and cholesterol, which are secreted mostly from the sebaceous glands and by keratinocytes. We therefore investigated the lipid composition of sebum before and after administration of egfri and whether sebum composition was associated with the development of acneiform rash. To investigate any associated changes in sebum gland activity, we focused especially on alterations in the amounts of sq and we, which are secreted solely from the sebaceous glands. In contrast to our expectations, we observed no substantial changes in the lipid composition of sebum before and after administration of egfri. Composition varies with the individual; however, the proportion of sq and we derived from the sebaceous glands was significantly lower in regions that did not develop acneiform rash than in regions that did. Our results suggest that development of an acneiform rash after administration of egfri could be related to sebaceous gland activity. Measurement of the lipid composition of sebum before therapy with egfri might predict which patients will be prone to acneiform rash.

Changes in sebum levels and the development of acneiform rash in patients with non-small cell lung cancer after treatment with EGFR inhibitors

Background

It has recently been shown that patients treated with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors often develop various cutaneous adverse events. While the pathogenesis underlying these events remains unclear, the relationship between skin toxicity induced by EGFR inhibitors and the sebaceous glands that express EGFR has been previously reported.

Objectives

The primary aim of this study was to determine the relationship between cutaneous sebum levels and acneiform rash, a typical skin toxicity of EGFR inhibitors, by measuring the sebum levels before and after EGFR inhibitor treatment.

Methods

Eight patients diagnosed with non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) (three men and five women with an average age of 69.3 years) who were initiated on treatment with EGFR inhibitors (either gefitinib [Iressa^®] or erlotinib [Tarceva^®]) were enrolled. Using a Sebumeter^®, sebum levels in the face, chest, and back of each patient were measured before and after EGFR inhibitor treatment. The development of acneiform rash in each skin region was also assessed.

Results

Changes in sebum level along with the development of an acneiform rash were observed after patients were started on EGFR inhibitor treatment. Patients who developed an EGFR inhibitor–induced acneiform rash tended to have higher pretreatment sebum levels (baseline) than did patients who did not experience an acneiform rash. At each time point measurement, sebum levels were found to be significantly higher in patients who had developed an acneiform rash at that time. Patients who developed rash during treatment showed greater differences in sebum level compared with pretreatment baseline.

Conclusion

Patients who had increased levels of sebum or whose sebum levels showed greater change from pretreatment baseline developed an acneiform rash, suggesting that sebaceous gland activity may be involved in the mechanism underlying the development of acneiform rash, in patients treated with EGFR inhibitors.

Personalized biomarkers to monitor disease progression in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer patients treated with icotinib

BACKGROUND

Disease-specific humoral immune response-related protein complexes in blood are associated with disease progression.

METHODS

Thirty-one patients with stage IIIB and IV non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) were administered with oral dose of icotinib hydrochloride (150 mg twice daily or 125 mg 3 times daily) for a 28-continuous-day cycle until diseases progressed or unacceptable toxicity occurred. The levels of immunoinflammation-related protein complexes (IIRPCs) in a series of plasma samples from 31 NSCLC patients treated with icotinib hydrochloride were determined by an optimized native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

RESULTS

Three characteristic patterns of the IIRPCs, named as patterns a, b, and c, respectively, were detected in plasma samples from 31 patients. Prior to the treatment, there were 18 patients in pattern a consisting of 5 IIRPCs, 9 in pattern b consisting of six IIRPCs, and 4 in pattern c without the IIRPCs. The levels of the IIRPCs in 27 patients were quantified. Our results indicate that the time length of humoral immune and inflammation response (TLHIIR) was closely associated with disease progression, and the median TLHIIR was 22.0 weeks, 95% confidence interval: 16.2 to 33.0 weeks, with a lead time of median 11 weeks relative to clinical imaging evidence confirmed by computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging (the median progression-free survival, 34.0 weeks, 95% confidence interval: 27.9 to 49.0 weeks).

CONCLUSIONS

The complex relationships between humoral immune response, acquired resistance, and disease progression existed. Personalized IIRPCs could be indicators to monitor the disease progression.

Skin/nail infections with the addition of pertuzumab to trastuzumab-based chemotherapy

We report a series of breast cancer patients with invasive skin and nail infections with Staphylococcus species that we attribute to the addition of pertuzumab to trastuzumab-based therapy. With the suspicion of an increased incidence of cutaneous infection in patients treated with pertuzumab and trastuzumab-based chemotherapy, treating medical oncologists identified patients receiving therapy who experienced infection. Between March and October 2014, 18 patients treated with pertuzumab and trastuzumab-based chemotherapy were found to have 21 separate skin/nail infections. Treatment was administered as neoadjuvant therapy in 12 (67 %) patients, adjuvant therapy in four (22 %) patients, and for metastatic disease in two (11 %) patients. Granulocyte growth factors were administered in 11 (61 %) patients and no patients were documented to be neutropenic. New skin and nail lesions developed as early as cycle 1 and as late as 8 months from initial therapy. The 21 separate infections documented were folliculitis and “bite-like” lesions (10), abscess (6), paronychia (3), and cellulitis (2). The appearance of these lesions was distinct from typical EGFR-associated skin changes. When cultures were obtained, Staphylococcus species were isolated. Quantitative immunoglobulins were assessed in 14 (78 %) patients and were abnormally low in six (43 %) of these patients. The skin infections resulted in treatment delay in two (11 %) patients and premature discontinuation of therapy in one patient. We believe that the skin/nail infections reported here in patients treated with the combination of pertuzumab and trastuzumab represent a previously unrecognized toxicity of adding pertuzumab to trastuzumab-based therapies.

Bioinformatic mining of kinase inhibitors that regulate autophagy through kinase signaling pathways

The aim of this study was to predict the kinase inhibitors that may regulate autophagy. A total of 62 kinases were obtained through text mining by importing the keyword 'autophagy' and a 'protein kinase' Excel file to PubMed. Subsequently, 146 kinases were derivated through screening in the PubMed database by importing the 'autophagy‑associated gene' and 'protein kinase' files. Following intersection of the above two methods, 54 candidate autophagy‑associated kinases were obtained. Enrichment analysis indicated that these candidate autophagy‑associated kinases were mainly enriched in pathways such as the calcium, Wnt, HIF‑1 and mTOR signaling pathways. Among the 54 kinases, 24 were identified through text mining to have specific kinase inhibitors that regulate the corresponding functions; a total of 56 kinase inhibitors were found to be involved in the regulation of these 24 kinases. In total, nine of these 56 kinase inhibitors identified had been widely reported in autophagy regulation studies, 23 kinase inhibitors had been seldom reported and 24 had never been reported. Therefore, introducing these kinases into autophagy regulation analysis in subsequent studies may produce important results.

Dose escalation to rash for erlotinib plus gemcitabine for metastatic pancreatic cancer: the phase II RACHEL study

Background:

This phase II, open-label, randomised study evaluated whether patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer receiving erlotinib/gemcitabine derived survival benefits from increasing the erlotinib dose.

Methods:

After a 4-week run-in period (gemcitabine 1000 mg m⁻² once weekly plus erlotinib 100 mg per day), patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer who developed grade 0/1 rash were randomised to receive gemcitabine plus erlotinib dose escalation (150 mg, increasing by 50 mg every 2 weeks (maximum 250 mg); n=71) or gemcitabine plus standard-dose erlotinib (100 mg per day; n=75). The primary end point was to determine whether overall survival (OS) was improved by increasing the erlotinib dose. Secondary end points included progression-free survival (PFS), incidence of grade ⩾2 rash, and safety.

Results:

Erlotinib dose escalation induced grade ⩾2 rash in 29 out of 71 (41.4%) patients compared with 7 out of 75 (9.3%) patients on standard dose. Efficacy was not significantly different in the dose-escalation arm compared with the standard-dose arm (OS: median 7.0 vs 8.4 months, respectively, hazard ratio (HR), 1.26, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.88–1.80; P=0.2026; PFS: median 3.5 vs 4.5 months, respectively, HR, 1.09, 95% CI: 0.77–1.54; P=0.6298). Incidence of adverse events was comparable between randomised arms.

Conclusion:

The erlotinib dose-escalation strategy induced rash in some patients; there was no evidence that the higher dose translated into increased benefit.

Oncogene withdrawal engages the immune system to induce sustained cancer regression

The targeted inactivation of a single oncogene can induce dramatic tumor regression, suggesting that cancers are “oncogene addicted.” Tumor regression following oncogene inactivation has been thought to be a consequence of restoration of normal physiological programs that induce proliferative arrest, apoptosis, differentiation, and cellular senescence. However, recent observations illustrate that oncogene addiction is highly dependent upon the host immune cells. In particular, CD4⁺ helper T cells were shown to be essential to the mechanism by which MYC or BCR-ABL inactivation elicits “oncogene withdrawal.” Hence, immune mediators contribute in multiple ways to the pathogenesis, prevention, and treatment of cancer, including mechanisms of tumor initiation, progression, and surveillance, but also oncogene inactivation-mediated tumor regression. Data from both the bench and the bedside illustrates that the inactivation of a driver oncogene can induce activation of the immune system that appears to be essential for sustained tumor regression.

An essential role for the immune system in the mechanism of tumor regression following targeted oncogene inactivation

Tumors are genetically complex and can have a multitude of mutations. Consequently, it is surprising that the suppression of a single oncogene can result in rapid and sustained tumor regression, illustrating the concept that cancers are often "oncogene addicted." The mechanism of oncogene addiction has been presumed to be largely cell autonomous as a consequence of the restoration of normal physiological programs that induce proliferative arrest, apoptosis, differentiation, and/or cellular senescence. Interestingly, it has recently become apparent that upon oncogene inactivation, the immune response is critical in mediating the phenotypic consequences of oncogene addiction. In particular, CD4(+) T cells have been suggested to be essential to the remodeling of the tumor microenvironment, including the shutdown of host angiogenesis and the induction of cellular senescence in the tumor. However, adaptive and innate immune cells are likely involved. Thus, the effectors of the immune system are involved not only in tumor initiation, tumor progression, and immunosurveillance, but also in the mechanism of tumor regression upon targeted oncogene inactivation. Hence, oncogene inactivation may be an effective therapeutic approach because it both reverses the neoplastic state within a cancer cell and reactivates the host immune response that remodels the tumor microenvironment.

Genetic ablation of epidermal EGFR reveals the dynamic origin of adverse effects of anti-EGFR therapy

Cancer patients treated with anti-EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) drugs often develop a dose-limiting pruritic rash of unknown etiology. The aims of our study were to define causal associations from a clinical study of cutaneous and systemic changes in patients treated with gefitinib and use these to develop and characterize a mouse model that recapitulates the human skin rash syndrome caused by anti-EGFR therapy. We examined the patients' plasma before and after treatment with gefitinib and documented changes in chemokines and leukocyte counts associated with the extent of rash or the presence of pruritus. We established a parallel mouse model by ablating EGFR in the epidermis. These mice developed skin lesions similar to the human rash. Before lesion development, we detected increased mRNA expression of chemokines in the skin associated with early infiltration of macrophages and mast cells and later infiltration of eosinophils, T cells, and neutrophils. As the skin phenotype evolved, changes in blood counts and circulating chemokines reproduced those seen in the gefitinib-treated patients. Crossing the mutant mice with mice deficient for tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) receptors, MyD88, NOS2, CCR2, T cells, or B cells failed to reverse the skin phenotype. However, local depletion of macrophages provided partial resolution, suggesting that this model can identify targets that may be effective in preventing the troublesome and dose-limiting skin response to anti-EGFR drugs. These results highlight the importance of EGFR signaling in maintaining skin immune homeostasis and identify a macrophage contribution to a serious adverse consequence of cancer chemotherapy.

Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors: a review of cutaneous adverse events and management

Epidermal growth factor inhibitors (EGFRI), the first targeted cancer therapy, are currently an essential treatment for many advance-stage epithelial cancers. These agents have the superior ability to target cancers cells and better safety profile compared to conventional chemotherapies. However, cutaneous adverse events are common due to the interference of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling in the skin. Cutaneous toxicities lead to poor compliance, drug cessation, and psychosocial discomfort. This paper summarizes the current knowledge concerning the presentation and management of skin toxicity from EGFRI. The common dermatologic adverse events are papulopustules and xerosis. Less common findings are paronychia, regulatory abnormalities of hair growth, maculopapular rash, mucositis, and postinflammatory hyperpigmentation. Radiation enhances EGFRI rash due to synergistic toxicity. There is a positive correlation between the occurrence and severity of cutaneous adverse effects and tumor response. To date, prophylactic systemic tetracycline and tetracycline class antibiotics have proven to be the most effective treatment regime.

Histopathology of acneiform eruptions in patients treated with epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors

BACKGROUND

Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors (EGFRIs) are anticancer agents that have been approved for use in a variety of solid tumors. EGFR-inhibiting agents produce a variety of cutaneous adverse events: most commonly a follicular papulopustular (acneiform) eruption on the face, scalp, chest and upper back.

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this manuscript is to elucidate the histopathologic findings associated with this most common adverse event.

METHODS

The histopathological findings of 10 patients with papulopustular eruptions induced by EGFRIs are described and compared to the four prior published case series of acneiform rashes attributed to EGFRIs.

RESULTS

All 10 patients in our case series showed a superficial, predominantly neutrophilic suppurative folliculitis with ectatic follicular infundibula and rupture of the epithelial lining. Similar pathology was found in the four other case series discussing this phenomenon.

CONCLUSION

While the characteristic clinical appearance of this rash precludes the need for a biopsy in most cases, this knowledge promotes our understanding of the pathophysiologic process. As the use of EGFRIs expands, dermatopathologists will see these reactions more commonly and will need to recognize this pattern.

Effect of intermittent dosing regimens of erlotinib on methylnitrosourea-induced mammary carcinogenesis

EGF receptor (EGFR) inhibitors are used in the therapy of lung and pancreatic cancers and effectively prevent cancers in multiple animal models. Although daily dosing with erlotinib is effective, weekly dosing may reduce toxicity and have advantages, particularly for prevention. We tested alternative dosing regimens for preventive/therapeutic efficacy in a rat mammary cancer model. For prevention, erlotinib was administered by gavage beginning 5 days after methylnitrosourea (MNU). For therapy and biomarker studies, rats with palpable mammary cancers were treated for six weeks or for six days, respectively. Experiment A, erlotinib (6 mg/kg body weight/day, intragastric): daily (7 times/week); one day on/one day off; and two days on/two days off. All regimens decreased tumor incidence, increased tumor latency, and decreased cancer multiplicity versus controls (P < 0.01). However, intermittent dosing was less effective than daily dosing (P < 0.05). Experiment B, erlotinib (6 mg/kg body weight/day) daily or two days on/two days off or one time per week at 42 mg/kg body weight. All regimens reduced cancer incidence and multiplicity versus controls (P < 0.01). Interestingly, daily and weekly dosing were equally effective (P > 0.5). Experiment C, erlotinib administered at 42 or 21 mg/kg body weight 1 time per week, decreased tumor incidence and multiplicity (P < 0.01). Erlotinib had a serum half-life of ≤ 8 hours and weekly treatment yielded effective serum levels for ≤ 48 hours. Daily or weekly treatment of cancer bearing rats reduced mammary tumor size 25% to 35%, whereas control cancers increased >250%. Levels of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) were strongly decreased in rats treated daily/weekly with erlotinib. Thus, altering the dose of erlotinib retained most of its preventive and therapeutic efficacy, and based on prior clinical studies, is likely to reduce its toxicity.

Lung cancer chemoprevention: difficulties, promise and potential agents?

INTRODUCTION

In a variety of cancers there is evidence that specific regimens can prevent or significantly delay the development of cancer. Thus, for breast cancer (ER+) use of SERMs or aromatase inhibitors can substantially decrease tumor incidence. For cervical cancer, HPV vaccination will inhibit long term cancer incidence. For colon cancer, the second greatest cancer killer, administration of aspirin and other NSAIDs decreases advanced colon adenomas in Phase II trials and epidemiologic data support their ability to prevent colon cancer. To date prevention trials in the area of lung cancer have shown minimal efficacy.

AREAS COVERED

The paper examines and discusses in greater detail certain promising agents which the authors have tested either preclinically and or in early phase clinical trials. These agents include RXR agonists, EGFr inhibitors, NSAIDs and Triterpenoids. Other agents including glucocorticoids, pioglitazone and iloprost are briefly mentioned. In addition, the paper presents various types of potential Phase II lung cancer prevention trials and describes their strengths and weaknesses. The potential use of various biomarkers as endpoints in trials e.g. histopathology, non-specific biomarkers (e.g., Ki67, cyclin D expression, apoptosis) and molecular biomarkers (e.g. specific phosphorylated proteins, gene expression etc.) is presented. Finally, we examine at least one approach, the use of aerosols, which may diminish the systemic toxicity associated with certain of these agents.

EXPERT OPINION

The manuscript presents: a) a number of promising agents which appear applicable to further Phase II prevention trials; b) approaches to defining potential preventive agents as well; c) approaches which might mitigate the side effects associated with potential agents most specifically the use of aerosols. Finally, we discuss biomarker studies both preclinical and clinical which might help support potential Phase II trials. The particular appeal to the preclinical studies is that they can be followed to a tumor endpoint. We hope that this will give the reader further background and allow one to appreciate the potential and some of the hurdles associated with lung cancer chemoprevention.

Dermatologic Toxicities from Monoclonal Antibodies and Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors against EGFR: Pathophysiology and Management

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibition has now been well established as an effective treatment for various cancers. The EGFR belongs to the ErbB family of tyrosine kinase receptors which regulate tumor cell differentiation, survival and proliferation. Activation of EGFR drives tumorigenesis in lung, head and neck, colorectal and pancreatic cancers. Irrespective of the type of cancer being treated and the mechanism by which tumor EGFR drives tumorigenesis, the major side effect of EGFR inhibition is a papulopustular (also described as maculopapular or acneiform) rash which occurs in about two thirds of treated patients. Interestingly, this rash has been commonly correlated with better clinical outcomes (objective tumor response and patient survival). The pathophysiology of dermatological toxicity from EGFR inhibitors is an important area of clinical research, and the proper management of the rash is essential to increase the therapeutic index from this class of drugs. In this paper, we review the dermatologic toxicities associated with EGFR inhibitors with an emphasis on its pathophysiology and clinical management.

Cutaneous side effects of inhibitors of the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signalling pathway and their management

Mutations in genes encoding for proteins along the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway have been detected in a variety of tumor entities, including malignant melanoma, thyroid, colonic and ovarian carcinomas, and some sarcomas. Thus, a number of inhibitors of this pathway have been developed, whose antitumor potential is currently being assessed in different clinical trials. Up to now one drug of this category (vemurafenib) has been approved by the FDA and the European Commission for late-stage melanoma. Although these new targeted anticancer therapies are generally considered to be safe and well tolerated, certain toxicities have been attributed to them, with cutaneous side effects being perhaps the most frequent amongst them. Based on results of clinical trials and on case series, a distinct profile of cutaneous toxicity has been observed, which is similar to that of EGFR and multikinase inhibitors. As exanthema, palmar-plantar erythrodysesthesia syndrome, hyperkeratosis, xerosis, pruritus, photosensitivity, and paronychia, can be controlled in most cases with common conservative modalities, special attention should be given to the early detection of epithelial skin tumors (mainly keratoakanthomas) that can be induced during therapy with these agents. This report reviews all current published data on cutaneous side effects of RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway inhibitors, and attempts to provide the clinician with clear hints for their management.

Off-target serine/threonine kinase 10 inhibition by erlotinib enhances lymphocytic activity leading to severe skin disorders

Skin disorders are among the most common adverse events related to treatment with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) kinase inhibitors, and of these, erlotinib is known to cause more frequent and severe skin disease than other agents in this class. Although previous reports have shown that cutaneous manifestations are triggered by the inhibition of multiple EGFR-related homeostatic functions of the skin, this mechanism alone cannot explain the differences in frequency and severity of skin disorders caused by different kinase inhibitors. In this study, we focused on the relationship between the off-target kinase inhibition and aggravation of skin disorders. Based on calculations using reported K(d) values and plasma drug concentrations, serine/threonine kinase 10 (STK10) and Ste20-like kinase (SLK) were selected as candidates preferentially inhibited by erlotinib over gefitinib. In vitro experiments confirmed that STK10 and SLK kinase activity are inhibited by erlotinib at clinical concentrations, whereas only STK10 is slightly inhibited by gefitinib. It was also shown that erlotinib up-regulated lymphocytic responses such as interleukin (IL)-2 secretion and cell migration at clinical concentrations, whereas gefitinib did not affect lymphocyte activity. Moreover, small interfering RNA experiments revealed that STK10 plays a major role in up-regulation of the lymphocytic responses induced by erlotinib treatment. Finally, the role of erlotinib-induced lymphocyte activation was assessed in vivo using irritant hypersensitivity models. The results indicated that erlotinib aggravates cutaneous inflammatory reactions through the activation of lymphocytic responses such as IL-2 secretion and cell migration. These results demonstrated that off-target inhibition of STK10 by erlotinib enhances lymphocytic responses, which lead to the aggravation of skin inflammation.

Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibition augments the expression of MHC class I and II genes

PURPOSE

Diverse immune-related effects occur with the use of epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors (EGFRI). In addition to the cutaneous inflammation induced by EGFRIs, these agents have been associated with the exacerbation of autoimmune skin disease and contact hypersensitivity, antiviral effects, and fatal alveolar damage in the setting of lung transplantation. Because EGFR ligands can modulate MHC class I (MHCI) and II (MHCII) molecule expression, we hypothesized that some of the immune-related effects of EGFRIs are due to direct effects on the expression of MHCI and/or MHCII molecules.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Primary human keratinocytes and a malignant keratinocyte cell line (A431) were treated with EGFRIs alone or prior to IFN-γ, a potent inducer of MHCI and MHCII molecule expression. CIITA, MHCI, and MHCII RNA expression was measured using quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR, and cell surface MHCI and MHCII protein expression was measured using flow cytometry. Skin biopsies from patients were analyzed for MHCI and MHCII protein expression before and during therapy with an EGFRI using immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Both EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors and ligand-blocking antibodies (cetuximab) augmented the induction of MHCI and MHCII molecules by IFN-γ in primary and malignant human keratinocytes. Unexpectedly, the increase in MHCI protein expression did not require the presence of IFN-γ. Consistent with these in vitro findings, skin biopsies from cancer patients exhibited increased epidermal MHCI protein expression during therapy with an EGFRI as well as increases in MHCI and MHCII molecule RNA.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies suggest that EGFRIs may influence immune/inflammatory responses by directly modulating MHC expression. Clin Cancer Res; 17(13); 4400-13. ©2011 AACR.