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Sosnowska A, Hęclik KI, Kisała JB, Celuch M, Pogocki D. Perspectives for Photocatalytic Decomposition of Environmental Pollutants on Photoactive Particles of Soil Minerals. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:3975. [PMID: 39203153 PMCID: PMC11356147 DOI: 10.3390/ma17163975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2024] [Revised: 08/05/2024] [Accepted: 08/07/2024] [Indexed: 09/03/2024]
Abstract
The literature shows that both in laboratory and in industrial conditions, the photocatalytic oxidation method copes quite well with degradation of most environmental toxins and pathogenic microorganisms. However, the effective utilization of photocatalytic processes for environmental decontamination and disinfection requires significant technological advancement in both the area of semiconductor material synthesis and its application. Here, we focused on the presence and "photocatalytic capability" of photocatalysts among soil minerals and their potential contributions to the environmental decontamination in vitro and in vivo. Reactions caused by sunlight on the soil surface are involved in its normal redox activity, taking part also in the soil decontamination. However, their importance for decontamination in vivo cannot be overstated, due to the diversity of soils on the Earth, which is caused by the environmental conditions, such as climate, parent material, relief, vegetation, etc. The sunlight-induced reactions are just a part of complicated soil chemistry processes dependent on a plethora of environmental determinates. The multiplicity of affecting factors, which we tried to sketch from the perspective of chemists and environmental scientists, makes us rather skeptical about the effectiveness of the photocatalytic decontamination in vivo. On the other hand, there is a huge potential of the soils as the alternative and probably cheaper source of useful photocatalytic materials of unique properties. In our opinion, establishing collaboration between experts from different disciplines is the most crucial opportunity, as well as a challenge, for the advancement of photocatalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Sosnowska
- Department of Landscape Architecture, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Kinga I. Hęclik
- Institute of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszow, Rejtana 16C, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland; (K.I.H.); (J.B.K.)
| | - Joanna B. Kisała
- Institute of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszow, Rejtana 16C, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland; (K.I.H.); (J.B.K.)
| | - Monika Celuch
- Łukasiewicz Research Network—Warsaw Institute of Technology, Duchnicka 3, 01-796 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Dariusz Pogocki
- Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology, Dorodna 16, 03-195 Warsaw, Poland
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Hajareh Haghighi F, Mercurio M, Cerra S, Salamone TA, Bianymotlagh R, Palocci C, Romano Spica V, Fratoddi I. Surface modification of TiO 2 nanoparticles with organic molecules and their biological applications. J Mater Chem B 2023; 11:2334-2366. [PMID: 36847384 DOI: 10.1039/d2tb02576k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, titanium(IV) dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2NPs) have shown promising potential in various biological applications such as antimicrobials, drug delivery, photodynamic therapy, biosensors, and tissue engineering. For employing TiO2NPs in these fields, their nanosurface must be coated or conjugated with organic and/or inorganic agents. This modification can improve their stability, photochemical properties, biocompatibility, and even surface area for further conjugation with other molecules such as drugs, targeting molecules, polymers, etc. This review describes the organic-based modification of TiO2NPs and their potential applications in the mentioned biological fields. In the first part of this review, around 75 recent publications (2017-2022) are mentioned on the common TiO2NP modifiers including organosilanes, polymers, small molecules, and hydrogels, which improve the photochemical features of TiO2NPs. In the second part of this review, we presented 149 recent papers (2020-2022) about the use of modified TiO2NPs in biological applications, in which specific bioactive modifiers are introduced in this part with their advantages. In this review, the following information is presented: (1) the common organic modifiers for TiO2NPs, (2) biologically important modifiers and their benefits, and (3) recent publications on biological studies on the modified TiO2NPs with their achievements. This review shows the paramount significance of the organic-based modification of TiO2NPs to enhance their biological effectiveness, paving the way toward the development of advanced TiO2-based nanomaterials in nanomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farid Hajareh Haghighi
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Martina Mercurio
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Sara Cerra
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | | | - Roya Bianymotlagh
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Cleofe Palocci
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy. .,Research Center for Applied Sciences to the Safeguard of Environment and Cultural Heritage (CIABC), Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Romano Spica
- Department of Movement, Health and Human Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Piazza Lauro De Bosis, 15, 00135 Rome, Italy
| | - Ilaria Fratoddi
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
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Younis AB, Haddad Y, Kosaristanova L, Smerkova K. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles: Recent progress in antimicrobial applications. WIRES NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 15:e1860. [PMID: 36205103 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
For decades, the antimicrobial applications of nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted the attention of scientists as a strategy for controlling the ever-increasing threat of multidrug-resistant microorganisms. The photo-induced antimicrobial properties of titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) NPs by ultraviolet (UV) light are well known. This review elaborates on the modern methods and antimicrobial mechanisms of TiO2 NPs and their modifications to better understand and utilize their potential in various biomedical applications. Additional compounds can be grafted onto TiO2 nanomaterial, leading to hybrid metallic or non-metallic materials. To improve the antimicrobial properties, many approaches involving TiO2 have been tested. The results of selected studies from the past few years covering the most recent trends in this field are discussed in this review. There is extensive evidence to show that TiO2 NPs can exhibit certain antimicrobial features with disputable roles of UV light. Hence, they are effective in treating bacterial infections, although the majority of these conclusions came from in vitro studies and in the presence of some additional nanomaterials. The methods of evaluation varied depending on the nature of the research while researchers incorporated different techniques, including determining the minimum inhibitory concentration, cell count, and using disk and well diffusion methods, with a noticeable indication that cell count was the most and dominant criterion used to evaluate the antimicrobial activity. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Almotasem Bellah Younis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic
- Central European Institute of Technology Brno University of Technology Brno Czech Republic
| | - Yazan Haddad
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic
- Central European Institute of Technology Brno University of Technology Brno Czech Republic
| | - Ludmila Kosaristanova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic
- Central European Institute of Technology Brno University of Technology Brno Czech Republic
| | - Kristyna Smerkova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Mendel University in Brno Brno Czech Republic
- Central European Institute of Technology Brno University of Technology Brno Czech Republic
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Lofrano G, Ubaldi F, Albarano L, Carotenuto M, Vaiano V, Valeriani F, Libralato G, Gianfranceschi G, Fratoddi I, Meric S, Guida M, Romano Spica V. Antimicrobial Effectiveness of Innovative Photocatalysts: A Review. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:2831. [PMID: 36014697 PMCID: PMC9415964 DOI: 10.3390/nano12162831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Waterborne pathogens represent one of the most widespread environmental concerns. Conventional disinfection methods, including chlorination and UV, pose several operational and environmental problems; namely, formation of potentially hazardous disinfection by-products (DBPs) and high energy consumption. Therefore, there is high demand for effective, low-cost disinfection treatments. Among advanced oxidation processes, the photocatalytic process, a form of green technology, is becoming increasingly attractive. A systematic review was carried out on the synthesis, characterization, toxicity, and antimicrobial performance of innovative engineered photocatalysts. In recent decades, various engineered photocatalysts have been developed to overcome the limits of conventional photocatalysts using different synthesis methods, and these are discussed together with the main parameters influencing the process behaviors. The potential environmental risks of engineered photocatalysts are also addressed, considering the toxicity effects presented in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giusy Lofrano
- Department of Movement, Health and Human Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Piazza Lauro De Bosis, 15, 00135 Rome, Italy; (G.L.); (F.U.); (G.G.); (V.R.S.)
| | - Francesca Ubaldi
- Department of Movement, Health and Human Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Piazza Lauro De Bosis, 15, 00135 Rome, Italy; (G.L.); (F.U.); (G.G.); (V.R.S.)
| | - Luisa Albarano
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Vicinale Cupa Cintia 26, 80126 Naples, Italy; (L.A.); (G.L.); (M.G.)
| | - Maurizio Carotenuto
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (M.C.); (V.V.)
| | - Vincenzo Vaiano
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (M.C.); (V.V.)
| | - Federica Valeriani
- Department of Movement, Health and Human Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Piazza Lauro De Bosis, 15, 00135 Rome, Italy; (G.L.); (F.U.); (G.G.); (V.R.S.)
| | - Giovanni Libralato
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Vicinale Cupa Cintia 26, 80126 Naples, Italy; (L.A.); (G.L.); (M.G.)
| | - Gianluca Gianfranceschi
- Department of Movement, Health and Human Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Piazza Lauro De Bosis, 15, 00135 Rome, Italy; (G.L.); (F.U.); (G.G.); (V.R.S.)
| | - Ilaria Fratoddi
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Sureyya Meric
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Tekirdag Namik Kemal University, Corlu 59860, Turkey;
| | - Marco Guida
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Vicinale Cupa Cintia 26, 80126 Naples, Italy; (L.A.); (G.L.); (M.G.)
| | - Vincenzo Romano Spica
- Department of Movement, Health and Human Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Piazza Lauro De Bosis, 15, 00135 Rome, Italy; (G.L.); (F.U.); (G.G.); (V.R.S.)
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Scungio M, Crognale S, Lelli D, Carota E, Calabrò G. Characterization of the bioaerosol in a natural thermal cave and assessment of the risk of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 virus. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2022; 44:2009-2020. [PMID: 33683533 PMCID: PMC7970810 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-021-00870-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Thermal caves represent an environment characterized by unique chemical/physical properties, often used for treatment and care of musculoskeletal, respiratory, and skin diseases.However, these environments are poorly characterized for their physical and microbiological characteristics; furthermore, the recent pandemic caused by COVID-19 has highlighted the need to investigate the potential transmission scenario of SARS-CoV-2 virus in indoor environments where an in-depth analysis of the aerosol concentrations and dimensional distributions are essential to monitor the spread of the virus.This research work was carried out inside a natural cave located in Viterbo (Terme dei Papi, Italy) where a waterfall of sulfur-sulfate-bicarbonate-alkaline earth mineral thermal water creates a warm-humid environment with 100% humidity and 48 °C temperature. Characterization of the aerosol and bioaerosol was carried out to estimate the personal exposure to aerosol concentrations, as well as particle size distributions, and to give an indication of the native microbial load.The data obtained showed a predominance of particles with a diameter greater than 8 µm, associated with low ability of penetration in the human respiratory system. A low microbial load was also observed, with a prevalence of noncultivable strains generated by the aerosolization of the thermal waters.Finally, the estimation of SARS-CoV-2 infection risk by means of mathematical modeling revealed a low risk of transmission, with a decisive effect given by the mechanical ventilation system, which together with the adoption of social distancing measures makes the risk of infection extremely low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Scungio
- Department of Economics, Engineering, Society and Business Organization (DEIM), University of Tuscia, Via del Paradiso 47, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Silvia Crognale
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems (DIBAF), University of Tuscia, Via San Camillo de Lellis, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Davide Lelli
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems (DIBAF), University of Tuscia, Via San Camillo de Lellis, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Eleonora Carota
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems (DIBAF), University of Tuscia, Via San Camillo de Lellis, Viterbo, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Calabrò
- Department of Economics, Engineering, Society and Business Organization (DEIM), University of Tuscia, Via del Paradiso 47, Viterbo, Italy
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Disinfection of Therapeutic Spa Waters: Applicability of Sodium Hypochlorite and Hydrogen Peroxide-Based Disinfectants. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14050690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The microbial water quality of therapeutic pools operating without disinfection is recurrently compromised, posing a risk to bathers’ health. The complex composition of such waters and the sensitivity of their therapeutic components hinder the use of traditional chlorine-based disinfectants. The present study aimed to investigate the applicability of a hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectant in therapeutic water in comparison with hypochlorite. Disinfection efficacy, byproduct formation, and the fate of therapeutic components were tested for both disinfectants under laboratory conditions, applying different doses and contact times. Disinfection efficacy was found to be matrix-dependent, especially that of hydrogen peroxide against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a 10- to 1000-fold difference). Hypochlorite treatment presented a significant chemical risk through the generation of byproducts, mainly brominated and iodinated compounds and combined chlorine. Of the alleged therapeutic components, sulfide ions were eliminated (≥86% loss) by both disinfectants, and hypochlorite reacted with iodide ions as well (≥70% removal). Based on their composition, only 2% of Hungarian therapeutic waters can be treated by chlorination due to high concentrations of ammonia and/or organic compounds. Hydrogen peroxide is applicable to 82% of the waters, as the presence of sulfide ions is the only limiting factor. Due to the matrix effect, close control of residual disinfectant concentration is necessary to ensure microbial safety.
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Margarucci LM, Gianfranceschi G, Romano Spica V, D’Ermo G, Refi C, Podico M, Vitali M, Romano F, Valeriani F. Photocatalytic Treatments for Personal Protective Equipment: Experimental Microbiological Investigations and Perspectives for the Enhancement of Antimicrobial Activity by Micrometric TiO 2. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:8662. [PMID: 34444411 PMCID: PMC8391258 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18168662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to countries enforcing the use of facial masks to prevent contagion. However, acquisition, reuse, and disposal of personal protective equipment (PPE) has generated problems, in regard to the safety of individuals and environmental sustainability. Effective strategies to reprocess and disinfect PPE are needed to improve the efficacy and durability of this equipment and to reduce waste load. Thus, the addition of photocatalytic materials to these materials, combined with light exposure at specific wavelengths, may represent promising solutions. To this aim, we prepared a series of masks by depositing micrometer-sized TiO2 on the external surfaces; the masks were then contaminated with droplets of bacteria suspensions and the coatings were activated by light radiation at different wavelengths. A significant reduction in the microbial load (over 90%, p < 0.01) was observed using both Gram negative (E. coli) and Gram positive (S. aureus) bacteria within 15 min of irradiation, with UV or visible light, including sunlight or artificial sources. Our results support the need for further investigations on self-disinfecting masks and other disposable PPE, which could positively impact (i) the safety of operators/workers, and (ii) environmental sustainability in different occupational or recreational settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lory Marika Margarucci
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy; (L.M.M.); (G.G.); (F.V.)
| | - Gianluca Gianfranceschi
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy; (L.M.M.); (G.G.); (F.V.)
| | - Vincenzo Romano Spica
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy; (L.M.M.); (G.G.); (F.V.)
| | - Giuseppe D’Ermo
- Department of Surgery “P. Valdoni”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | | | - Maurizio Podico
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy;
| | - Matteo Vitali
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.V.); (F.R.)
| | - Ferdinando Romano
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.V.); (F.R.)
| | - Federica Valeriani
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy; (L.M.M.); (G.G.); (F.V.)
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Different Waters for Different Performances: Can We Imagine Sport-Related Natural Mineral Spring Waters? WATER 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/w13020166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Preserving the hydration status means to balance daily fluids and salt losses with gains, where the losses depend on several physiological and environmental factors. Especially for athletes, these losses could be relevant and negatively influence the performance: therefore, their hydro-saline status must be preserved with personalized pre- and rehydration plans all along the performance period. Scientific literature in this field is mainly dedicated to artificial sport drinks. Different territories in most world areas are rich in drinking natural mineral spring waters with saline compositions that reflect their geological origin and that are used for human health (often under medical prescription). However, scarce scientific attention has been dedicated to the use of these waters for athletes. We therefore reviewed the existing literature from the innovative viewpoint of matching spring water mineral compositions with different athletic performances and their hydro-saline requirements.
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Clementi M, Signorelli C, Romano Spica V, Vitali M, Conti M, Vitale M. Protocols and self-checking plans for the safety of post-COVID-19 balneotherapy. ACTA BIO-MEDICA : ATENEI PARMENSIS 2020; 91:40-49. [PMID: 32701916 PMCID: PMC8023090 DOI: 10.23750/abm.v91i9-s.10167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemics, balneotherapic establishments were closed in Italy like in the rest of Europe. The Italian Foundation for Research in balneotherapy (FoRST) was asked to prepare a safety protocol to be proposed to the National Health Authorities to allow the establishments to restart their activity when possible, under safe conditions (the so-called Phase-2). The group of experts proposed the following hygienic and sanitary protocols of risk management for the initial reopening of the balneology settings in Italy. The plan aims to define the operating procedures to be implemented at the balneology establishments for the beginning of Phase-2 and to keep them constantly updated in the different periods that will characterize Phase-2 in relation to the trends of the disease. To this end the procedures, defined on the basis of the scientific state-of-the-art available today, will be updated and revised from time to time whenever further scientific evidence and directives from the Health Authorities make it necessary and/or useful.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carlo Signorelli
- San Raffaele University Vita e Salute, Milano; DiMeC Dept., University of Parma, Parma.
| | | | | | | | - Marco Vitale
- DiMeC Dept., University of Parma, Parma; Fondazione per la Ricerca Scientifica Termale (FoRST), Rome, Italy.
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Analysis of the Microbiome (Bathing Biome) in Geothermal Waters from an Australian Balneotherapy Centre. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12061705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Balneotherapy is an ancient practice which remains commonplace throughout the world due to perceived health benefits that include relief of arthritis, fibromyalgia and relaxation. However, bathing environments are not sterile and natural spring waters may harbour natural microbial populations that include potential pathogens. We elucidated the microbial community from water taken from the borehole, pre-filter water (chlorinated, cold and post-bathing water) and post-filter water at a commercial Australian natural hot spring bathing facility. Thiobacillus, Sphingobium and Agrobacterium were the predominant genera in samples collected from the borehole. The predominant genera changed to Sphingobium, Parvibaculum and Achromobacter following chloride treatment and Azospira replaced the Achromobacter once the water reached ambient temperature and was stored ready to be used by bathers. The microbial community changed again following use by bathers, dominated by Pseudomonas, although Sphingobium persisted. No total or faecal coliforms were observed in any of the samples except for the post-bathing water; even there, their presence was at very low concentration (2.3 cfu/mL). These results confirm the lack of pathogens present in these hot spring waters but also suggests that good management of post-bathing water is required especially if the water is used for borehole water recharge.
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