Status, characterization, and potential utilization of municipal solid waste as renewable energy source: Lahore case study in Pakistan

Biocrude from hydrothermal liquefaction of indigenous municipal solid waste for green energy generation and contribution towards circular economy: A case study of urban Pakistan

In this study, biocrude was successfully produced by the hydrothermal liquefaction of municipal solid waste collected from the landfill site of Lahore, the capital of Punjab, Pakistan, boasting a population of 12 million and an annual waste collection of 10 million tons. The hydrothermal liquefaction process was performed at reaction parameters of 350 °C and 165 bars with 15 min of residence time. The solid waste was found to have 78 % dry matter, 22 % moisture contents, 22.2 % ash, 22.69 MJ/kg higher heating value, 52.062 % C, 8.007 % H, 0.764 % N, and 39.164 % O. Non-catalytic process only produced 10.57 % oil, however when using the catalytic process, the biocrude yield improved to 17.61 %, with 22.61 % energy recovery for biocrude and 12.14 % for solids, when using 2 g dose of K2CO3. The resultant biocrude has a 28.61 MJ/kg higher heating value, having 60.28 % C and 9.28 % H. In contrast, the aqueous phase generated had 4.43 pH, 71.5 g/L TOC, and 1.35 g/L Total Nitrogen. TGA indicated that biocrude contains approximately 80 % of volatile fractions of different fuels. The organic compounds having the six highest peak areas in GC-MS were Ethyl ether 25.74 %, 2-pentanone, 4-hydroxy-4-methyl 9.08 %, 2-propanone, 1,1-dimethoxy 5.62 %, Silane, dimethyl (docosyloxy) butoxy 5.08 %, 1-Hexanol, 2-ethyl 4.53 %, and. Phenol 4.07 %. This work makes the first-ever successful use of indigenous solid waste from a landfill dumping site in Lahore to successfully produce useful biocrude with aims of waste reduction and management, circular economy, and energy recovery.

Assessment of household solid waste characteristics, quantity, and management practices in Dangila Town, Ethiopia

Solid waste refers to the material that is discarded because of human activity. In developing countries like Ethiopia, rapid urbanization leads to the production of large amounts of solid waste in towns. As a consequence, it causes severe problems to human health, aesthetics, and the environment, particularly in Dangila Town. Therefore, this study aimed to assess household solid waste characteristics, quantity, and management practices. Data was collected for seven days in January 2020 from 73 households, which were divided into three income groups. Observations, interviews, field measurements, sorting, and open-ended questionnaires were used as data collection tools. The research showed that food waste and ash and dust were the most dominant fractions, comprising 41.04% and 26.18%, respectively. It was also revealed that 77.88%, 12.74%, and 9.38% of household solid waste was decomposable, recyclable, and disposable waste, respectively. Furthermore, the waste components showed a significant statistical difference among income groups, except for the metal and miscellaneous groups. The quantification result indicated that the per capita household generation rate was 0.26 kg/day. The management practice assessment found that most households did not practice integrated solid waste management options. They disposed of waste indiscriminately, leading to environmental pollution. The results of this study suggest that the municipality needs to create awareness among households regarding proper solid waste management practices. It is crucial to apply appropriate solid waste management mechanisms and establish a well-organized institution that will collect solid waste in the town and achieve a circular economy.

Source identification, characteristics, and spatial distribution of airborne microplastic deposition in Lahore City, Pakistan

A large volume of atmospheric microplastics (MPs) has been observed worldwide and is considered an emerging global environmental issue. Nevertheless, no significant assessment of the atmospheric deposition of MPs in Pakistan has been reported yet. The present study was designed to highlight the source, type, and spatial distribution of MPs in atmospheric fallout in Lahore, Pakistan. A total of 23 sites were sampled in Lahore with a heterogeneous background of human activities. All samples were collected in a box with a one-foot depth fitted with a steel tray of 0.1 m2 at the bottom. Fenton's reagent and hydrogen peroxide were used to remove organic matter, and sodium chloride for density separation, while the MPs were quantified through a stereomicroscope, and polymers were identified through ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. The highest deposition rate (particles/m2/day) was observed at Badami Bagh, i.e., 6819, followed by Mall Road 4414, and Chung 4263, while the lowest was in Sabzazaar (i.e., 524) and Township (1047) with an average deposition rate of 2340 ± 1392. Among the MPs, the major portion was fiber, i.e., 96%, while fragment was 1.9%, sheets 0.78%, foams 1.12%, beads 0.04%, and other MPs 0.06%. At all sampling sites, 20 different types of polymers were identified with different percentages, of which polyester fibers were predominant with an abundance of 96.09% associated with clothes and textiles. A high frequency of MPs was found in populated areas with dense traffic, plastic wastes, household plastic materials, and mismanagement of wastes, which accelerates the atmospheric deposition of airborne microplastics. Evaluation and characterization of MP help assess health and environmental impacts, cleanup efforts, and guiding regulations. It also provides valuable information for waste management innovation to reduce plastic pollution.

Nesting material adaptation of native bird species with anthropogenic litter along an urbanization gradient in Pakistan

Rapid urbanization and associated waste generation have become a mounting ecological concern for wildlife, especially avian communities. Research has primarily focused on investigating the impacts of human activities on marine birds with comparatively less focus on terrestrial species that live in far more anthropized environments and are at significant risk. Our study has explored the abundance and characteristics of anthropogenic litter in 70 nests of four generalist bird species: Bank Myna (Acridotheres ginginianus), Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis), Black Kite (Milvus migrans) and House Crow (Corvus splendens), within the city of Lahore (Pakistan) and its surroundings, by determining and following an urbanization gradient. The overall frequency of litter occurrence (FLO%) for all the sampled nests was 89%. Over 80% of the recorded litter items consisted of plastic materials, primarily dominated by sheet-like plastics. There was a strong association between fabric and Black Kite nests, and metal and House Crow nests. Litter incorporation increased across the gradient from rural to urban habitats. The highest FLO% was found in nests sampled from waste dumping sites and urban sites (95%-100%), where anthropogenic influence was more intense. The high level of litter incorporation is potentially indicative of a species' adaptive response to urbanization, associated with the decline in natural nesting material and availability of anthropogenic litter. These findings highlight the need for strengthening the existing global database for terrestrial litter and its effect on wildlife and devising policy actions for better waste management and conservation of natural ecosystem balance.

Turning trash into treasure: Torrefaction of mixed waste for improved fuel properties. A case study of metropolitan city

Solid waste management is one of the biggest challenges of the current era. The combustible fractions in the waste stream turn out to be a good energy source if converted into refuse-derived fuel. Researchers worldwide are successfully converting it into fuel. However, certain challenges are associated with its application in gasifiers, boilers, etc. to co-fire it with coal. These include high moisture content, low calorific value, and difficulty to transport and store. The present study proposed torrefaction as a pretreatment of the waste by heating it in the range of 200 °C-300 °C in the absence of oxygen at atmospheric pressure. The combustible fraction from the waste stream consisting of wood, textile, paper, carton, and plastics termed as mixed waste was collected and torrefied at 225 °C, 250 °C, 275 °C, and 300 °C for 15 and 30 min each. It was observed that the mass yield and energy yield decreased to 45% and 62.96% respectively, but the energy yield tended to increase by the ratio of 1.39. Proximate analysis showed that the moisture content and volatile matter decreased for torrefied samples, whereas the ash content and fixed carbon content increased. Similarly, the elemental analysis revealed that the carbon content increased around 23% compared to raw samples with torrefaction contrary to hydrogen and oxygen, which decreased. Moreover, the higher heating value (HHV) of the torrefied samples increased around 1.3 times as compared to the raw sample. This pretreatment can serve as an effective solution to the current challenges and enhance refuse-derived fuel's fuel properties.

Municipal solid waste management instruments that influence the use of the refuse as fuel in developing countries: A critical review

Landfills are the destination of most of the refuse generated whereas composting, material recycling, and Waste-to-Energy (WtE) technologies are not commonly employed in developing countries. However, the destination for energy purposes could be supplied with this refuse, improving the viability of energy use. Thus, this article raises some questions to identify aspects that could encourage its use as refuse-derived fuel (RDF) in these countries. Among them, does environmental education affect the municipal solid waste (MSW) source separation with emphasis on a destination? Can selective collection and extended producer responsibility (EPR) affect the MSW for energy recovery? Is there competition between the recycling market and the energy market for RDF? A systematic review of the literature was conducted to gather data and provide answers to such questions. This enabled to observe that EPR, selective collect expansion and source separation influence the quantity and quality of waste sent for energy use. Both internal and external factors impact on source separation. Additionally, there is evidence to support that despite several studies showing their technical, economic, environmental and social viability, the methods of energy usage of the refuse still need to improve their deployment in developing countries. In addition to identifying the main research gaps to be filled in future studies, the article also identified the instruments of MSW management that are to be applied in developing countries to divert recyclable and organic waste from landfill.

Large-scale laboratory investigation of the performance of a novel isolation particle layer for offshore final disposal sites

The complex seabed conditions and ocean environment pose significant challenges to the material selection and construction of bottom liners for offshore final disposal sites. To overcome the challenges, this study proposed a novel isolation particle layer for offshore final disposal sites. The isolation particle was composed by salt-resistant bentonite coating material and cement core material (D10 was 10 mm in core diameter and 2 mm in coating thickness; D20 was 20 mm and 4 mm). Upon immersion in artificial seawater, the isolation particles underwent expansion, leading to the formation of the novel isolation particle layers with low hydraulic conductivity less than 1 × 10-7 cm/s and adsorption of heavy metals in bentonite interlayers. Large column tests showed that both D10 and D20 isolation particle layers exhibited remarkable swelling capacity and low hydraulic conductivity (4.3 × 10-9 cm/s and 2.6 × 10-8 cm/s) under 3 m seawater pressure. During one year of observation, water tank test demonstrated that both isolation particle layers displayed remarkable stability and low hydraulic conductivity of 2.73 × 10-10 cm/s and 8.36 × 10-10 cm/s with load. The maximum adsorption capacities of salt-resistant bentonite were 123.55 mg/g for Pb2+, 60.29 mg/g for Cd2+ and 54.22 mg/g for Cu2+. Both isolation particle layers exhibited a high removal rate of over 95 % for heavy metals in water tank tests. The large-scale laboratory tests indicated the significant potential of the novel isolation particle layer for offshore final disposal sites. Subsequently, a testing ocean site will be selected to further investigate its practical engineering performance.

Treatment of landfill leachate using photocatalytic based advanced oxidation process - a critical review

Landfill leachate is a discrete volumetric component of municipal solid waste; hence, researchers and professionals are more concerned about it because of its obscurity. Innovative treatment and emerging technologies are being scrutinized to address the treatment of landfill leachate challenges. The leading target of this review was to examine the possibility of removing recalcitrant organic pollutants from landfill leachate by photocatalytic-based advanced oxidation processes. A summary of the systematic applicability of conventional treatment for landfill leachate is provided, with a focus on physico-chemical and biological processes. The biological treatment, such as aerobic and anaerobic digestion, is an excellent technique for treating highly concentrated organic pollutants in the wastewater. However, Leachate can scarcely be treated using conventional techniques since it is enriched with refractory organics and inorganic ions. It is clear from the literature review that none of the available combinations of physico-chemical and biological treatments are entirely relevant for the removal of recalcitrant organic pollutants from leachate. Recently, the photo-assisted TiO2/ZnO oxidation has shown an excessively potential and feasible way to treat landfill leachate. TiO2/ZnO photocatalysis is currently developing to treat recalcitrant organic pollutants from landfill leachate. The effect of operating parameters reveals that pH and temperature affect the reaction rate. The addition of oxidant H2O2 to the TiO2/ZnO suspension suggests that TiO2 leads to an increase in the rate of reaction when compared to ZnO. Photocatalytic remediation technique of landfill leachate would support the goal of environmental sustainability by greatly enhancing the effectiveness of treated leachate reutilization. In this review, the selection of the best photocatalytic treatment for leachate based on its systematic relevance and potential conditions, characteristics, cost-effectiveness, essential controlling, discharge limit, long-term environmental effects, and its future study perspectives are emphasized and discussed.

Characterization of landfills solid waste in Muscat and estimation of their energy recovery

The only way to dispose of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Oman is in engineered landfills without pre-treatment. An effective waste management system requires a reliable database of solid waste composition, properties, and energy content. Although investigating waste in landfills in Muscat Governorate is challenging and complex, it is essential. In this study, MSW from Muscat Governorate landfills is examined. The MSW samples were collected et al. Amerat and Barka landfills in 2020 in order to determine some of the importance of their physiochemical properties and the ratio of materials (food, plastic, and paper). It was found that approximately 50% of the weight of the disposed waste was recyclable. There were high levels of biodegradable organic material in MSW. In terms of moisture content, MSW ranged from 21.5 to 43.3%. Both the volatility and loss of ignition of MSW were high. It was found that the total oxide ratios ranged from 12.4 to 44.06%. The elemental analysis of Muscat MSW resulted in six chemical formulas for MSW with and without sulfur. Silica is the most influential oxide, followed by calcium oxide. The findings of this study indicate that almost half of Muscat's municipal solid waste can be recycled. Solid waste can be recycled to create renewable materials that can replace oil as a by-product of the recycling industry. Additionally, Muscat MSW has a high moisture content, which enables it to be composted and biodegraded. Moreover, waste-to-energy technologies are feasible due to their high-energy content.

Analysis of heavy metal, rare, precious, and metallic element content in bottom ash from municipal solid waste incineration in Tehran based on particle size

Waste incineration is increasingly used worldwide for better municipal solid waste management and energy recovery. However, residues resulting from waste incineration, such as Bottom Ash (BA) and Fly Ash (FA), can pose environmental and human health risks due to their physicochemical properties if not managed appropriately. On the other hand, with proper utilization, these residues can be turned into valuable Municipal metal mines. In this study, BA was granulated in various size ranges (< 0.075 mm, 0.075-0.125 mm, 0.125-0.5 mm, 0.5-1 mm, 1-2 mm, 2-4 mm, 4-16 mm, and > 16 mm). The physicochemical properties, heavy metal elements, environmental hazards, and other rare and precious metal elements in each Granulated Bottom Ash (GBA) group from Tehran's waste incineration were examined using ICP-MASS. Additionally, each GBA group's mineralogical properties and elemental composition were determined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results showed that the average concentration of heavy metals in GBA, including Zn (1974 mg/kg), Cu, and Ba (790 mg/kg), Pb (145 mg/kg), Cr (106 mg/kg), Ni (25 mg/kg), Sn (24 mg/kg), V (25 mg/kg), As (11 mg/kg), and Sb (29 mg/kg), was higher in particles smaller than 4 mm. Precious metals such as gold (average 0.3 mg/kg) and silver (average 11 mg/kg) were significantly higher in GBA particles smaller than 0.5 mm, making their extraction economically feasible. Moreover, rare metals such as Ce, Nd, La, and Y were detected in GBA, with average concentrations of 24, 8, 11, and 7 mg/kg, respectively. The results of this study indicated that BA contains environmentally concerning metals, as well as rare and precious metals, with high concentrations, especially in particles smaller than 4 mm. This highlights the need for proper pre-treatment before using these materials in civil and municipal applications or even landfilling.

Municipal solid waste generation and its compositional assessment for efficient and sustainable infrastructure planning in an intermediate city of Pakistan

It is imperative to design and operate sustainable solid waste management (SWM) systems in cities based on the results of waste amount and characterization study (WACS). In this work, WACS was conducted and results were used to design an SWM system for an intermediate city of Pakistan. The study revealed that about 110 tons of solid waste per day is generated with a per capita rate of 0.337 kg/day. Around 51.2% of mixed municipal solid waste (MSW) is organic in nature and its non-scientific disposal is resulting in higher greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It was also found that more than 80% of valuables are taken away by the informal sector during the transfer of MSW from the generation source to the dumping site. Ultimate analyses showed that the moisture content (MC) and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio were 64.23% and 51.14%, respectively. Proximate analysis revealed that moisture and calorific values were 57 % and 3505 BTU/lb., respectively. Based on these results, a material sorting facility (MSF) was proposed, with an estimated investment cost of US $3.64 million. However, the efficiency of the existing collection system is limited to 32 % only. In order to improve the collection efficiency (>90 %), an additional investment of US $1.638 million was estimated with an operations and maintenance (O&M) cost of US $19.25 per ton. Existing non-scientific MSW disposal practices contribute 32,079.61 CO2e tons/year of GHG emissions. The proposed MSF followed by composting is estimated to reduce GHG emissions by 38% to 19,722.38 CO2e tons/year.

Municipal solid waste compost: a comprehensive bibliometric data-driven review of 50 years of research and identification of future research themes

This paper offers a thorough bibliometric review of the literature on municipal solid waste compost (MSWC), focusing on the past two decades. Using an extensive dataset of 827 documents, the research patterns are analyzed via the R-based Bibliometrix package, merging metadata from Web of Science and Scopus. The analysis reveals substantial global growth in MSWC research, with a particular surge in the last 20 years. Discipline-specific journals are the main publishers, while multidisciplinary environmental outlets gained more citations. The study identifies five major collaborative author clusters that dominate productivity and citation frequency. The thematic evolution over the past five decades shows a transition from waste disposal towards topics such as heavy metals, soil properties, and plant nutrition, with emerging themes like carbon sequestration, biochar, and microplastics signaling future research directions. Specifically, the field has experienced a 7.86% annual growth rate, with an average citation rate of 26.88 per article. The 827 publications emerged from 317 sources and 1910 authors, with an international co-authorship rate of 14.75%, reflecting the field's interdisciplinary character. Thirteen primary sources and twenty-two key authors were identified as major contributors. On the geographical front, Spain and Italy led with the most contributions and highest citation count, respectively. In terms of keywords, "heavy metals" and "sewage sludge" were the most recurrent, indicating the prevailing topics in MSWC research. This analysis hence provides key insights into the evolution and future trajectory of MSWC studies.

The temporal and spatial characteristics and influencing factors of CO2 emissions from municipal solid waste in China

Understanding the temporal and spatial characteristics of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from municipal solid waste (MSW) and a quantitative evaluation of the contribution rate of the factors influencing the changes in CO₂ emissions are important for pollution and emission reduction and the realization of the "double carbon" goal. This study analyzed the spatial and temporal evolution of waste generation and treatment based on panel data from 31 Chinese provinces over the past 15 years and then applied the logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) model to study the driving factors of CO₂ emissions from MSW. China's MSW production and CO₂ emissions displayed a rising trend, and the overall CO₂ emissions showed a geographical pattern of being high in the east and low in the west. Carbon emission intensity, economic output, urbanization level, and population size were positive factors that increased CO₂ emissions. The most important factors driving CO₂ emissions were carbon emission intensity and economic output, with cumulative contribution rates of 55.29% and 47.91%, respectively. Solid waste emission intensity was a negative factor in reducing CO₂ emissions, with a cumulative contribution rate of -24.52%. These results have important implications for the design of policies to reduce CO₂ emissions from MSW.

Tricks and tracks in waste management with a special focus on municipal landfill leachate: Leads and obstacles

Landfilling is the most widely used disposal method for municipal solid waste around the world. The main disadvantage of this strategy is formation of leachate, among other aspects. Landfill leachate contains highly toxic and bio-refractory substances that are detrimental to the environment and human health. Hence, the risk(s) of discharging potentially harmful landfill leachate into the environment need to be assessed and measured in order to make effective choices about landfill leachate management and treatment. In view of this, the present review aims to investigate (a) how landfill leachate is perceived as an emerging concern, and (b) the stakeholders' mid- to long-term policy priorities for implementing technological and integrative solutions to reduce the harmful effects of landfill leachate. Because traditional methods alone have been reported ineffective, and in response to emerging contaminants and stringent regulations, new effective and integrated leachate treatments have been developed. This study gives a forward-thinking of the accomplishments and challenges in landfill leachate treatment during the last decade. It also provides a comprehensive compilation of the formation and characterization of landfill leachate, the geo-environmental challenges that it raises, as well as the resource recovery and industrial linkage associated with it in order to provide an insight into its sustainable management.

Hydrogen-rich gas production from disposable COVID-19 mask by steam gasification

Globally, the demand for masks has increased due to the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in 490,201 tons of waste masks disposed of per month. Since masks are used in places with a high risk of virus infection, waste masks retain the risk of virus contamination. In this study, a 1 kg/h lab-scale (diameter: 0.114 m, height: 1 m) bubbling fluidized bed gasifier was used for steam gasification (temperature: 800 °C, steam/carbon (S/C) ratio: 1.5) of waste masks. The use of a downstream reactor with activated carbon (AC) for tar cracking and the enhancement of hydrogen production was examined. Steam gasification with AC produces syngas with H₂, CO, CH₄, and CO₂ content of 38.89, 6.40, 21.69, and 7.34 vol%, respectively. The lower heating value of the product gas was 29.66 MJ/Nm³ and the cold gas efficiency was 74.55 %. This study showed that steam gasification can be used for the utilization of waste masks and the production of hydrogen-rich gas for further applications.

The Impact of Green Religiosity on The Green Product Switching Behavior in Pakistan: The Role of Green Personal Values and Green Altruism

Prior studies have fallen short when examining the impact of religiosity on consumer values toward environmental preservation and green product switching behavior in religion-dominating countries. Moreover, green altruism has also received inadequate attention, and its role in causing green product switching behaviors remains unexplored. To address this gap, we introduce two novel constructs: green religiosity and green altruism. We examined their impact on consumers' values and switching behaviors regarding green products while using the value-belief theoretical underpinnings to posit our hypothesis. A survey approach is employed in the Electronics industry in Pakistan to validate our assertions. A total of 623 respondents' data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The findings reveal that green religiosity positively impacts personal values and switching behavior in green products. In addition, green values partially mediate the relationship between green religiosity and green product switching behavior. Green altruism strengthens the relationship between personal values and product switching behavior as a moderator. Collective findings suggest that religion can play a crucial role in reshaping consumers' attitudes toward environmentally friendly products and influence their values regarding the preservation of the environment.

Temporal variation in leachate composition of a newly constructed landfill site in Lahore in context to environmental pollution and risks

This study investigated the seasonal and temporal variations in the extent and source of physiochemical and toxic trace elements in the Lakhodair landfill site of Lahore, Pakistan. For this purpose, systematic composite samples were collected every month, consecutively for 1 year, and analyzed for different physiochemical parameters and trace elements. The results of TDS, TSS, COD, NH₃-N, BOD₅, sulfate, sulfides, phenolic compounds, and oil and grease were higher than the national environmental quality standard (NEQs). The concentrations of trace elements, especially Mn (1.7 mg/L) and Cd (0.05 mg/L), were above the MPL, while Fe (14 mg/L), Ni (1.6 mg/L), and Zn (6.7 mg/L) were also found higher than the NEQs in some samples. In Lakhodair leachates, the TDS, COD, NH₃-N, BOD₅, sulfides, and Cl^- have high concentration coefficient (i.e., CC 3 to > 6), which falls in the category of considerable to high contamination and risk level, while the remaining parameters were in the category of low to moderate contamination (CC 1 to ≤ 3) and moderate risk. The lower BOD₅/COD ratio (< 0.1) in spring and autumn seasons represents the active methanogenesis and anaerobic activities in the Lakhodair landfill site. The anaerobic and methanogenesis activities enhance the redox reaction as a result of CO₂ emission, which increases the pH, TDS, COD, Cl^-, BOD₅, NH₃-N, sulfides, and phenolic compounds in the leachate site. However, the lower concentrations of some trace elements in leachate may be because of an anaerobic process that may immobilize the trace elements. It is presumed that the trace elements in the Lakhodair landfill may be in a metastable state, which is difficult to leach out. It is hereby recommended that leachate produced in the Lakhodair landfill site should be handled carefully to limit the environmental and health implications.

Recent Developments in Lignocellulosic Biofuels, a Renewable Source of Bioenergy

Biofuel consists of non-fossil fuel derived from the organic biomass of renewable resources, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and waste. Energy derived from biofuel is known as bioenergy. The reserve of fossil fuels is now limited and continuing to decrease, while at the same time demand for energy is increasing. In order to overcome this scarcity, it is vital for human beings to transfer their dependency on fossil fuels to alternative types of fuel, including biofuels, which are effective methods of fulfilling present and future demands. The current review therefore focusses on second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels obtained from non-edible plant biomass (i.e., cellulose, lignin, hemi-celluloses, non-food material) in a more sustainable manner. The conversion of lignocellulosic feedstock is an important step during biofuel production. It is, however, important to note that, as a result of various technical restrictions, biofuel production is not presently cost efficient, thus leading to the need for improvement in the methods employed. There remain a number of challenges for the process of biofuel production, including cost effectiveness and the limitations of various technologies employed. This leads to a vital need for ongoing and enhanced research and development, to ensure market level availability of lignocellulosic biofuel.

A facilitating framework for a developing country to adopt smart waste management in the context of circular economy

To achieve higher standards of sustainability, the waste management sector now requires the incorporation of circular economy (CE) principles. However, an easy transition toward the particular goal would require the use of smart waste technologies. To achieve the aforementioned goal, this study aims to provide a facilitating framework for the adoption of smart waste management in the context of CE for Pakistan. To help Pakistan transition toward the new paradigm, a total of 16 critical facilitators are evaluated based on five distinctive criteria using a novel fuzzy hybrid multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approach. The hybrid MCDM approach includes fuzzy Stepwise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) for allocating weights to the determined criteria; whereas, the fuzzy VIšekriterijumsko kompromisno rangiranje (VIKOR) approach is used to rank the critical facilitators adopted from the secondary literature. The fuzzy approach in both cases is to deal with any kind of uncertainty during the data collection process. Based on the achieved results, the study suggests that before the application of smart waste technologies in the country, Pakistan should first focus on devising regulations that effectively address the mismanagement of waste produced in the country. Also, the industries in the country need to become more responsible and should adopt environmental management systems that foster waste minimization. Lastly, the country in the third phase should focus on the wide application of digitalization both in the streams of ICT and IoT, for collecting, sharing, and receiving waste data. The study further provides policy recommendations to the respective stakeholders that will help the country achieve zero-waste CE.

Municipal solid waste management: Dynamics, risk assessment, ecological influence, advancements, constraints and perspectives

Global energy consumption has been increasing in tandem with economic growth, putting pressure on the world's supply of renewable energy sources. Municipal Solid waste (MSW) has been reported contributing immensely to the improvement of a secure environment and renewable sources. Energy scarcity and conventional MSW disposal methods in developing countries lead towards many environmental and economic issues. Scientists have been able to experiment with various waste-to-energy conversion technologies in light of this situation. This communication highlights and reviews WtE technologies to convert MSW and other feedstocks into electricity, hydrogen gas, bioethanol along with other value added products like fertilizer(s), platform chemicals as an environmentally friendly products. This review comprehensively summarized the dynamics, risk assessment, ecological influence, advancements, constraints and perspectives altogether in field of municipal solid waste management and treatment. Stare-of-the-art information on ecological influence and risk assessment in handling and transportation of municipal solid waste has been provided. Advanced trends involved in remediation of emerging pollutants and resources obtained from municipal solid wastes have been uncovered. Lastly, this paper comprises constraints and perspectives for uncovering MSW based circular bioeconomy aspects.

Source identification and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air and dust samples of Lahore City

During two consecutive summer and winter seasons in Lahore, the health risk of air and dust-borne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was evaluated. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GS/MS) was used to determine air and dust samples from various functional areas across the city. The mean ∑₁₆PAHs were higher in air 1035.8 ± 310.7 (pg m^-3) and dust 963.4 ± 289.0 (ng g^-1 d.w.) during winter seasons as compared to summer seasons in air 1010.9 ± 303.3 (pg m^-3) and dust matrices 945.2 ± 283.6 (ng g^-1 d.w.), respectively. PAHs ring profile recognized 3 and 4 rings PAHs as most dominant in air and dust samples. Estimated results of incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) highlighted high carcinogenic risk among the residents of Lahore via ingestion and dermal contact on exposure to atmospheric PAHs. The total ILCR values in air among children (summer: 9.61E - 02, winter: 2.09E - 02) and adults (summer: 1.45E - 01, winter: 3.14E - 02) and in dust, children (summer: 9.16E - 03, winter: 8.80E - 03) and adults (summer: 1.38E - 02, winter: 1.33E - 02) during the study period. The isomeric ratios in the study area revealed mixed PAH sources, including vehicular emission, petroleum, diesel and biomass combustion. As a result, it is advised that atmospheric PAHs should be monitored throughout the year and the ecologically friendly fuels be used to prevent PAHs pollution and health concerns in the city. The findings of this study are beneficial to the local regulating bodies in terms of controlling the exposure and promoting steps to reduce PAHs pollution and manage health in Lahore.

Status, characterization, and quantification of municipal solid waste as a measure towards effective solid waste management: The case of Dilla Town, Southern Ethiopia

This study aims to assess the status of solid waste management (SWM) practice and to characterize and quantify the municipal solid waste as a measure toward effective management in Dilla town Southern Ethiopia. Formal surveys of household residents and SWM operators using a structured questionnaire were conducted to gather data on the current waste management practices of the inhabitants. Repeated field investigations, on-site waste segregation, characterizations, and quantification were conducted. The average per-capita waste generation rate of residential households was found to be 0.475 kg/capita.day. The majority of the waste was organic (68.40% by weight). The recyclable waste accounts 1.90% plastics and 1.50% paper by weight. Whereas, other wastes account 0.30% metals, 0.30% glass, 0.50% leather and rubber, 19.60% inert, 0.96% textiles, and 6.90% miscellaneous by weight. The awareness of inhabitants on solid waste management, poor household waste segregation practice, and disposing of an unsanitary landfill are revealing the main solid waste management problems faced. Other SWM barriers include ineffective solid waste fee system, lack of trained manpower, inappropriate collection routes; unavailability of collection vehicles, illegal solid waste disposal, and inappropriate setting of community containers. From the results of this study, it can be concluded that organic waste constituted a lion share of the solid wastes generated in the town. Hence, the municipality can recover this waste by introducing integrated urban agriculture that might convert this waste to organic fertilizer through composting. To boost SWM, creating public awareness, providing equipment, provision of incentives and other financial policies, and other supplies currently lacking and inappropriate must be provided. The municipal authorities of the town may use this work as a benchmark and might push environmental protection authorities to reexamine the implementation of their policies and strategies with relation to the human and environmental health of the town.Implications: Nowadays, urban population is increasing in developing countries; led to generate an enormous amount of municipal waste in the areas which make more complicate its management pose environmental pollution and threat public health. Thus, to curve these problems this study finding will be important for various policymakers and town municipality. This study may also serve as a benchmark for the municipal authorities of Dilla town for whom the problem is still unseen and negligible, and can push environmental protection authorities to re-examine the implementation of their policies and strategies with regard to the wider issues of human and environmental health conditions of town inhabitants.

A review on integrated approaches for municipal solid waste for environmental and economical relevance: Monitoring tools, technologies, and strategic innovations

Rapid population growth, combined with increased industrialization, has exacerbated the issue of solid waste management. Poor management of municipal solid waste (MSW) not only has detrimental environmental consequences but also puts public health at risk and introduces several other socioeconomic problems. Many developing countries are grappling with the problem of safe disposing of large amounts of produced municipal solid waste. Unmanaged municipal solid waste pollutes the environment, so its use as a potential renewable energy source would aid in meeting both increased energy needs and waste management. This review investigates emerging strategies and monitoring tools for municipal solid waste management. Waste monitoring using high-end technologies and energy recovery from MSW has been discussed. It comprehensively covers environmental and economic relevance of waste management technologies based on innovations achieved through the integration of approaches.

Physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of landfilled waste from Campina Grande, Brazil

The properties of municipal solid waste (MSW) in landfills vary considerably, depending on the waste's composition, time, and density. This variability in MSW properties leads to many uncertainties in the analysis of landfill performance. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate landfilled waste's physical, chemical, and mechanical properties for 8 days. Throughout this study, it was possible to investigate the gravimetric composition, density of solid particles, moisture content, volatile solids, pH, total alkalinity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammoniacal nitrogen (N-NH3), grain size distribution, compaction properties, and shear strength of the landfilled waste. It was found that 71% of the waste corresponds to the denominated "others" category, the content of fine materials is 65%, the optimum water content is 34%, the moisture content is 41%, and the volatile solids is 67%. The chemical parameters indicated that the MSW was in the initial phase of biodegradation (acidogenesis), as the pH, total alkalinity, COD, and N-NH3 showed to be 5, 1575 mgCaCO3.L-1, 13698.6 mgO2.L-1, and 56 mgN-NH3.L-1, respectively. On the mechanical aspect, the waste presented a cohesion of 17 kPa and an internal friction angle of 16°. In general, the results showed that the waste's physical, chemical, and mechanical properties altered during the landfilling process.

Agricultural Waste and Wastewater as Feedstock for Bioelectricity Generation Using Microbial Fuel Cells: Recent Advances

In recent years, there has been a significant accumulation of waste in the environment, and it is expected that this accumulation may increase in the years to come. Waste disposal has massive effects on the environment and can cause serious environmental problems. Thus, the development of a waste treatment system is of major importance. Agro-industrial wastewater and waste residues are mainly rich in organic substances, lignocellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and they have a relatively high amount of energy. As a result, an effective agro-waste treatment system has several benefits, including energy recovery and waste stabilization. To reduce the impact of the consumption of fossil energy sources on our planet, the exploitation of renewable sources has been relaunched. All over the world, efforts have been made to recover energy from agricultural waste, considering global energy security as the final goal. To attain this objective, several technologies and recovery methods have been developed in recent years. The microbial fuel cell (MFC) is one of them. This review describes the power generation using various types of agro-industrial wastewaters and agricultural residues utilizing MFC. It also highlights the techno-economics and lifecycle assessment of MFC, its commercialization, along with challenges.

Do Perceived Risk, Perception of Self-Efficacy, and Openness to Technology Matter for Solar PV Adoption? An Application of the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior

Solar PV (photovoltaic) technology has gained considerable attention worldwide, as it can help reduce the adverse effects of CO2 emissions. Though the government of Pakistan is adopting solar PV technology due to its environmental friendliness nature, studies focusing on consumer’s acceptance of solar PV are limited in the country. This research aims to close this knowledge gap by looking into the various considerations that may influence consumers’ willingness to adopt (WTA) solar PV for household purposes. The study further contributes by expanding the conceptual framework of the theory of planned behavior by including three novel factors (perceived risk, perception of self-efficacy, and openness to technology). The analysis is based on questionnaire data collected from 683 households in Pakistan’s provincial capitals, including Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta, Gilgit, and Karachi. The proposed hypotheses are investigated using the state-of-the-art structural equation modeling approach. The empirical results reveal that social norms, perception of self-efficacy, and belief about solar PV benefits positively influence consumers’ WTA solar PV. On the contrary, the perceived risk and solar PV cost have negative effects. Notably, the openness to technology has an insignificant effect. This study can help government officials and policymakers explore cost-effective, risk-free technologies to lessen the environmental burden and make the country more sustainable. Based on research results, study limitations, as well as prospective research directions, are also addressed.

Strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from municipal solid waste management in Pakistan

The studies on municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Pakistan and its impacts on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are glaringly missing. Therefore, this study examines the effect of MSW management on GHG emissions in Pakistan and suggests the best suitable strategies for alleviating GHG emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2006 waste model (WM) was used to create inventory of GHG emissions from landfilling. The solid waste management GHG (SWM-GHG) calculator and strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threat (SWOT) analyses were used as strategic planning tools to reduce GHG emissions by improving MSW management in Pakistan. The IPCC 2006 WM estimated 14,987,113 metric tonnes (Mt) carbon dioxide equivalents (CO₂-eq) of GHG emissions in 2016. The SWM-GHG calculator, on the other hand, estimated 23,319,370 Mt CO_2-eq of GHG emissions from management of 30,764,000 Mt of MSW in 2016, which included 8% recycling, 2% composting, and 90% disposal in open dumps. To reduce GHG emissions, two strategies including recycling-focused and incineration-focused were analysed. The recycling approach can reduce more GHG emissions than incineration, as it can reduce 36% of GHG emissions (as compared to GHG emission in 2016) by recycling 23% of MSW, anaerobically digesting 10% of MSW, and disposing of 67% of MSW in sanitary landfills (with energy recovery). Moreover, the SWOT analysis suggested integration of the informal sector, adoption of anaerobic digestion and formulation of explicit MSW regulations for improving the current management of MSW which will also result in lower GHG emissions.

Co-Combustion Studies of Low-Rank Coal and Refuse-Derived Fuel: Performance and Reaction Kinetics

In connection to present energy demand and waste management crisis in Pakistan, refuse-derived fuel (RDF) is gaining importance as a potential co-fuel for existing coal fired power plants. This research focuses on the co-combustion of low-quality local coal with RDF as a mean to reduce environmental issues in terms of waste management strategy. The combustion characteristics and kinetics of coal, RDF, and their blends were experimentally investigated in a micro-thermal gravimetric analyzer at four heating rates of 10, 20, 30, and 40 °C/min to ramp the temperature from 25 °C to 1000 °C. The mass percentages of RDF in the coal blends were 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%, respectively. The results show that as the RDF in blends increases, the reactivity of the blends increases, resulting in lower ignition temperatures and a shift in peak and burnout temperatures to a lower temperature zone. This indicates that there was certain interaction during the combustion process of coal and RDF. The activation energies of the samples were calculated using kinetic analysis based on Kissinger–Akahira–Sunnose (KAS) and Flynn–Wall–Ozawa (FWO), isoconversional methods. Both of the methods have produced closer results with average activation energy between 95–121 kJ/mol. With a 30% refuse-derived fuel proportion, the average activation energy of blends hit a minimum value of 95 kJ/mol by KAS method and 103 kJ/mol by FWO method.

Research on Environmental Issue and Sustainable Consumption of Online Takeout Food—Practice and Enlightenment Based on China’s Meituan

In today’s society, consumers’ food needs can be satisfied by catering e-commerce platforms. However, the plastic pollution of tableware and packaging caused by a large number of catering orders every day has always been an unsolved environmental problem. (1) Background: At present, China’s three largest catering platforms, Meituan, Eleme and Baidu, receive 20 million takeout orders daily and consume about 60 million plastic products. Plastic pollution will have a sustained impact on the environment. (2) Methods: In this study, we use literature research and case analysis. We use Meituan’s takeout food as an example. We studied the takeout business growth, status of online takeout in the treatment of plastic packaging, harm to environment, humans and animals, as well as specific solutions. (3) Results: There are four main reasons which contribute to the plastic packaging pollution (i.e., high recycling cost, difficulty to deal with mixed plastic packaging, low effectiveness of collecting plastic packing, and immature technology and treatment to incinerate and landfill catering plastic waste). (4) Conclusion: Our findings suggest that regulators, takeout platforms and consumers, which have corresponding responsibilities in the environmental protection consumption of online food, are supposed to work together to get rid of the online takeout pollution for achieving sustainable consumption. Not only is government legislation needed to improve the waste management system and encourage the exploration of new intelligent waste classification tools, but platforms, businesses and users should enhance the environmental awareness of online takeout packaging pollution as well. Theoretical contributions and managerial implications are also discussed.

The Potential Use of Fly Ash from the Pulp and Paper Industry as Thermochemical Energy and CO2 Storage Material

As a part of our research in the field of thermochemical energy storage, this study aims to investigate the potential of three fly ash samples derived from the fluidized bed reactors of three different pulp and paper plants in Austria for their use as thermochemical energy (TCES) and CO2 storage materials. The selected samples were analyzed by different physical and chemical analytical techniques such as X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), particle size distribution (PSD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), and simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) under different atmospheres (N2, CO2, and H2O/CO2). To evaluate the environmental impact, leaching tests were also performed. The amount of CaO as a promising candidate for TCES was verified by XRF analysis, which was in the range of 25–63% (w/w). XRD results indicate that the CaO lies as free lime (3–32%), calcite (21–29%), and silicate in all fly ash samples. The results of STA show that all fly ash samples could fulfill the requirements for TCES (i.e., charging and discharging). A cycling stability test of three cycles was demonstrated for all samples which indicates a reduction of conversion in the first three reaction cycles. The energy content of the examined samples was up to 504 kJ/kg according to the STA results. More energy (~1090 kJ/kg) in the first discharging step in the CO2/H2O atmosphere could be released through two kinds of fly ash samples due to the already existing free lime (CaO) in those samples. The CO2 storage capacity of these fly ash samples ranged between 18 and 110 kg per ton of fly ash, based on the direct and dry method. The leaching tests showed that all heavy metals were below the limit values of the Austrian landfill ordinance. It is viable to say that the valorization of fly ash from the pulp and paper industries via TCES and CO2 storage is plausible. However, further investigations such as cycling stability improvement, system integration and a life cycle assessment (LCA) still need to be conducted.

Application of Technological Processes to Create a Unitary Model for Energy Recovery from Municipal Waste

The subject matter of this paper is the functioning of a highly effective waste management system. Assumptions of the Energy Recovery Waste Processing (ERWP) model, being a universal solution for towns and regions irrespective of their population, are presented here. The result of simulations illustrating the energetic potential of municipal waste stored and processed in biological and physicochemical processes are also presented. Calculations were performed for the municipality of Koszalin (Poland), with a population of 106,000. Mixed household and commercial waste, organic waste, waste from selective collection and sewage sludge from a municipal wastewater treatment plant were considered in the waste mass balance. Empirical equations and unit coefficients describing the energetic efficiency of particular processes originating from the author’s own research work as well as from the results available from the scientific literature were used in the calculations. The developed ERWP model is based on the functioning of four objects constituting a comprehensive technical infrastructure, i.e., biological stabilisation in air condition (BSAC), mechanical treatment plant (MTP), cogeneration system plant (CSP) and gas production plant (GPP) where two independent modules operate, namely, dry/wet methane fermentation (DMF and WMF). Each day, this system generates highly energetic refuse-derived fuel (RDF) for combustion in amounts of 82.2 t for CSP and 127.3 t for GPP, generating 5519 m3 of gas/d. The value of the energy contained in such generated gas and in waste making up an alternative fuel is 1027.4 GJ, which is equivalent to 285.4 MWh. It should be noted that the creation of a waste management system based on the ERWP model assumptions fulfills the criteria of energetic recycling and allows for recovery of energy in the form of gas and heat equivalent to 79,917.6 MWh/a, i.e., 754 kWh/inhabitant/a.

Landfill site selection by integrating fuzzy logic, AHP, and WLC method based on multi-criteria decision analysis

Rapid population growth integrated with poor governance and urban planning is highly challenging resulting key for the selection of unsuitable landfill sites, particularly in developing counties. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the suitable solid waste landfill sites in the capital of the country as a case study, by the integration of Geographical Information System (GIS) with fuzzy logic, analytical hierarchy process (AHP), and weighted linear combination (WLC) method based on multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM). We chose thirteen (13) criteria (9 factors and 4 constraints) and grouped them into two main categories (environmental and socioeconomic) to achieve the objectives. The AHP was employed to evaluate the relative importance of the factors followed by standardization of criteria factors based on fuzzy set theory. Subsequently, all criteria factors were combined based on AHP and fuzzy logic-WLC method in order to obtain land suitability map. Finally, the sites were identified by the intersection of two combined suitability index layers. The obtained results depicted that the integration of fuzzy logic, AHP, and WLC technique with GIS can produce satisfactory results for the suitable locations of solid waste landfill sites over complex topographic regions. Overall, the land suitability obtained based on fuzzy-WLC is more refined and smooth because of its better segregation and its potential to consider full tradeoff between factors and average risk. The AHP was identified (47 km2) as high suitable while fuzzy-WLC generated 36 km2 as suitable area. Finally, the intersection of both suitability index map shows numerous suitable landfill sites available in Islamabad city; however, the surface areas of the sites are small at individual level (less than 15 ha).

An Experimental Evidence on Eco-Friendly Advertisement Appeals and Intention to Use Bio-Nanomaterial Plastics: Institutional Collectivism and Performance Orientation as Moderators

Plastic waste management has become a serious environmental and health concern owing to large amounts of plastic deposits globally. Recently, innovative and sustainable solutions have been introduced (e.g., bio-nanomaterial plastics) to overcome the growing environmental threats. Hence, green marketers need to develop effective advertising campaigns to enhance the usage of bio-nanomaterial plastics. Past literature has suggested that cultural value-laden advertising appeals can give sustainable behavioral cues to consumers. Hence, this research unfolds the underlying cultural dimensions between the value-laden eco-friendly advertising appeals and intention to use bio-nanomaterial plastics (henceforth IBP). The present study proposes a moderating model in which two dimensions presented in the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (henceforth GLOBE) framework interact with the individuals’ perception of eco-friendly advertising appeals (henceforth IPEA) to drive bio-nanomaterial plastics usage. The model was tested by conducting an experimental study on a sample of 364 Pakistani consumers. Findings of structural equation modeling show a significant difference in the relationship between IPEA and IBP, which is moderated by the performance orientation (henceforth PO) and institutional collectivism (henceforth IC) dimensions with diverse intensity. These findings validate the effectiveness of PO and IC (as cultural dimensions) and eco-friendly advertisements that can potentially promote the consumption of bio-nanomaterials plastic.

Renewable energy from solid waste: life cycle analysis and social welfare

In this study, municipal solid waste (MSW) composition in distinct world locations is compared and a case study is assessed. Three waste-to-energy (WtE) techniques are employed within the framework of an industrial partnership. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and a brief social contextualization including the production of renewable energy from the waste generated worldwide were held to attain a holistic view and attract the interest of multiple stakeholders. Incineration depicted a sustainable profile with improved results for global warming potential and terrestrial ecotoxicity potential. Regular gasification revealed the best results for eutrophication, acidification, marine aquatic ecotoxicity and human toxicity potential. Two-stage plasma gasification showed negative values for all impact categories i.e. achieving environmental credits. The estimate of the electricity produced from the waste generated per capita showed a fair coverage of the electrical demand in distinct world areas. To the best of the authors' knowledge, there are no reports connecting the electricity use, the waste production and the renewable energy achieved from WtE for different world regions. Therefore, this study supports the replacement of fossil fuels with renewable alternatives, reducing greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining the comfort and commodities suitable for a comfortable quality of life.

Exploring E-Waste Resources Recovery in Household Solid Waste Recycling

The ecosystem of earth, the habitation of 7.53 billion people and more than 8.7 million species, is being imbalanced by anthropogenic activities. The ever-increasing human population and race of industrialization is an exacerbated threat to the ecosystem. At present, the global average waste generation per person is articulated as 494 kg/year, an enormous amount of household waste (HSW) that ultimately hits 3.71×1012 kg of waste in one year. The ultimate destination of HSW is a burning issue because open dumping and burning as the main waste treatment and final disposal systems create catastrophic environmental limitations. This paper strives to contribute to this issue of HSW management that matters to everyone’s business, specifically to developing nations. The HSW management system of the world’s 12th largest city and 24th most polluted city, Karachi, was studied with the aim of generating possible economic gains by recycling HSWs. In this regard, the authors surveyed dumping sites for sample collection. The sample was segregated physically to determine the content type (organic, metals, and many others). Afterward, chemical analysis on AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry) of debris and soil from a landfill site was performed. HSW is classified and quantified into major classes of household materials. The concentrations of e-waste [Cu], industrial development indicator [Fe], and the main component of lead-acid storage batteries [Pb] are quantified as 199.5, 428.5, and 108.5 ppm, respectively. The annual generation of the aforementioned metals as waste recovery is articulated as 1.2 × 106, 2.6 × 106 and 6.5 × 105 kg, respectively. Significantly, this study concluded that a results-based metal recovery worth 6.1 million USD is discarded every year in HSW management practices.

Bromatological, Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of OFMSW for Different Seasons and Collection Systems

In order to study the quality of organic fractions of municipal solid waste (OFMSW), five different municipalities in Tuscany were chosen for sampling according to the peculiarities of their collection systems. The five collection systems selected were sampled four times: during March, June, September and December, for a total of 20 picking analyses. In addition, emphasis was also given to the study of the variability of OFMSW composition related to ultimate, proximate and bromatological analyses. Road container collection systems proved to have a higher content of non-compostable and undesirable fractions (22%±1%) when compared to door-to-door systems (6% ± 1%). During months with lower temperature (March and December), the garden waste content in the OFMSW was negligible, with kitchen waste prevailing. This altered the physical chemical composition of OFMSW, which had a lower lignin content and higher methane production in the months with lower temperatures (272 ± 23 NLCH4 kgTVS−1) compared to June and September (238 ± 14 NLCH4 kgTVS−1). In general, the Tuscan OFMSW had a higher dry matter content (42%) than observed in previous studies. In conclusion, the result could direct possible future operators of anaerobic digestion plants towards the choice of dry and semi-dry technologies.