Baseline investigation on plasticizers, bisphenol A, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals in the surface soil of the informal electronic waste recycling workshops and nearby open dumpsites in Indian metropolitan cities

Source identification and human exposure assessment of organophosphate flame retardants and plasticisers in soil and outdoor dust from Nigerian e-waste dismantling and dumpsites

Electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling and dumpsite processes are major sources of organophosphate flame retardant and plasticiser emissions and may pose potentially adverse effects on environment and human health. In 20 outdoor dust and 49 soil samples collected from four e-waste dismantling and three e-waste dumpsites in two States of Nigeria (Lagos and Ogun), we identified 13 alternative plasticisers (APs), 7 legacy phthalate plasticisers (LPs), and 17 organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) for the first time in African e-waste streams. In the samples from dismantling sites, the range (median) concentrations of ∑13APs, ∑7LPs, and ∑17OPFRs were 11 to 2747 μg/g (144 μg/g), 11 to 396 μg/g (125 μg/g), and 0.2 to 68 μg/g (5.5 μg), in dust respectively and 1.8 to 297 μg/g (55 μg/g), 1.3 to 274 μg/g (48.5 μg/g), and 1.6 to 62 μg/g (1.6 μg/g), in soil respectively. Results for soil samples from e-waste dumpsites were (6.6 to 195 μg/g (23.7 μg/g), 6.0 to 295 μg/g (54.8), and 0.4 to 42.3 μg/g (9.0 μg/g) for ∑13APs, ∑7LPs, and ∑17OPFRs respectively. Overall, concentrations of APs were significantly higher at the dismantling sites (p = 0.005) compared to dumpsites, levels of LPs were higher at dismantling sites but not significant, while OPFR concentrations were significantly higher in dumpsite samples (p = 0.005). Plasticisers were found to be major contributors to pollution at e-waste dismantling sites, while OPFRs were associated with both automobile dismantling and e-waste dumpsite processes. Following particle size fractionation of selected soil samples, higher concentrations of targeted compounds were observed in the smaller mesh (180 μm) soil sieve fraction. For dust, the total median estimated daily intake via ingestion and dermal adsorption (EDIing and EDIderm) ranged from 43 to 74 ng/kg bw/day and 0.4 to 0.7 ng/kg bw/day, respectively. Correspondingly, 4.6 to 45 ng/kg bw/day and 0.015 to 0.57 ng/kg bw/day were the values found for soil, respectively. According to these results, the targeted chemicals do not appear to pose a non-carcinogenic risk to e-waste workers through ingestion or dermal contact of bio-accessible fractions of the chemicals. Human biomonitoring campaigns are recommended in the Nigerian e-waste environment considering the elevated concentration levels found for the majority of targeted compounds and that risk parameters required for exposure assessment were only available for a limited number of compounds.

Full-chain analysis on emerging contaminants in soil: Source, migration and remediation

Emerging contaminants (ECs) are gaining attention due to their prevalence and potential negative impacts on the environment and human health. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the status and trends of soil pollution caused by ECs, focusing on their sources, migration pathways, and environmental implications. Significant ECs, including plastics, synthetic polymers, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, plasticizers, and flame retardants, are identified due to their widespread use and toxicity. Their presence in soil is attributed to agricultural activities, urban waste, and wastewater irrigation. The review explores both horizontal and vertical migration pathways, with factors such as soil type, organic matter content, and moisture levels influencing their distribution. Understanding the behavior of ECs in soil is critical to mitigating their long-term risks and developing effective soil remediation strategies. The paper also examines the advantages and disadvantages of in situ and ex situ treatment approaches for ECs, highlighting optimal physical, chemical, and biological treatment conditions. These findings provide a fundamental basis for addressing the challenges and governance of soil pollution induced by ECs.

Bacterial bioremediation as a sustainable strategy for the mitigation of Bisphenol-A

In the era dominated by plastic, the widespread use of plastic in our daily lives has led to a growing accumulation of its degraded byproducts, such as microplastics and plastic additives like Bisphenol A (BPA). BPA is recognized as one of the earliest man-made substances that exhibit endocrine-disrupting properties. It is frequently employed in the manufacturing of epoxy resins, polycarbonates, dental fillings, food storage containers, infant bottles, and water containers. BPA is linked to a range of health issues including obesity, diabetes, chronic respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and reproductive abnormalities. This study examines the bacterial bioremediation of the BPA, which is found in many sources and is known for its hazardous effects on the environment. The metabolic pathways for the breakdown of BPA in important bacterial strains were hypothesized based on the observed altered intermediate metabolites during the degradation of BPA. This review discusses the enzymes and genes involved in the bacterial degradation of BPA. The utilization of naturally occurring microorganisms is the most efficient and cost-effective method due to their selectivity of strains, ensuring sustainability.

Green sonochemical synthesis of ZnCo2O4 decorated with carbon nanofibers for enhanced electrochemical detection of bisphenol A in food products

The facile sonochemical synthesis is reported of zinc cobalt oxide (ZnCo2O4) composited with carbon nanofiber (CNF). Structural, chemical, and morphological were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoluminescent spectroscopy (XPS), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and transmittance electron microscopy (TEM), respectively. ZnCo2O4/CNF-modified GCE was applied to the detection of bisphenol A (BPA). The modified GCE shows enhanced sensing performance towards BPA, which includes a linear range (0.2 to 120 μM L-1) alongside a low limit of detection (38.2 nM L-1), low interference, and good stability. Detection of lower concentrations of BPA enables real sample analysis in the food industries (milk, orange juice, yogurt, tap water, and baby feeding bottles). Surprisingly, the BPA was detected in milk 510 nM L-1, orange juice 340 nM L-1, yogurt 1050 nM L-1, and tap water 140 nM L-1. Moreover, an interaction mechanism between the BPA analyte and ZnCo2O4 was discussed.

Spatial distribution, source identification, and potential risks of 14 bisphenol analogues in soil under different land uses in the megacity of Chengdu, China

This study explored the levels, distribution, potential sources, ecological risks and estrogenic activities of 14 bisphenol analogues (BPs) in soil under eight land-use types in the megacity of Chengdu, China. Eleven BPs were detected in the soil samples and the total concentrations ranged from 32.3 to 570 ng/g d.w. Levels of bisphenol BP (BPBP) in the soil (up to 208 ng/g d.w.) only second to the most dominant compound bisphenol A (BPA) were found. Relatively higher Σ14BP accumulation in the soil was observed in the commercial and residential areas (median: 136 ng/g d.w. and 131 ng/g d.w.) compared with agricultural area (median: 67.5 ng/g d.w.). Source identification indicated the role of atmospheric particulate deposition and consecutive anthropogenic activities in BP emission. The ecotoxicity assessment implied that BPA, bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol PH (BPPH) might pose low to medium risk to the ecosystem due to their extensive use and biological effects. The calculated 17β-estradiol equivalents of BPs were in the range of 0.501-7.74 pg E2/g d.w, and the estrogenic activities were inferior to those contributed by natural estrogens in the soil.

Accumulation of typical persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals in bioretention facilities: Distribution, risk assessment, and microbial community impact

Bioretention facilities have proven highly effective in removing pollutants from runoff. However, there is a concerning paucity of research on the contamination characteristics and associated risks posed by refractory pollutants in these facilities following long-term operation. This research focuses on the distribution, sources, microbial community impact, and human health risks of pollutants in eight bioretention facilities that have been operational for 5-11 years. The results showed that the distribution of Cu, Zn, and Cd was closely related to anti-seepage measures. PAHs, PCBs, and OCPs primarily accumulated in the surface, with concentrations ranging from 7.42 to 20.34 mg/kg, 31.8-77.3 μg/kg, and 60.5-163.6 μg/kg, respectively. Their concentrations inversely correlate with the depth of the media. Although the majority of contaminants remained below their respective risk thresholds, their concentrations typically exceeded those of background soil values, indicating an enrichment phenomenon. Source analysis revealed that PAHs primarily originate from oil combustion, PCBs were linked to their related industrial products, DDTs had their main sources in technical DDx and residues from the use of dicofol, while HCHs were traced back to historical residues from agricultural activities. Microbial α-diversity (Chao 1 and Shannon) decreased by 8.3-23.4% and 0.8-4.4%, respectively, in different facilities after long-term operation. The most dominant microbial phylum in the facilities was Proteobacteria (all relative abundances >48%). The total relative abundance of dominant genera was 6.7-34.3% higher than the control site, and Pseudomonas, a typical POPs-heavy metal degrading bacterium, had the highest relative abundance (>1.2%). Cu, Zn, and Cd present no non-carcinogenic risks and have low potential ecological risks. However, the lifetime cancer risk for PAHs is 10-6 ∼10-4 in most facilities and is of concern. The cancer risk for PCBs is acceptable, while OCPs pose a low cancer risk only for children.

Lagging pollution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the rebuilt e-waste site: From the perspective of characteristics, sources, and risk assessment

Little information is known regarding how the lagged pollution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) influenced the environment and human health after an e-waste dismantling site was rebuilt. This study investigated the characteristics, sources, and risk assessment of PAHs in a rebuilt e-waste site and its surrounding farmland by analyzing the samples of soil, dust, water, and vegetable. Concentrations of PAHs in soil, vegetable and water in the rebuilt site were relatively higher than in its surrounding farmland. The concentrations in surface soils, soil columns, dust, vegetables, and water varied from 55.4 to 3990 ng g-1, 1.65 to 5060 ng g-1, 2190 to 2420 ng g-1, 2670 to 10,300 ng g-1, and 46.8 to 110 μg L-1 in the e-waste site, respectively. On the farmland, PAH concentrations in surface soils, vegetables, and water ranged from 41.5 to 2760 ng g-1, 506 to 7640 ng g-1, and 56.6 to 89.2 μg L-1, respectively. A higher proportion of high-molecular-weight PAHs (HMW-PAHs) appeared in all multimedia compared with low-molecular-weight PAHs (LMW-PAHs). Diagnostic ratio together with positive matrix factorization (PMF) revealed that vehicle emission was the primary source in this area, and the activity of e-waste disposal was another important source in the rebuilt e-waste site. Based on the deterministic health risks, people working in the reconstructed e-waste site were exposed to low risks, whereas the residents living near the surrounding farmland were exposed to low risk. Sensitivity analyses indicated that exposure frequency and PAH concentrations were the main factors that influenced exposure risk. This study provides valuable insight into the comprehension of the lagging pollution effects of PAH on the environment and human health after the e-waste site was rebuilt.

Bisphenol Chemicals in Surface Soil from E-Waste Dismantling Facilities and the Surrounding Areas: Spatial Distribution and Health Risk

Electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling facilities are well-known bisphenol chemical (BP) sources. In this study, non-targeted screening combined with targeted analysis of BPs in surface soil from e-waste dismantling facilities and their surroundings revealed their presence, distribution, and exposure risk. A total of 14 BPs were identified including bisphenol A (BPA) and its novel structural analogs and halogenated BPs. The total concentrations of BPs ranged from 963 to 47,160 ng/g (median: 6970 ng/g) in e-waste soil, higher than those measured in surface soil from surrounding areas, i.e., 10-7750 ng/g (median 197 ng/g). BPA, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and bisphenol F (BPF) were the dominant ones from the two areas. Concentrations of TBBPA and its debromination product from the surrounding area significantly decreased with increasing distances from the e-waste dismantling facilities. Estimation of daily intake via oral ingestion of soil suggests that current contamination scenarios are unlikely to pose health risks for e-waste dismantling workers and adults and toddlers living in the surrounding areas, with their intakes generally well below the tolerable daily intakes proposed for several BPs. However, the BPA intakes of workers exceeded the more strict tolerable daily intake for BPA established recently, which merits continuous environmental surveillance.

Simultaneous targeted and non-targeted analysis of plastic-related contaminants in e-waste impacted soil in Agbogbloshie, Ghana

An LC-MS based analytical method was developed and validated for the simultaneous targeted analysis and suspect screening of plastic-related contaminants in e-waste impacted soils. Satisfactory recoveries (97 ± 13 %) were achieved using ultrasound-assisted extraction for 14/15 of the targeted analytes (7 bisphenols and 8 plasticizers) in a range of agricultural and non-agricultural soils. The method was applied to 53 soil samples collected in May 2015 in the region of Agbogbloshie (Ghana) at e-waste facilities (incl. Dump, trade, and burn sites), neighboring non-agricultural (incl. upstream, downstream, and community) and agricultural fields, and at two control agricultural sites away from e-waste recycling facilities. Bisphenol A (BPA) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) were the two dominant contaminants in e-waste soil (with concentrations up to 48.7 and 184 μg g-1, respectively), especially at the trade site, where e-waste was sorted and dismantled. The non-targeted workflow was successfully applied to identify additional plastic-related contaminants previously unreported in e-waste impacted soils, including bis(2-propylheptyl) phthalate, diisononyl phthalate, trioctyl trimellitate, 4-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, perfluorobutanesulfonic acid, diphenyl phosphate, and triethylene glycol monobutyl ether. The agricultural soils surrounding the e-waste sites were also contaminated by plastic-related chemicals (especially DEHP), highlighting the impact of e-waste activities on the surrounding agricultural system.

Emerging organic contaminants in the soil-plant-receptor continuum: transport, fate, health risks, and removal mechanisms

There is a lack of comprehensive reviews tracking emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) within the soil-plant continuum using the source-pathway-receptor-impact-mitigation (SPRIM) framework. Therefore, this review examines existing literature to gain insights into the occurrence, behaviour, fate, health hazards, and strategies for mitigating EOCs within the soil-plant system. EOCs identified in the soil-plant system encompass endocrine-disrupting chemicals, surfactants, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, plasticizers, gasoline additives, flame retardants, and per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Sources of EOCs in the soil-plant system include the land application of biosolids, wastewater, and solid wastes rich in EOCs. However, less-studied sources encompass plastics and atmospheric deposition. EOCs are transported from their sources to the soil-plant system and other receptors through human activities, wind-driven processes, and hydrological pathways. The behaviour, persistence, and fate of EOCs within the soil-plant system are discussed, including sorption, degradation, phase partitioning, (bio)transformation, biouptake, translocation, and bioaccumulation in plants. Factors governing the behaviour, persistence, and fate of EOCs in the soil-plant system include pH, redox potential, texture, temperature, and soil organic matter content. The review also discusses the environmental receptors of EOCs, including their exchange with other environmental compartments (aquatic and atmospheric), and interactions with soil organisms. The ecological health risks, human exposure via inhalation of particulate matter and consumption of contaminated food, and hazards associated with various EOCs in the soil-plant system are discussed. Various mitigation measures including removal technologies of EOCs in the soil are discussed. Finally, future research directions are presented.

Bisphenol and analogues in indoor dust from E-waste recycling sites, neighboring residential homes, and urban residential homes: Implications for human exposure

The compound 4-hydroxyphenyl 4-isoprooxyphenylsulfone (BPSIP) has recently emerged as a novel alternative to bisphenol A (BPA) and has been found in various paper products. However, there is limited information available regarding the identification of BPSIP as a novel contaminant in the e-waste dismantling area. In our research, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of 16 bisphenol analogues (BPs), including BPSIP, within indoor dust samples obtained from a representative e-waste recycling facility, neighboring rural communities, and control urban communities. Out of the 16 target BPs, ten were found in both e-waste and local household dust, while only six BPs were identified in the control urban household dust. Bisphenol A (BPA) remained the predominant compound, followed by bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S (BPS), BPSIP and bisphenol AF (BPAF). The total concentrations of BPs in e-waste dust were notably higher compared to both local and urban household dust (p < 0.01), with BPA and BPF, in particular, exhibiting significantly elevated levels. Importantly, BPSIP was first identified in e-waste dust, and its concentration significantly exceeded that of the commonly used BPA alternative, BPAF, which justifiably merits increasing concern. Correlation analysis indicated that BPs were commonly used in the production of electronic products, and e-waste dismantling activities contributed significantly to their widespread emission. The daily intakes of BP through dust ingestion for these three population groups exceeded the recently established tolerable daily intake for BPA, especially among e-waste dismantling workers. This represents the first report indicating that e-waste recycling is causing substantial emissions of multiple bisphenol analogues, including a novel contaminant.

Comparison of the Effect of BPA and Related Bisphenols on Membrane Integrity, Mitochondrial Activity, and Steroidogenesis of H295R Cells In Vitro

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disruptive chemical that is widely utilized in the production of polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resin, which are used to make a wide range of consumer products, food and drink containers, and medical equipment. When the potential risk of BPA emerged, it was substituted by allegedly less harmful substitutes such as bisphenols S, F, B, and AF. However, evidence suggests that all bisphenols can have endocrine-disruptive effects, while the extent of these effects is unknown. This study aimed to determine effect of BPA, BPAF, BPB, BPF, and BPS on viability and steroidogenesis in human adrenocortical carcinoma cell line in vitro. The cytotoxicity of bisphenols was shown to be considerable at higher doses. However, at low concentrations, it improved viability as well as steroid hormone secretion, indicating that bisphenols have a biphasic, hormetic effect in biological systems. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that bisphenols selectively inhibit some steroidogenic enzymes. These findings suggest that bisphenols have the potential to disrupt cellular steroidogenesis in humans, but substantially more detailed and systematic research is needed to gain a better understanding of the risks associated with bisphenols and their endocrine-disrupting effect on humans and wildlife.

Additives of plastics: Entry into the environment and potential risks to human and ecological health

A steep rise in global plastic production and significant discharge of plastic waste are expected in the near future. Plastics pose a threat to the ecosystem and human health through the generation of particulate plastics that act as carriers for other emerging contaminants, and the release of toxic chemical additives. Since plastic additives are not covalently bound, they can freely leach into the environment. Due to their occurrence in various environmental settings, the additives exert significant ecotoxicity. However, only 25% of plastic additives have been characterized for their potential ecological concern. Despite global market statistics highlighting the substantial environmental burden caused by the unrestricted production and use of plastic additives, information on their ecotoxicity remains incomplete. By focusing on the ecological impacts of plastic additives, the present review aims to provide detailed insights into the following aspects: (i) diversity and occurrence in the environment, (ii) leaching from plastic materials, (iii) trophic transfer, (iv) human exposure, (v) risks to ecosystem and human health, and (vi) legal guidelines and mitigation strategies. These insights are of immense value in restricting the use of toxic additives, searching for eco-friendly alternatives, and establishing or revising guidelines on plastic additives by global health and environmental agencies.

Multi-class organic pollutants in PM2.5 in mixed area of Shanghai: Levels, sources and health risk assessment

The occurrence of 25 multi-class pollutants comprising phthalate esters (PAEs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and synthetic musks (SMs) were studied in PM2.5 samples collected at an industrial/commercial/residential/traffic mixed area in Shanghai during four seasons. During the whole period, a slight exceedance of the PM2.5 annual limit was observed, with an average of 36.8 μg/m3, and PAEs were the most predominant, accounting for >70 % of the studied organic pollutants in PM2.5, followed by PAHs and SMs. Statistically significant differences were observed for the concentrations of PM2.5, PAEs, PAHs, and SMs in winter and summer. This seasonal variation could be derived from anthropogenic activities and atmospheric dynamics. Principal component analysis (PCA) and PAHs ratios suggested a mixed source mainly derived from vehicle emissions and industrial processes. Moreover, gaseous pollutants were also accounted for, indicating the emission of PAHs might accompany the NO2 emission process. Finally, inhalation of PM2.5-bound organic pollutants for carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks were estimated as average values for each season, showing outside the safe levels in autumn and winter in some cases, suggesting that new policies should be to developed to reduce their emissions and protect human health in this area.

Congener-specific uptake and accumulation of bisphenols in edible plants: Binding to prediction of bioaccumulation by attention mechanism multi-layer perceptron machine learning model

Plant accumulation of phenolic contaminants from agricultural soils can cause human health risks via the food chain. However, experimental and predictive information for plant uptake and accumulation of bisphenol congeners is lacking. In this study, the uptake, translocation, and accumulation of five bisphenols (BPs) in carrot and lettuce plants were investigated through hydroponic culture (duration of 168 h) and soil culture (duration of 42 days) systems. The results suggested a higher bioconcentration factor (BCF) of bisphenol AF (BPAF) in plants than that of the other four BPs. A positive correlation was found between the log BCF and the log Kow of BPs (R2carrot = 0.987, R2lettuce = 0.801, P < 0.05), while the log (translocation factor) exhibited a negative correlation with the log Kow (R2carrot = 0.957, R2lettuce = 0.960, P < 0.05). The results of molecular docking revealed that the lower binding energy of BPAF with glycosyltransferase, glutathione S-transferase, and cytochrome P450 (-4.34, -4.05, and -3.52 kcal/mol) would be responsible for its higher accumulation in plants. Based on the experimental data, an attention mechanism multi-layer perceptron (AM-MLP) model was developed to predict the BCF of eight untested BPs by machine learning, suggesting the relatively high BCF of bisphenol BP, bisphenol PH, and bisphenol TMC (BCFcarrot = 1.37, 1.50, 1.03; BCFlettuce = 1.02, 0.98, 0.67). The prediction of BCF for ever-increasing varieties of BPs by machine learning would reduce repetitive experimental tests and save resources, providing scientific guidance for the production and application of BPs from the perspective of priority pollutants.

Exposure to bisphenol A associated with multiple health-related outcomes in humans: An umbrella review of systematic reviews with meta-analyses

Bisphenol A (BPA), a toxic endocrine disruptor, is widely distributed in the environment, and the effects of BPA exposure on human health outcomes are a critical issue. The objective of this study was to perform an umbrella review of published meta-analyses investigating the associations between BPA exposure and human-related health outcomes. The relevant reports were searched from three electronic databases from inception to July 12, 2023 including PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Embase. The reports that were systematic reviews with meta-analyses investigating the associations between BPA exposure and human health outcomes were included in our review. A total of 14 reports were included in our review. Several human health outcomes related to exposure BPA were investigated including maternal prenatal health, infant health, allergic diseases, kidney disease, metabolic syndromes, polycystic ovary syndrome, earlier puberty, inflammation and immune responses, and thyroid function in neonates. Among these health outcomes, BPA exposure was associated with multiple human health outcomes including preterm birth, allergic diseases, kidney disease, polycystic ovarian syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and inflammation and immune responses (C-reactive protein and interleukin-6). These results showed that BPA exposure has seriously affected human health. To protect human health, World Health Organization should develop meaningful regulations on BPA to decrease the environmental contamination.

Occurrence, Source and Dietary Exposure of Toxic and Essential Elements in the Indian Food Basket

In this study, representative urban and peri-urban Indian food baskets have been studied for the presence of toxic and essential elements. The concentration of target toxic and essential elements was used to estimate dietary intakes (EDIs) and health risks. Across all food matrices, toxic elements like Cd and Pb were dominant. The highest concentrations of the target elements were found in vegetables, with Cd, Pb, and Ni being beyond permissible limits of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health organization (0.05 mg/kg, 0.1 mg/kg, and 1.5 mg/kg, respectively) in okra, spinach, and cauliflower. The sum of concentrations of the toxic elements (As, Ni, Hg, Cr, Cd, Pb) in vegetables had a range of 0.54-12.08 mg/kg, the highest sum was found in spinach (median 12.08 mg/kg), followed by okra (median 1.68 mg/kg). The EDI was observed for vegetables with a contribution as high as 92% for Cd. Dairy products were found with the highest loading for Ni with a dietary intake of 3.1 mg/kg/day for adults and twice as much for children. Carcinogenic risk for Ni was the highest and found above the threshold for all food categories, as was the case with As. Cumulative carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks were mostly contributed by milk and vegetables, in particular, spinach.

Air-water exchange and risk assessment of phthalic acid esters during the early phase of COVID-19 pandemic in tropical riverine catchments of India

Given the increased load of waste plastic in the solid waste stream after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, we investigated the fate of selected plastic additives along open burning dumps, industrial and residential transects in tropical riverine catchments of India. Polyurethane foam disk passive air samples, surface water and community stored water (CSW) samples were collected along the Adyar River (AR), Cooum River (CR) and canals in Chennai and Daman Ganga River (DG) in Vapi. Among the quantified phthalic acid esters (PAEs), a widely used plastic additive, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), was ubiquitous across all the transects. More open drains and leaching of littered single-use plastic items can be the reason for significantly higher (p < 0.05) levels of PAEs in CR over other rivers with a dominance of di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP). Prevalence of open burning of dumped plastic waste was the possible primary emission source of PAEs in these riverine catchments. Excluding highly soluble dimethyl phthalate (DMP), air-water exchange processes reflected the secondary emission of all the PAEs from the surface water along the open burning sites. Despite the cleansing effect of the oceanic air mass from the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean, the average atmospheric PAE level was two-fold higher in Chennai than Vapi. Even though Vapi is a coastal city along the Arabian Sea, it was impacted by inland air masses during the sampling event. Open burning dumpsites showed a five-fold increase in atmospheric priority PAEs in Chennai city after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. DnBP was the major contributor to estrogenicity in CSW and DG, and also posed maximum risk for fishes in the open burning transect of these tropical rivers.

Bisphenol A contamination in aquatic environments: a review of sources, environmental concerns, and microbial remediation

The production of polycarbonate, a high-performance transparent plastic, employs bisphenol A, which is a prominent endocrine-disrupting compound. Polycarbonates are frequently used in the manufacturing of food, bottles, storage containers for newborns, and beverage packaging materials. Global production of BPA in 2022 was estimated to be in the region of 10 million tonnes. About 65-70% of all bisphenol A is used to make polycarbonate plastics. Bisphenol A leaches from improperly disposed plastic items and enters the environment through wastewater from plastic-producing industries, contaminating, sediments, surface water, and ground water. The concentration BPA in industrial and domestic wastewater ranges from 16 to 1465 ng/L while in surface water it has been detected 170-3113 ng/L. Wastewater treatment can be highly effective at removing BPA, giving reductions of 91-98%. Regardless, the remaining 2-9% of BPA will continue through to the environment, with low levels of BPA commonly observed in surface water and sediment in the USA and Europe. The health effects of BPA have been the subject of prolonged public and scientific debate, with PubMed listing more than 17,000 scientific papers as of 2023. Bisphenol A poses environmental and health hazards in aquatic systems, affecting ecosystems and human health. While several studies have revealed its presence in aqueous streams, environmentally sound technologies should be explored for its removal from the contaminated environment. Concern is mostly related to its estrogen-like activity, although it can interact with other receptor systems as an endocrine-disrupting chemical. Present review article encompasses the updated information on sources, environmental concerns, and sustainable remediation techniques for bisphenol A removal from aquatic ecosystems, discussing gaps, constraints, and future research requirements.

Full life cycle and sustainability transitions of phthalates in landfill: A review

Phthalates (PAEs) are added to various products as a plasticizer. As these products age and are disposed of, plastic waste containing PAEs enters the landfill. The landfill environment is complicated and can be regarded as a "black box". Also, PAEs do not bind with the polymer matrix. Therefore, when a series of physical chemistry and biological reactions occur during the stabilization of landfills, PAEs leach from waste and migrate to the surrounding environmental media, thereby contaminating the surrounding soil, water ecosystems, and atmosphere. Although research on PAEs has achieved progress over the years, they are mainly concentrated on a particular aspect of PAEs in the landfill; there are fewer inquiries on the life cycle of PAEs. In this study, we review the presence of PAEs in the landfill in the following aspects: (1) the main source of PAEs in landfills; (2) the impact of the landfill environment on PAE migration and conversion; (3) distribution and transmedia migration of PAEs in aquatic ecosystems, soils, and atmosphere; and (4) PAE management and control in the landfill and future research direction. The purpose is to track the life cycle of PAEs in landfills, provide scientific basis for in-depth understanding of the migration and transformation of PAEs and environmental pollution control in landfills, and new ideas for the sustainable utilization of landfills.

Recent trends in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution distribution and counteracting bio-remediation strategies

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are distributed worldwide due to long-term anthropogenic pollution sources. PAHs are recalcitrant and highly persistent in the environment due to their inherent properties, such as heterocyclic aromatic ring structures, thermostability, and hydrophobicity. They are highly toxic, carcinogenic, immunotoxic, teratogenic, and mutagenic to various life systems. This review focuses on the unique data of PAH sources, exposure routes, detection techniques, and harmful effects on the environment and human health. This review provides a comprehensive and systematic compilation of eco-friendly biological treatment solutions for PAH remediation, such as microbial remediation approaches utilizing microbial cultures. In situ and Ex situ bioremediation of PAH methods, including composting land farming, biopiles, bioreactors bioaugmentation, and phytoremediation processes, are discussed in detail, as is a summary of the factors affecting and limiting PAH bioremediation. This review provides an overview of emerging technologies that use multi-process combinatorial treatment approaches and answers to generating value-added by-products during PAH remediation.

Association of urinary bisphenols with thyroid function in the general population: a cross-sectional study of an industrial park in China

Bisphenols (BPs) are potential thyroid disruptors that are widely used in many consumer products, leading to their widespread exposure in the general population. Current cross-sectional and case-control studies have found associations between exposure to BPs and serum thyroid function, but the results were contradictory. The objectives of this study are to describe demographic characteristics, BP exposure levels, and thyroid function measurements in potentially exposed and control districts and to investigate the association of urinary BPs with thyroid function. Data were collected from a general population aged 3-79 years (N = 281) recruited by the Zhejiang Human Biomonitoring Program (ZJHBP). The concentrations of 10 kinds of BPs in urine and serum free triiodothyronine (FT3), total triiodothyronine (TT3), free thyroxine (FT4), total thyroxine (TT4), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), thyroglobulin (Tg), thyroglobulin antibodies (TgAb), thyroid peroxidase antibodies (TPOAb), and thyrotropin receptor antibody (TRAb) in serum were measured. Multiple linear regression and weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression were used to estimate the relationship between single and mixed exposure of BPs and thyroid function. Bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol P (BPP) were detected, respectively, in 82.73%, 94.24%, and 55.40% of the population in the exposed area and 81.69%, 61.27%, and 43.66% of the population in the control area. Among adult females, serum TT3 was negatively associated with urinary BPA (β = -0.033, 95% CI = -0.071, -0.008, P = 0.021). Among minor females, FT4 and Tg levels were negatively associated with the urinary BPA (β = -0.026, 95% CI = -0.051, -0.002, P = 0.032 for FT4; β = -0.129, 95% CI = -0.248, -0.009, P = 0.035 for Tg), and TPOAb was positively associated with urinary BPA (β = 0.104, 95% CI = 0.006, 0.203, P = 0.039). In WQS models, BPs mixture was positively associated with FT3 (βWQS = 0.022, 95% CI = 0.002, 0.042) and TT3 (βWQS = 0.033, 95% CI = 0.004, 0.062), and negatively associated with FT4 (βWQS = -0.024, 95% CI = -0.044, 0.004). We found widespread exposure to BPA, BPS, and BPP in the general population of Zhejiang province and found an association between BPA and thyroid hormones. This association is gender- and age-dependent and needs to be confirmed in further studies.

First evidence of occupational and residential exposure to bisphenols associated with an e-waste dismantling site: A case study in China

Bisphenol A and its structural analogues (BPs) are widely used chemicals in electronics devices. To get insight into the occupational exposure to the full-time employees compared with the residents, urinary BPs in workers dismantling e-waste and in nearby residents were compared. Only 4 BPs among the tested 8 congeners, bisphenol AF (BPAF), bisphenol A, bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol F (BPF), were extensively detected with the detection frequencies of 100%, 99%, 98.7%, 51.3%. The median concentration of bisphenol A was 8.48 ng/mL, followed by BPAF (1.05 ng/mL), BPS (0.115 ng/mL), and BPF (0.110 ng/mL). The 4 detected BPs had a median concentration (Σ4BPs) ranging from 0.950 to 64.5 ng/mL in all volunteers, with a median value of 10.2 ng/mL. Result indicated the median concentration of ∑4BPs in worker's urine was significantly higher (14.2 ng/mL) than those in residents in nearby towns (4.52 ng/mL and 5.37 ng/mL) (p < 0.05), suggesting a BPs' occupational exposure risk related to e-waste dismantling. Besides, urinary ∑4BPs' median concentrations for the employees in family workshops (14.5 ng/mL) were significantly higher than those in plants with centralized management (9.36 ng/mL). Among volunteers, higher ∑4BPs were observed in groups of aged above 50 years, males, or body weight under average with no significant correlations. The estimated daily intake of bisphenol A did not exceed the reference dose (50 μg/kg bw/day) recommended by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. In this research, excess levels of BPs were recorded for the full-time employees in e-waste dismantling sites. Strengthened standards could support public health initiatives for full-time worker protection and reduce take-home BPs to family members.

Co-occurrence of macroplastics, microplastics, and legacy and emerging plasticisers in UK soils

Despite a theoretical link between plastic and plasticiser occurrence in the terrestrial environment, there are few empirical studies of the relationship between these contaminants in soils. We carried out a field study to assess the co-occurrence of plastic waste, and legacy and emerging plasticisers in UK soils (n = 19) from various land uses (woodlands, urban roadsides, urban parklands, landfill-associated). Surface plastics and soil microplastics were quantified and characterised using ATR-FTIR and μ-FTIR. Eight legacy (phthalate) and three emerging (adipate, citrate, trimellitate) plasticisers were quantified using GC-MS. Surface plastics were found at higher prevalence at landfill-associated and urban roadside sites, with levels significantly (2 orders of magnitude) greater than in woodlands. Microplastics were detected in landfill-associated (mean 12.3 particles g^-1 dw), urban roadside (17.3 particles g^-1 dw) and urban parkland (15.7 particles g^-1 dw) soils, but not in woodland soils. The most commonly detected polymers were polyethene, polypropene and polystyrene. Mean ∑plasticiser concentration in urban roadside soils (3111 ng g^-1 dw) was significantly higher than in woodlands (134 ng g^-1 dw). No significant difference was found between landfill-associated (318 ng g^-1 dw) and urban parkland (193 ng g^-1 dw) soils and woodlands. Di-n-butyl phthalate (94.7% detection frequency) and the emerging plasticiser trioctyl trimellitate (89.5%) were the most commonly detected plasticisers, with diethylhexyl phthalate (493 ng g^-1 dw) and di-iso-decyl phthalate (96.7 ng g^-1 dw) present at the highest concentrations. ∑plasticiser concentrations were significantly correlated with surface plastic (R² = 0.23), but not with soil microplastic concentrations. Whilst plastic litter seems a fundamental source of plasticisers in soils, mechanisms such as airborne transport from source areas may be as important. Based on the data from this study, phthalates remain the dominant plasticisers in soils, but emerging plasticisers are already widespread, as reflected by their presence in all land uses studied.

Synergistic remediation of phenanthrene-cadmium co-contaminants by an immobilized acclimated bacterial-fungal consortium and its community response

Bioremediation has tremendous potential to mitigate the serious threats posed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals (HMs). In the present study, nine bacterial-fungal consortia were progressively acclimated under different culture conditions. Among them, a microbial consortium 1, originating from activated sludge and copper mine sludge microorganisms, was developed through the acclimation of a multi-substrate intermediate (catechol)-target contaminant (Cd²⁺, phenanthrene (PHE)). Consortium 1 exhibited the best PHE degradation, with an efficiency of 95.6% after 7 d of inoculation, and its tolerance concentration for Cd²⁺ was up to 1800 mg/L within 48 h. Bacteria Pandoraea and Burkholderia-Caballeronia-Paraburkholderia, as well as fungi Ascomycota and Basidiomycota predominated in the consortium 1. Furthermore, a biochar-loaded consortium was constructed to better cope with the co-contamination behavior, which exhibited excellent adaptation to Cd²⁺ ranging of 50-200 mg/L. Immobilized consortium efficiently degraded 92.02-97.77% of 50 mg/L PHE within 7 d while removing 93.67-99.04% of Cd²⁺. In remediation of co-pollution, immobilization technology improved the bioavailability of PHE and dehydrogenase activity of the consortium to enhance PHE degradation, and the phthalic acid pathway was the main metabolic pathway. As for Cd²⁺ removal, oxygen-containing functional groups (-OH, C=O, and C-O) of biochar or microbial cell walls and EPS components, fulvic acid and aromatic proteins, participated through chemical complexation and precipitation. Furthermore, immobilization led to more active consortium metabolic activity during the reaction, and the community structure developed in a more favorable direction. The dominant species were Proteobacteria, Bacteroidota, and Fusarium, and the predictive expression of functional genes corresponding to key enzymes was elevated. This study provides a basis for combining biochar and acclimated bacterial-fungal consortia for co-contaminated site remediation.

Effects of capping on microbial populations and contaminant immobilization in an old unlined landfill

This research aimed at evaluating the effects of capping on the mitigation of impacts generated by a closed unlined landfill in São Carlos, SP, Brazil. Physicochemical and microbiological analyses (16S rRNA sequencing) of buried solid waste samples were performed, in capped and uncapped areas. Even though leachate pockets could still be encountered in capped areas, the capping construction reduced oxygen availability and created more reducing conditions, propitiating the development of sulfate-reducing bacteria and possibly contributing to the precipitation of the metals Pb, Cd, Ni, Co, As, and Zn as metal sulfides, causing their immobilization. The microbial populations adapted to the anaerobic conditions created under capped zones belonged to the phyla Firmicutes, Chloroflexi, and Euryarchaeota and the genera Methanosaeta, Hydrogenispora, Smithella, and Gelria. Differently, the phyla Acidobacteria, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria were more abundant in samples from the uncapped zones, in which the abundance of different genera varied homogeneously. Methanogenic activity was not impaired by the intervention measure, as assessed by the specific methanogenic activity (SMA). Capping of old unlined landfills brings benefits to the immobilization of metals and does not impair microbial degradation, being effective for the mitigation of impacts on soils and water resources.

Estimation of indoor soil/dust-skin adherence factors and health risks for adults and children in two typical cities in southern China

Soil/dust (SD) skin adherence is key dermal exposure parameter used for calculating the health risk of dermal exposure to contaminants. However, few studies of this parameter have been conducted in Chinese populations. In this study, forearm SD samples were randomly collected using the wipe method from population in two typical cities in southern China as well as office staff in a fixed indoor environment. SD samples from the corresponding areas were also sampled. The wipes and SD were analyzed for tracer elements (aluminum, barium, manganese, titanium, and vanadium). The SD-skin adherence factors were 14.31 μg/cm² for adults in Changzhou, 7.25 μg/cm² for adults in Shantou, and 9.37 μg/cm² for children in Shantou, respectively. Further, the recommended values for indoor SD-skin adherence factors for adults and children in Southern China were calculated to be 11.50 μg/cm² and 9.37 μg/cm², respectively, which were lower than the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) recommended values. And the SD-skin adherence factor value for the office staff was small (1.79 μg/cm²), but the data were more stable. In addition, PBDEs and PCBs in dust samples from industrial and residential area in Shantou were also determined, and health risks were assessed using the dermal exposure parameters measured in this study. None of the organic pollutants posed a health risk to adults and children via dermal contact. These studies emphasized the importance of localized dermal exposure parameters, and further studies should be conducted in the future.

Characteristics of organic pollutants and their effects on the microbial composition and activity in the industrial soils of Pearl River Delta, China

To investigate the interaction between organic pollutants and soil microorganisms, industrial soils were collected from Pearl River Delta region of China for determining semi-volatile organic pollutants, the community structure and activity of microorganisms. The results showed that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (63.3-4956 μg kg^-1) and phthalate esters (PAEs) (272-65,837 μg kg^-1) were main organic pollutants in the research area soils. Chemical manufacturing industry and plastics manufacturing industry contributed greatly to PAH pollution and PAE pollution, respectively. Organic pollutants changed the biomass of microorganisms. In most industrial soils, the biomass of actinomycetes was the highest in the industrial soils, followed by G^- bacteria, G⁺ bacteria and fungi. The exception was that the biomass of fungi in the soil near chemical manufacturing industry was greater than that of G⁺ bacteria. The soil microbial biomass (including soil microbial biomass carbon, soil microbial biomass nitrogen, the biomass of actinomycetes, bacteria, and fungi) and soil enzyme activities (sucrase and urease) positively correlated with the organic pollutant residues, and the microbial species diversity and microbial species abundance decreased with organic pollutant residues increasing. Based on the correlation analysis, the urease activity, actinomycetes biomass, and fungi biomass were appropriate biological indicators for evaluating the stress of organic pollutants. Our research provides a new perspective for understanding the soil biological response in industrial soils.

The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health

Background

Plastics have conveyed great benefits to humanity and made possible some of the most significant advances of modern civilization in fields as diverse as medicine, electronics, aerospace, construction, food packaging, and sports. It is now clear, however, that plastics are also responsible for significant harms to human health, the economy, and the earth's environment. These harms occur at every stage of the plastic life cycle, from extraction of the coal, oil, and gas that are its main feedstocks through to ultimate disposal into the environment. The extent of these harms not been systematically assessed, their magnitude not fully quantified, and their economic costs not comprehensively counted.

Goals

The goals of this Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health are to comprehensively examine plastics' impacts across their life cycle on: (1) human health and well-being; (2) the global environment, especially the ocean; (3) the economy; and (4) vulnerable populations-the poor, minorities, and the world's children. On the basis of this examination, the Commission offers science-based recommendations designed to support development of a Global Plastics Treaty, protect human health, and save lives.

Report Structure

This Commission report contains seven Sections. Following an Introduction, Section 2 presents a narrative review of the processes involved in plastic production, use, and disposal and notes the hazards to human health and the environment associated with each of these stages. Section 3 describes plastics' impacts on the ocean and notes the potential for plastic in the ocean to enter the marine food web and result in human exposure. Section 4 details plastics' impacts on human health. Section 5 presents a first-order estimate of plastics' health-related economic costs. Section 6 examines the intersection between plastic, social inequity, and environmental injustice. Section 7 presents the Commission's findings and recommendations.

Plastics

Plastics are complex, highly heterogeneous, synthetic chemical materials. Over 98% of plastics are produced from fossil carbon- coal, oil and gas. Plastics are comprised of a carbon-based polymer backbone and thousands of additional chemicals that are incorporated into polymers to convey specific properties such as color, flexibility, stability, water repellence, flame retardation, and ultraviolet resistance. Many of these added chemicals are highly toxic. They include carcinogens, neurotoxicants and endocrine disruptors such as phthalates, bisphenols, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), brominated flame retardants, and organophosphate flame retardants. They are integral components of plastic and are responsible for many of plastics' harms to human health and the environment.Global plastic production has increased almost exponentially since World War II, and in this time more than 8,300 megatons (Mt) of plastic have been manufactured. Annual production volume has grown from under 2 Mt in 1950 to 460 Mt in 2019, a 230-fold increase, and is on track to triple by 2060. More than half of all plastic ever made has been produced since 2002. Single-use plastics account for 35-40% of current plastic production and represent the most rapidly growing segment of plastic manufacture.Explosive recent growth in plastics production reflects a deliberate pivot by the integrated multinational fossil-carbon corporations that produce coal, oil and gas and that also manufacture plastics. These corporations are reducing their production of fossil fuels and increasing plastics manufacture. The two principal factors responsible for this pivot are decreasing global demand for carbon-based fuels due to increases in 'green' energy, and massive expansion of oil and gas production due to fracking.Plastic manufacture is energy-intensive and contributes significantly to climate change. At present, plastic production is responsible for an estimated 3.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the contribution of Brazil. This fraction is projected to increase to 4.5% by 2060 if current trends continue unchecked.

Plastic Life Cycle

The plastic life cycle has three phases: production, use, and disposal. In production, carbon feedstocks-coal, gas, and oil-are transformed through energy-intensive, catalytic processes into a vast array of products. Plastic use occurs in every aspect of modern life and results in widespread human exposure to the chemicals contained in plastic. Single-use plastics constitute the largest portion of current use, followed by synthetic fibers and construction.Plastic disposal is highly inefficient, with recovery and recycling rates below 10% globally. The result is that an estimated 22 Mt of plastic waste enters the environment each year, much of it single-use plastic and are added to the more than 6 gigatons of plastic waste that have accumulated since 1950. Strategies for disposal of plastic waste include controlled and uncontrolled landfilling, open burning, thermal conversion, and export. Vast quantities of plastic waste are exported each year from high-income to low-income countries, where it accumulates in landfills, pollutes air and water, degrades vital ecosystems, befouls beaches and estuaries, and harms human health-environmental injustice on a global scale. Plastic-laden e-waste is particularly problematic.

Environmental Findings

Plastics and plastic-associated chemicals are responsible for widespread pollution. They contaminate aquatic (marine and freshwater), terrestrial, and atmospheric environments globally. The ocean is the ultimate destination for much plastic, and plastics are found throughout the ocean, including coastal regions, the sea surface, the deep sea, and polar sea ice. Many plastics appear to resist breakdown in the ocean and could persist in the global environment for decades. Macro- and micro-plastic particles have been identified in hundreds of marine species in all major taxa, including species consumed by humans. Trophic transfer of microplastic particles and the chemicals within them has been demonstrated. Although microplastic particles themselves (>10 µm) appear not to undergo biomagnification, hydrophobic plastic-associated chemicals bioaccumulate in marine animals and biomagnify in marine food webs. The amounts and fates of smaller microplastic and nanoplastic particles (MNPs <10 µm) in aquatic environments are poorly understood, but the potential for harm is worrying given their mobility in biological systems. Adverse environmental impacts of plastic pollution occur at multiple levels from molecular and biochemical to population and ecosystem. MNP contamination of seafood results in direct, though not well quantified, human exposure to plastics and plastic-associated chemicals. Marine plastic pollution endangers the ocean ecosystems upon which all humanity depends for food, oxygen, livelihood, and well-being.

Human Health Findings

Coal miners, oil workers and gas field workers who extract fossil carbon feedstocks for plastic production suffer increased mortality from traumatic injury, coal workers' pneumoconiosis, silicosis, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. Plastic production workers are at increased risk of leukemia, lymphoma, hepatic angiosarcoma, brain cancer, breast cancer, mesothelioma, neurotoxic injury, and decreased fertility. Workers producing plastic textiles die of bladder cancer, lung cancer, mesothelioma, and interstitial lung disease at increased rates. Plastic recycling workers have increased rates of cardiovascular disease, toxic metal poisoning, neuropathy, and lung cancer. Residents of "fenceline" communities adjacent to plastic production and waste disposal sites experience increased risks of premature birth, low birth weight, asthma, childhood leukemia, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer.During use and also in disposal, plastics release toxic chemicals including additives and residual monomers into the environment and into people. National biomonitoring surveys in the USA document population-wide exposures to these chemicals. Plastic additives disrupt endocrine function and increase risk for premature births, neurodevelopmental disorders, male reproductive birth defects, infertility, obesity, cardiovascular disease, renal disease, and cancers. Chemical-laden MNPs formed through the environmental degradation of plastic waste can enter living organisms, including humans. Emerging, albeit still incomplete evidence indicates that MNPs may cause toxicity due to their physical and toxicological effects as well as by acting as vectors that transport toxic chemicals and bacterial pathogens into tissues and cells.Infants in the womb and young children are two populations at particularly high risk of plastic-related health effects. Because of the exquisite sensitivity of early development to hazardous chemicals and children's unique patterns of exposure, plastic-associated exposures are linked to increased risks of prematurity, stillbirth, low birth weight, birth defects of the reproductive organs, neurodevelopmental impairment, impaired lung growth, and childhood cancer. Early-life exposures to plastic-associated chemicals also increase the risk of multiple non-communicable diseases later in life.

Economic Findings

Plastic's harms to human health result in significant economic costs. We estimate that in 2015 the health-related costs of plastic production exceeded $250 billion (2015 Int$) globally, and that in the USA alone the health costs of disease and disability caused by the plastic-associated chemicals PBDE, BPA and DEHP exceeded $920 billion (2015 Int$). Plastic production results in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions equivalent to 1.96 gigatons of carbon dioxide (CO2e) annually. Using the US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) social cost of carbon metric, we estimate the annual costs of these GHG emissions to be $341 billion (2015 Int$).These costs, large as they are, almost certainly underestimate the full economic losses resulting from plastics' negative impacts on human health and the global environment. All of plastics' economic costs-and also its social costs-are externalized by the petrochemical and plastic manufacturing industry and are borne by citizens, taxpayers, and governments in countries around the world without compensation.

Social Justice Findings

The adverse effects of plastics and plastic pollution on human health, the economy and the environment are not evenly distributed. They disproportionately affect poor, disempowered, and marginalized populations such as workers, racial and ethnic minorities, "fenceline" communities, Indigenous groups, women, and children, all of whom had little to do with creating the current plastics crisis and lack the political influence or the resources to address it. Plastics' harmful impacts across its life cycle are most keenly felt in the Global South, in small island states, and in disenfranchised areas in the Global North. Social and environmental justice (SEJ) principles require reversal of these inequitable burdens to ensure that no group bears a disproportionate share of plastics' negative impacts and that those who benefit economically from plastic bear their fair share of its currently externalized costs.

Conclusions

It is now clear that current patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal are not sustainable and are responsible for significant harms to human health, the environment, and the economy as well as for deep societal injustices.The main driver of these worsening harms is an almost exponential and still accelerating increase in global plastic production. Plastics' harms are further magnified by low rates of recovery and recycling and by the long persistence of plastic waste in the environment.The thousands of chemicals in plastics-monomers, additives, processing agents, and non-intentionally added substances-include amongst their number known human carcinogens, endocrine disruptors, neurotoxicants, and persistent organic pollutants. These chemicals are responsible for many of plastics' known harms to human and planetary health. The chemicals leach out of plastics, enter the environment, cause pollution, and result in human exposure and disease. All efforts to reduce plastics' hazards must address the hazards of plastic-associated chemicals.

Recommendations

To protect human and planetary health, especially the health of vulnerable and at-risk populations, and put the world on track to end plastic pollution by 2040, this Commission supports urgent adoption by the world's nations of a strong and comprehensive Global Plastics Treaty in accord with the mandate set forth in the March 2022 resolution of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA).International measures such as a Global Plastics Treaty are needed to curb plastic production and pollution, because the harms to human health and the environment caused by plastics, plastic-associated chemicals and plastic waste transcend national boundaries, are planetary in their scale, and have disproportionate impacts on the health and well-being of people in the world's poorest nations. Effective implementation of the Global Plastics Treaty will require that international action be coordinated and complemented by interventions at the national, regional, and local levels.This Commission urges that a cap on global plastic production with targets, timetables, and national contributions be a central provision of the Global Plastics Treaty. We recommend inclusion of the following additional provisions:The Treaty needs to extend beyond microplastics and marine litter to include all of the many thousands of chemicals incorporated into plastics.The Treaty needs to include a provision banning or severely restricting manufacture and use of unnecessary, avoidable, and problematic plastic items, especially single-use items such as manufactured plastic microbeads.The Treaty needs to include requirements on extended producer responsibility (EPR) that make fossil carbon producers, plastic producers, and the manufacturers of plastic products legally and financially responsible for the safety and end-of-life management of all the materials they produce and sell.The Treaty needs to mandate reductions in the chemical complexity of plastic products; health-protective standards for plastics and plastic additives; a requirement for use of sustainable non-toxic materials; full disclosure of all components; and traceability of components. International cooperation will be essential to implementing and enforcing these standards.The Treaty needs to include SEJ remedies at each stage of the plastic life cycle designed to fill gaps in community knowledge and advance both distributional and procedural equity.This Commission encourages inclusion in the Global Plastic Treaty of a provision calling for exploration of listing at least some plastic polymers as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention.This Commission encourages a strong interface between the Global Plastics Treaty and the Basel and London Conventions to enhance management of hazardous plastic waste and slow current massive exports of plastic waste into the world's least-developed countries.This Commission recommends the creation of a Permanent Science Policy Advisory Body to guide the Treaty's implementation. The main priorities of this Body would be to guide Member States and other stakeholders in evaluating which solutions are most effective in reducing plastic consumption, enhancing plastic waste recovery and recycling, and curbing the generation of plastic waste. This Body could also assess trade-offs among these solutions and evaluate safer alternatives to current plastics. It could monitor the transnational export of plastic waste. It could coordinate robust oceanic-, land-, and air-based MNP monitoring programs.This Commission recommends urgent investment by national governments in research into solutions to the global plastic crisis. This research will need to determine which solutions are most effective and cost-effective in the context of particular countries and assess the risks and benefits of proposed solutions. Oceanographic and environmental research is needed to better measure concentrations and impacts of plastics <10 µm and understand their distribution and fate in the global environment. Biomedical research is needed to elucidate the human health impacts of plastics, especially MNPs.

Summary

This Commission finds that plastics are both a boon to humanity and a stealth threat to human and planetary health. Plastics convey enormous benefits, but current linear patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal that pay little attention to sustainable design or safe materials and a near absence of recovery, reuse, and recycling are responsible for grave harms to health, widespread environmental damage, great economic costs, and deep societal injustices. These harms are rapidly worsening.While there remain gaps in knowledge about plastics' harms and uncertainties about their full magnitude, the evidence available today demonstrates unequivocally that these impacts are great and that they will increase in severity in the absence of urgent and effective intervention at global scale. Manufacture and use of essential plastics may continue. However, reckless increases in plastic production, and especially increases in the manufacture of an ever-increasing array of unnecessary single-use plastic products, need to be curbed.Global intervention against the plastic crisis is needed now because the costs of failure to act will be immense.

Leaching of phthalate acid esters from plastic mulch films and their degradation in response to UV irradiation and contrasting soil conditions

Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are commonly used plastic additives, not chemically bound to the plastic that migrate into surrounding environments, posing a threat to environmental and human health. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) are two common PAEs found in agricultural soils, where degradation is attributed to microbial decomposition. Yet the impact of the plastic matrix on PAE degradation rates is poorly understood. Using ¹⁴C-labelled DBP and DEHP we show that migration from the plastic matrix into soil represents a key rate limiting step in their bioavailability and subsequent degradation. Incorporating PAEs into plastic film decreased their degradation in soil, DBP (DEHP) from 79% to 21% (9% to <1%), over four months when compared to direct application of PAEs. Mimicking surface soil conditions, we demonstrated that exposure to ultraviolet radiation accelerated PAE mineralisation twofold. Turnover of PAE was promoted by the addition of biosolids, while the presence of plants and other organic residues failed to promote degradation. We conclude that PAEs persist in soil for longer than previously thought due to physical trapping within the plastic matrix, suggesting PAEs released from plastics over very long time periods lead to increasing levels of contamination.

Advanced oxidation processes for the removal of mono and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons - A review

Aromatic hydrocarbons (AHs) are toxic environmental contaminants presented in most of the environmental matrices. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for the removal of AHs in the account of complete mineralization from various environmental matrices have been reviewed in this paper. An in-depth discussion on various AOPs for mono (BTEX) and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their derivatives is presented. Most of the AOPs were effective in the removal of AHs from the aquatic environment. A comparative study on the degradation of various AHs revealed that the oxidation of the AHs is strongly dependent on the number of aromatic rings and the functional groups attached to the ring. The formation of halogenated and nitrated derivatives of AHs in the real contaminated water containing chloride, nitrite, and nitrate ions seems to be a challenge in using the AOPs in real systems. The phenolic compounds, quinone, alcohols, and aliphatic acids are the important byproducts formed during the oxidation of AHs, initiated by the attack of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on their electron-rich center. In conclusion, AOPs are the adaptable method for the removal of AHs from different environmental matrices. The persulfate-based AOPs were applied in the soil phase removal as an in situ chemical oxidation of AHs. Moreover, the combination of AOPs will be a conclusive solution to avoid or minimize unexpected or other toxic intermediate products and to obtain rapid oxidation of AHs.

Impact of Extended and Combined Exposure of Bisphenol Compounds on Their Chromosome-Damaging Effect─Increased Potency and Shifted Mode of Action

Bisphenol (BP) compounds are important environmental pollutants and endocrine disruptors. BPs are capable of inducing DNA/chromosome breaks (clastogenesis, involved in carcinogenesis), which requires activation by human CYP1A1. We hypothesized that combined BPs and extended (from the standard two-cell cycle) exposure may enhance their genotoxicity via modulating CYP enzymes. In this study, individual and combined BPA/BPF/BPS/BPAF and a human hepatoma (HepG2) cell line were used for testing several genotoxicity end points. Exposing for a two-cell cycle period (48 h), each BP alone (0.625-10 μM) was negative in the micronucleus test, while micronucleus was formed under three- (72 h) and four-cell cycle (96 h) exposure; BP combinations further elevated the potency (with nanomolar thresholds). Immunofluorescence analysis of the centromere with formed micronucleus indicated that 48 h exposure produced centromere-negative micronucleus and phosphorylated histone H2AX (γ-H2AX) (evidencing clastogenesis), while extended (72 and 96 h) exposure formed centromere-positive micronucleus and phosphorylated histone H3 (p-H3) (indicating chromosome loss, i.e., aneugenesis); moreover, 1-aminotriabenzotriazole (CYP inhibitor) selectively blocked the formation of centromere-negative micronucleus and γ-H2AX, without affecting that of centromere-positive micronucleus and p-H3. This study suggests that the genotoxicity of BPs is potentiated by combined and extended exposure, the latter being specific for aneuploidy formation, a CYP activity-independent effect.

Cancer risk assessment and source apportionment of the gas- and particulate-phase of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a metropolitan region in Brazil

A risk assessment and a source apportionment of the particulate- and gas-phase PAHs were conducted in a high vehicular traffic and industrialized region in southeastern Brazil. Higher concentrations of PAHs were found during summer, being likely driven by the contributions of PAHs in the vapor phase caused by fire outbreaks during this period. Isomer ratio diagnostic and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) identified four potential sources in the region, in which the Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) model confirmed and apportioned as gasoline-related (31.8%), diesel-related (25.1%), biomass burning (23.4%), and mixed sources (19.6%). The overall cancer risk had a tolerable value, with ∑CR = 4.6 × 10^-5, being ingestion the major via of exposure (64% of the ∑CR), followed by dermal contact (33% of the ∑CR) and inhalation (3%). Mixed sources contributed up to 45% of the overall cancer risk (∑CR), followed by gasoline-related (up to 35%), diesel-related (up to 15%), and biomass burning (up to 10%). The risk assessment for individual PAH species allowed identifying higher CR associated with BaP, DBA, BbF, BaA, and BkF, species associated with gasoline-related and industrial sources. Higher risks were associated with PM_2.5-bound PAHs exposure, mainly via ingestion and dermal contact, highlighting the need for measures of mitigation and control of PM_2.5 in the region.

Perfluoroalkyl acid and bisphenol-A exposure via food sources in four First Nation communities in Quebec, Canada

OBJECTIVE

To document perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAA) and bisphenol-A (BPA) exposure in four First Nation communities in northern Quebec compared with the Canadian Health Measures Survey (CHMS Cycle 5 2016-2017) and examine the associations between dietary consumption and chemical exposure.

DESIGN

We used cross-sectional data from the JES-YEH! project conducted in collaboration with four First Nation communities in 2015. A FFQ collected information on diet, and PFAA and BPA were measured in biological samples. We used generalised linear models to test the associations between food intake and chemical biomarkers.

SETTING

Northern Quebec.

PARTICIPANTS

Youth aged 3-19 years (n 198).

RESULTS

Mean perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) levels were significantly higher in JES-YEH! than CHMS, and BPA levels were higher among those aged 12-19 years compared with CHMS. Dairy products were associated with PFNA among Anishinabe and Innu participants (geometric mean ratio 95 % CI: 1·53 (95 % CI 1·03, 2·29) and 1·52 (95 % CI 1·05, 2·20), respectively). PFNA was also associated with ultra-processed foods (1·57 (95 % CI 1·07, 2·31)) among Anishinabe, and with wild fish and berries (1·44 (95 % CI 1·07, 1·94); 1·75 (95 % CI 1·30, 2·36)) among Innu. BPA was associated with cheese (1·72 (95 % CI 1·19, 2·50)) and milk (1·53 (95 % CI 1·02, 2·29)) among Anishinabe, and with desserts (1·71 (95 % CI 1·07, 2·74)), processed meats (1·55 (95 % CI 1·00, 2·38)), wild fish (1·64 (95 % CI 1·07, 2·49)) and wild berries (2·06 (95 % CI 1·37, 3·10)) among Innu.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the importance of better documenting food-processing and packaging methods, particularly for dairy products, and their contribution to endocrine disruptors exposures as well as to promote minimally processed and unpackaged foods to provide healthier food environments for youth in Indigenous communities and beyond.

Unlocking India's Potential in Managing Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs): Importance, Challenges, and Opportunities

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a prime concern for the environment and health globally. Research shows that in developing countries such as India both the environment and human populations are severely exposed to EDCs and consequently experience rising incidents of adverse health effects such as diabetes and cancers. In this paper, we discuss the current EDC management approach in India, critically assess its limitations, and describe opportunities for potential improvements. Foremost, current EDC management actions and interventions in India are fragmented and outdated, and far behind the modern and comprehensive approaches adopted in the European Union and other developed countries. Strong and well-planned actions are required on various fronts of science, policy, commerce, and public engagement. These actions include the adoption of a dedicated and modern regulatory framework for managing EDCs, enhancing capacity and infrastructure for EDC monitoring in the environment and human population, employing public-private partnership programs for not only managing EDCs but also in the sectors that indirectly contribute toward the mismanagement of EDCs in the country, and raising awareness on EDCs and promoting health-preserving consumption habits among the public. As India hosts a large proportion of the global human population and biodiversity, the success or failure of its actions will substantially affect the direction of global efforts to manage EDCs and set an example for other developing countries.

Groundwater contamination pathways of phthalates and bisphenol A: origin, characteristics, transport, and fate - A review

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) or phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) that may harm biota and human health. Humans can be exposed to these contaminants by drinking water consumption from water sources such as groundwater. Before their presence in aquifer systems, phthalates and BPA can be found in many matrices due to anthropogenic activities, which result in long-term transport to groundwater reservoirs by different mechanisms and reaction processes. The worldwide occurrence of phthalates and BPA concentrations in groundwater have ranged from 0.1 × 10^-3 to 3 203.33 µg L^-1 and from 0.09 × 10^-3 to 228.04 µg L^-1, respectively. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe the groundwater contamination pathways of phthalates and BPA from the main environmental sources to groundwater. Overall, this article provides an overview that integrates phthalate and BPA environmental cycling, from their origin to human reception via groundwater consumption. Additionally, in this review, the readers can use the information provided as a principal basis for existing policy ratification and for governments to develop legislation that may incorporate these endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) as priority contaminants. Indeed, this may trigger the enactment of regulatory guidelines and public policies that help to reduce the exposure of these EDCs in humans by drinking water consumption.

Interlinkage Between Persistent Organic Pollutants and Plastic in the Waste Management System of India: An Overview

Improper handling of plastic waste and related chemical pollution has garnered much attention in recent years owing to the associated detrimental impacts on human health and the environment. This article reports an overview of the main interlinkages between persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and plastic in the waste management system of India. Both plastics and POPs share certain common traits such as persistence, resistance to biological degradation, and the ability to get transported over long distances. Throughout the processes of production, consumption, and disposal, plastics interact with and accumulate POPs through several mechanisms and end up co-existing in the environment. Plastic waste can undergo long-range transport through rivers and the oceans, break down into microplastics and get transported through the air, or remain locked in waste dump yards and landfills. Over time, environmental processes lead to the leaching and release of accumulated POPs from these plastic wastes. Plastic recycling in the Indian informal sector including smelting, scrubbing, and shredding of plastic waste, is also a potential major POPs source that demands further investigation. The presence of POPs in plastic waste and their fate in the plastic recycling process have not yet been elucidated. By enhancing our understanding of these processes, this paper may aid policy decisions to combat the release of POPs from different waste types and processes in India.

Endocrine disruptor chemicals as obesogen and diabetogen: Clinical and mechanistic evidence

Obesity is becoming an inevitable pandemic all over the world. The World Obesity Federation predicts in the 2022 World Obesity Atlas that one billion people worldwide, including 1 in 5 women and 1 in 7 men, will be living with obesity by 2030. Moreover, the prevalence of diabetes is increasing worldwide, and diabetes is becoming more of a public health problem. Increased insulin resistance due to obesity and deficiency in insulin secretion are the two main causes of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). An exogenous chemical or mixture of chemicals that interferes with any aspect of hormone action was defined as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Bisphenol A (BPA), the first known EDC, was synthesized and was considered to be estrogenic. Global production of BPA has increased progressively from 5 to 8 million tons (MT) between 2010 and 2016. Furthermore, researchers estimated that the production should reach 10.2 MT by 2022. The human population is exposed to EDCs in daily life in such forms as pesticides/herbicides, industrial and household products, plastics, detergents, and personal care products. The term obesogen was used for chemicals that promote weight gain and obesity by increasing the number of adipocytes and fat storage in existing adipocytes, changing the energy balance, and finally regulating appetite and satiety. Besides the obesogenic effect, EDCs can cause T2DM through alteration in ß cell function and morphology and insulin resistance. In this review, we provide clinical and mechanistic evidence regarding EDCs as obesogen and diabetogen. However, those studies are not enough methodologically to indicate causality. In this respect, randomized clinical trials are needed to investigate the association between obesogen, diabetogen and the related metabolic clinical picture.

Laccase-assisted degradation of emerging recalcitrant compounds - A review

The main objective of this review is to provide up to date, brief, irrefutable, organized data on the conducted experiments on a range of emerging recalcitrant compounds such as Diclofenac (DCF), Chlorophenols (CPs), tetracycline (TCs), Triclosan (TCS), Bisphenol A (BPA) and Carbamazepine (CBZ). These compounds were selected from the categories of pharmaceutical contaminants (PCs), endocrine disruptors (EDs) and personal care products (PCPs) on the basis of their toxicity and concentration retained in the environment. In this context, detailed mechanism of laccase mediated degradation has been conversed that laccase assisted degradation occurs by one electron oxidation involving redox potential as underlying element of the process. Further, converging towards biotechnology, laccase immobilization increased removal efficiency, storage and reusability through various experimentally conducted studies. Laccase is being considered noteworthy as mediators facilitate laccase in oxidation of non-phenolic compounds and thereby increasing its substrate range which is being discussed in further in the review. The laccase assisted degradation mechanism of each compound has been elucidated but further studies to undercover proper degradation mechanisms needs to be performed.

Multi-class organic pollutants in atmospheric particulate matter (PM2.5) from a Southwestern Europe industrial area: Levels, sources and human health risk

The occurrence of 50 multi-class pollutants comprising 18 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 12 phthalate esters (PAEs), 12 organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs), 6 synthetic musk compounds (SMCs) and 2 bisphenols was studied in atmospheric particulate matter (PM_2.5) samples collected at an industrial area focused on automotive manufacturing located at the Southwestern Atlantic European region (Vigo city, Spain) during 1-year period. Among all quantitated pollutants in PM_2.5 samples, bisphenol A (BPA) was the most predominant with an average concentration of 6180 pg m^-3, followed by PAHs comprising benzo(b+j)fluoranthene (BbF + BjF) and benzo(g,h,i)perylene (BghiP), accounting for 546 pg m^-3 and 413 pg m^-3 respectively. In addition, two OPFRs concerning tris(chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) and triphenyl phosphine oxide (TPPO) were the next following the concentration order, accounting for 411 pg m^-3 and 367 pg m^-3 respectively; being butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) the most profuse PAE (56.1 pg m^-3 by average). High relative standard deviations (RSDs) were observed during the whole sampling period, while statistically significant differences were only observed for PAHs concentrations during cold and warm seasons. Furthermore, some water-soluble ions and metal(oid)s were analysed in PM_2.5 samples to be used as PM source tracers, whose concentrations were quite below the target levels set in the current legislation. Data obtained from principal component analysis (PCA) and PAHs molecular indices suggested a pyrogenic and petrogenic origin for PAHs, whereas occurrence of the remaining compounds seems to be attributed to resources used in the automotive industrial activity settled in the sampling area. Moreover, although a substantial anthropogenic source to PM_2.5 in the area was observed, marine and soil resuspension contributions were also accounted. Finally, carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks posed by PM_2.5-bound pollutants inhalation were assessed, being both averages within the safe level considering the whole period.

Spent waste from edible mushrooms offers innovative strategies for the remediation of persistent organic micropollutants: A review

Urgent and innovative strategies for removal of persistent organic micropollutants (OMPs) in soil, groundwater, and surface water are the need of the hour. OMPs detected in contaminated soils and effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are categorized as environmentally persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPPs), and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), their admixture could cause serious ecological issues to the non-target species. As complete eradication of OMPs is not possible with the extant conventional WWTPs technology, the inordinate and reckless application of OMPs negatively impacts environmental regenerative and resilience capacity. Therefore, the cardinal focus of this review is the bioremediation of persistent OMPs through efficient application of an agro-waste, i.e. spent mushroom waste (SMW). This innovative, green, long-term strategy embedded in the circular economy, based on state of the art information is comprehensively assessed in this paper. SMW accrues ligninolytic enzymes such as laccase and peroxidase, with efficient mechanism to facilitate biodegradation of recalcitrant organic pollutants. It is vital in this context that future research should address immobilization of such enzymes to overcome quantitative and qualitative issues obstructing their widespread use in biodegradation. Therefore, dual benefit is gained from cultivating critical cash crops like mushrooms to meet the escalating demand for food resources and to aid in biodegradation. Hence, mushroom cultivation has positive environmental, social, and economic implications in developing countries like India.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals used as common plastic additives: Levels, profiles, and human dietary exposure from the Indian food basket

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and bisphenol A (BPA) are the most widely used plastic additives in polymeric materials. These EDCs are ubiquitously distributed in the environment. Hence selected PAEs and BPA were investigated in twenty-five food types and drinking water (supply and packaged) from the metropolitan city, Delhi, and the peri-urban areas of a non-metropolitan city, Dehradun. Except cabbage and orange, the sum of thirteen PAEs (∑₁₃PAEs) and BPA in all the other food types were significantly higher in Delhi over Dehradun (p < 0.01). Highest mean ∑₁₃PAEs (665 ng/g) and BPA (73 ng/g) were observed in cottage cheese and potatoes, respectively followed by fish (PAEs - 477 ng/g, BPA - 16 ng/g). Supply water from the west zone of Delhi was found to contain the highest concentration of BPA (309 ng/L) and ∑₁₃PAEs (5765 ng/L) with the dominance of diethyl phthalate (DEP). Based on the compositional profile and compound-wise principal component analysis, environmental contamination and food processing were attributed as significant sources of most priority PAEs in food samples. Di-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) was over 100-fold higher in the bottled water from local brands than composite bottled water samples. Packaging material was identified as a source for di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) in packaged food. This study observed the highest estimated daily dietary intake (EDI) in the high-fat-containing food products viz., cottage cheese, and fish from north Delhi. High bioaccumulation of BPA can be a possible reason for elevated EDI in vegetables and local fish of Delhi. Unlike Dehradun, EDI for ∑₁₃PAEs and BPA was slightly higher for the non-vegetarian adult when compared to the vegetarian adult. DEHP and DnBP exhibited the highest estimated estrogenic potential for bottled water from local brands. Dietary exposure due to six priority PAEs contamination in food stuffs was two to four-fold higher in Delhi than Dehradun for adult man and woman.

Occurrence and fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from electronic waste dismantling activities: A critical review from environmental pollution to human health

Electronic waste (e-waste) is one of the fastest-growing solid wastes and has become an urgent issue due to the potential adverse consequences of exposure to emitted toxic pollutants, especially for these occupational exposed workers and local residents. In this review, the environmental occurrences, emission characteristics, sources, and possible adverse effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emitted from primitive e-waste dismantling activities are summarized. In general, the atmospheric levels of PAHs at typical e-waste sites, e.g., in Guiyu, China, have substantially decreased by more than an order of magnitude compared with levels a decade ago. The PAH concentrations in soil from old e-waste sites in China are also generally lower than those at newly emerged e-waste sites in India, Pakistan and Ghana. However, elevated concentrations of PAHs have been reported in human milk, hair and urine from the populations near these e-waste sites. Source apportionment both from bench-scale studies to field observations has demonstrated that the pyrolysis and combustion processing of electronic circuit board are mainly responsible for the emissions of various PAHs. In addition, some specific PAHs and their derivatives, such as triphenylbenzene, halogenated and oxygenated PAHs, have frequently been identified and could be considered as indicators in routine analysis in addition to the 16 U.S. EPA priority PAHs currently used.

Microplastics in dumping site soils from six Asian countries as a source of plastic additives

The ubiquitous distribution of microplastics (MP) is a serious environmental issue in Asian countries. In this study, 54 open-dumping site soils collected from Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, the Philippines, and Vietnam were analyzed for MP. Soil samples were also divided into light (floating) and heavy (sedimentation) fractions by density separation and analyzed for plastic additives. The highest abundance of MP was found in a soil from Cambodia at 218,182 pieces/kg. The median of MP in soils ranged from 1411 pieces/kg in India to 24,000 pieces/kg in the Philippines, suggesting that dumping sites are a major source of MP into the environment. Polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate were dominant polymers in soil samples analyzed. This indicates that daily-used plastic products are main sources of MP in dumping site soils in Asian countries. The high concentrations and burdens of phthalates and an antioxidant were detected in floating fraction accounting for 40 to 60% of the total additives in soils. Previous studies on soil pollution have assumed that the organic hydrophobic chemicals analyzed are adsorbed on the surface of soil particles. However, this result indicates that approximately half of the additives in dumping site soils were derived from MP, not soil particle. Monitoring study on soil pollution should be considered the occurrence of MP in the matrices.

Effects of Artificial Sweat Formulation and Extraction Temperature on Estimation of the Dermal Bioaccessibility of Potentially Toxic Elements in a Contaminated Soil from an E-Waste Recycling Site

Informal recycling of electronic waste leads to soil contamination that can impact human health. To accurately assess exposure to potentially toxic elements (PTE) in soil it is necessary to consider their bioavailability through ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact. However, bioaccessibility tests that estimate dermal absorption following adhesion of contaminated soil particles to skin are not well established. In this study the concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn were estimated in the <45 µm particle size fraction of a bulk composite soil from an e-waste recycling site using five different artificial sweat formulations. Extractions were performed at temperatures ranging from 17 to 47 °C to investigate the effect of ambient temperature on bioaccessibility. Results obtained using the different artificial sweats were not consistent with one another. In particular, the NIHS 96-10 formulation solubilized larger amounts of analytes (ranging from 6.3 times the next most effective extractant for Cu to 1700 times the next most effective for Pb). There was a general increase in release of PTE with increasing temperature, except for As. Although trends varied between analytes and formulations, this highlights the need to consider ambient temperature when estimating dermal bioaccessibility of PTE in soil.

Highly effective removal of bisphenol A by greigite/persulfate in spiked soil: Heterogeneous soil/water system balance and degradation

The degradation of bisphenol A (BPA) in spiked soil was studied to investigate persulfate (PS) activation by the environment-friendly heterogeneous material greigite for removing organic pollutants from soil. The effects of the PS and greigite doses were investigated, and the BPA degradation rate in the lateritic red soil was lower than that in kaolin. Notably, 500 mg/kg of BPA could be effectively removed by the flower-like greigite (FLG)/PS system in 30 min. The difference in BPA degradation in kaolin and the lateritic red soil was negligible, thus indicating that the contents of components such as total organic matters in the lateritic red soil did not affect the BPA degradation rate of the FLG/PS system considerably. Furthermore, the distribution processes of BPA in the soil and liquid phase were also investigated in detail. The results showed that the water contents were a key factor in the distribution and degradation of BPA. The transfer of BPA from kaolin to the liquid phase was simpler than that from the lateritic red soil to the liquid phase. BPA might be transferred to the liquid phase first and then degraded by the FLG/PS system in that phase. Regarding BPA degradation in the lateritic red soil, BPA was degraded in the soil and liquid phases at the same time. This study proposed a pathway for BPA degradation in soil slurries by heterogeneous material/PS systems for first time, providing a deeper understanding of the degradation mechanism of organic pollutants in soil and new methods for soil remediation.

Bisphenol A and its analogues in outdoor and indoor air: Properties, sources and global levels

Bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues are high-volume production organic synthetic compounds used in the synthesis of plastics. BPA has been categorized as an endocrine disrupting compound due to its ability to disrupt the hormonal makeup of living organisms. Air and dust are common sources of exposure of BPA for living organisms and most sources are anthropogenic and a result of thermal destruction of BPA containing materials, import and export of recyclable materials (especially e-waste) and fugitive emissions near BPA handling facilities. Current reports on BPA levels in air are limited and focused on effluent and surface water analysis (due to BPA's propensity for environmental distribution to water). BPA's presence in the developing part of the world is of particular concern due to lack of regulations and uncontrolled incinerations of domestic and imported waste. The current review summarizes up-to-date scientific literature on BPA's occurrence in air, alongside physico-chemical and partitioning properties, persistence in air, seasonal variation, consideration of analytical strategies for BPA analysis and toxicological information. Globally reported air concentrations of BPA are included in this report, alongside reports on indoor air concentration of BPA and its analogues. As a special interest, levels of tetrabromobisphenol (TBBPA) are also mentioned. Overall, the highest outdoor air levels of BPA were reported in China (1.1 × 106 pg/m3) near a low-tech e-waste recycling site, while examination of indoor dust revealed the presence of bisphenol analogues used in "BPA-free" products, raising questions about their safety. Due to their low volatility, BPA and its analogues are mainly present in air associated with particles; this has important implications for their persistence in air and the role of particulate matter (especially microplastics) in their transport and deposition. Current understanding of BPA's particle association is limited, hence studying its potential for heterogeneous oxidative transformations is a pressing need required for accurate accounting of potential risk to human health and the environment.

Agricultural Plastic Pollution in China: Generation of Plastic Debris and Emission of Phthalic Acid Esters from Agricultural Films

Agricultural plastic films have been proven highly advantageous, but they also cause pollution of plastic debris and associated chemicals. Phthalates (phthalic acid esters, PAEs), an important additive of agricultural films, can be released and contaminate the environment. Here, we analyzed the agricultural plastic usage and assessed plastic debris in China and developed a method to estimate PAE emissions from agricultural films. Additionally, the environmental fate of PAEs was evaluated using a fugacity-based multimedia model. The agricultural plastic film usage in China in 2017 was 2,528,600 tons. After agricultural film recycling and water erosion, the plastic debris amount was estimated as 465,016 tons. The water erosion process carried 4329 tons of plastic debris into the aquatic environment. During its lifetime, the agricultural film released a total of 91.5 tons of two typical types of PAEs. PAEs from the mulching film would mostly be removed through degradation, while those from the greenhouse film accumulate in vegetables. Populated regions exhibited more serious PAE pollution in vegetables but with no immediate health risks. The model was well evaluated using comparable measured concentrations and uncertainty analysis based on the Monte Carlo method. The findings from this study demonstrate the serious agricultural plastic pollution problem and associated PAE contamination in China.