Bioactivity assessment and toxicity of crocin: a comprehensive review

Targeting Nrf2/HO-1 signaling by crocin: role in attenuation of arsenic trioxide-induced neurotoxicity in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Saffron is a valued herb, obtained from the stigmas of the C. sativus Linn (Iridaceae). Pharmacopoeias have described it as having a variety of actions, such as stimulant, anti-carcinogen, and anti-depressant. As a folk medicine, crocin has been reported to have anti-cardiotoxicity and anti-hepatotoxicity effects. This paper focuses on crocin, one of the bioactive molecules found in saffron that are known to have therapeutic effects. Crocin has been shown in numerous experimental studies to be beneficial in treating depression, however, there aren't many studies on its neurotoxicity.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Applications of arsenic trioxide (ATO) in medical settings is limited by its side effects. This study aims to examine crocin's protective effect against ATO-induced neurotoxicity and understand its potential molecular mechanism.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A neurotoxicity model was created by administering ATO (4 mg/L/d). To counteract this, mice were intraperitoneally injected with crocin (100, 200 mg/kg/d). After 60 days, biochemical, histopathological, transmission electron microscopy, ELISA, and western blotting analyses were then performed.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that crocin decreased neuronal death and loss caused by ATO, countered oxidative stress damage, and mitigated pro-inflammatory cytokines. Mice treated with crocin also displayed positive signs of brain tissue recovery. Additionally, crocin reduced the protein expressions of NLRP1, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC), Caspase-1, GRP78, CHOP, and ATF4.

CONCLUSIONS

This study attests that crocin can reduce ATO-induced neurotoxicity by safeguarding nerves from oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis, possibly through the activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway.

Geniposide for treating atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a systematic review on its biological characteristics, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and toxicology

In recent years, the prevalence and fatality rates of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease have not only shown a consistent rise that cannot be ignored, but have also become a pressing social health problem that requires urgent attention. While interventional surgery and drug therapy offer significant therapeutic results, they often come with common side effects. Geniposide, an active component extracted from the Chinese medicine Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, shows promise in the management of cardiac conditions. This review comprehensively outlines the underlying pharmacological mechanisms by which geniposide exerts its effects on atherosclerosis. Geniposide exhibits a range of beneficial effects including alleviating inflammation, inhibiting the development of macrophage foam cells, improving lipid metabolism, and preventing platelet aggregation and thrombosis. It also demonstrates mitochondrial preservation, anti-apoptotic effects, and modulation of autophagy. Moreover, geniposide shows potential in improving oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress by maintaining the body's antioxidant and oxidative balance. Additionally, this review comprehensively details the biological properties of geniposide, including methods of extraction and purification, as well as its pharmacokinetics and toxicological characteristics. It further discusses the clinical applications of related biopharmaceuticals, emphasizing the potential of geniposide in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, it highlights the limitations of current research, aiming to provide insights for future studies.

Natural products with anti-tumorigenesis potential targeting macrophage

BACKGROUND

Inflammation is a risk factor for tumorigenesis. Macrophage, a subset of immune cells with high plasticity, plays a multifaceted role in this process. Natural products, which are bioactive compounds derived from traditional herbs or foods, have exhibited diverse effects on macrophages and tumorigenesis making them a valuable resource of drug discovery or optimization in tumor prevention.

PURPOSE

Provide a comprehensive overview of the various roles of macrophages in tumorigenesis, as well as the effects of natural products on tumorigenesis by modulating macrophage function.

METHODS

A thorough literature search spanning the past two decades was carried out using PubMed, Web of Science, Elsevier, and CNKI following the PRISMA guidelines. The search terms employed included "macrophage and tumorigenesis", "natural products, macrophages and tumorigenesis", "traditional Chinese medicine and tumorigenesis", "natural products and macrophage polarization", "macrophage and tumor related microenvironment", "macrophage and tumor signal pathway", "toxicity of natural products" and combinations thereof. Furthermore, certain articles are identified through the tracking of citations from other publications or by accessing the websites of relevant journals. Studies that meet the following criteria are excluded: (1) Articles not written in English or Chinese; (2) Full texts were not available; (3) Duplicate articles and irrelevant studies. The data collected was organized and summarized based on molecular mechanisms or compound structure.

RESULTS

This review elucidates the multifaceted effect of macrophages on tumorigenesis, encompassing process such as inflammation, angiogenesis, and tumor cell invasion by regulating metabolism, non-coding RNA, signal transduction and intercellular crosstalk. Natural products, including vitexin, ovatodiolide, ligustilide, and emodin, as well as herbal remedies, have demonstrated efficacy in modulating macrophage function, thereby attenuating tumorigenesis. These interventions mainly focus on mitigating the initial inflammatory response or modifying the inflammatory environment within the precancerous niche.

CONCLUSIONS

These mechanistic insights of macrophages in tumorigenesis offer valuable ideas for researchers. The identified natural products facilitate the selection of promising candidates for future cancer drug development.

Co-administration of sub-effective doses of the constituents of Crocus sativus L. crocins with those of the antipsychotics clozapine and risperidone counteract memory deficits caused by blockade of the NMDA receptor in rats

Experimental evidence indicates that the noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists ketamine and MK-801 induce schizophrenia-like symptoms in rodents, including cognitive deficits. Crocins are among the active components of the plant Crocus sativus L. and were found to be effective in different models of psychiatric disorders comprising schizophrenia. The present study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of the joint administration of sub-effective doses of crocins with those of the atypical antipsychotics clozapine and risperidone in alleviating nonspatial recognition and emotional memory deficits induced either by ketamine (3 mg/kg) or MK-801 (0.1 mg/kg) in the rat. To this end, the object recognition and the step-through passive avoidance tests were used. Co-administration of sub-effective doses of crocins (5 mg/kg) with those of clozapine (0.1 mg/kg) or risperidone (0.03 mg/kg) counteracted nonspatial recognition and emotional memory deficits induced by NMDA receptor antagonists. The current findings suggest that this combinatorial treatment was efficacious in attenuating cognitive impairments related to the blockade of the NMDA receptor. In addition, the present results support the potential of crocins as an adjunctive drug for the therapy of schizophrenia.

Herbal Products as Complementary or Alternative Medicine for the Management of Hyperglycemia and Dyslipidemia in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: Current Evidence Based on Findings of Interventional Studies

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is known as a major public health problem with a noticeable adverse impact on quality of life and health expenditures worldwide. Despite using routine multiple pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions, including diet therapy and increasing physical activity, controlling this chronic disease remains a challenging issue, and therapeutic goals are often not achieved. Therefore, recently, other therapeutic procedures, such as using herbal products and functional foods as complementary or alternative medicine (CAM), have received great attention as a new approach to managing T2D complications, according to the literature. We reviewed the existing evidence that supports using various fundamental medicinal herbs, including cinnamon, saffron, ginger, jujube, turmeric, and barberry, as CAM adjunctive therapeutic strategies for T2D patients. The current review addressed different aspects of the potential impact of the abovementioned herbal products in improving glycemic indices and lipid profiles, including the effect size reported in the studies, their effective dose, possible side effects, herbs-drug interactions, and their potential action mechanisms.

Co-regulatory network analysis of the main secondary metabolite (SM) biosynthesis in Crocus sativus L

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is being embraced as the most important medicinal plant and the commercial source of saffron spice. Despite the beneficial economic and medicinal properties of saffron, the regulatory mechanism of the correlation of TFs and genes related to the biosynthesis of the apocarotenoids pathway is less obvious. Realizing these regulatory hierarchies of gene expression networks related to secondary metabolites production events is the main challenge owing to the complex and extensive interactions between the genetic behaviors. Recently, high throughput expression data have been highly feasible for constructing co-regulation networks to reveal the regulated processes and identifying novel candidate hub genes in response to complex processes of the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. Herein, we performed Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA), a systems biology method, to identify 11 regulated modules and hub TFs related to secondary metabolites. Three specialized modules were found in the apocarotenoids pathway. Several hub TFs were identified in notable modules, including MADS, C2H2, ERF, bZIP, HD-ZIP, and zinc finger protein MYB and HB, which were potentially associated with apocarotenoid biosynthesis. Furthermore, the expression levels of six hub TFs and six co-regulated genes of apocarotenoids were validated with RT-qPCR. The results confirmed that hub TFs specially MADS, C2H2, and ERF had a high correlation (P < 0.05) and a positive effect on genes under their control in apocarotenoid biosynthesis (CCD2, GLT2, and ADH) among different C. sativus ecotypes in which the metabolite contents were assayed. Promoter analysis of the co-expressed genes of the modules involved in apocarotenoids biosynthesis pathway suggested that not only are the genes co-expressed, but also share common regulatory motifs specially related to hub TFs of each module and that they may describe their common regulation. The result can be used to engineer valuable secondary metabolites of C. sativus by manipulating the hub regulatory TFs.

Effect of Crocus sativus Extract Supplementation in the Metabolic Control of People with Diabetes Mellitus Type 1: A Double-Blind Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial

Introduction-Background: Data from experimental trials show that Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is considered to improve glycemia, lipid profile, and blood pressure and reduce oxidative stress. So far, clinical trials have been conducted in individuals with metabolic syndrome and Diabetes Mellitus type 2 (DMT-2). The purpose of this study is to assess the effectiveness of saffron in individuals with Diabetes Mellitus type 1 (DMT-1).

PATIENTS-METHODS

61 individuals with DMT-1, mean age 48 years old (48.3 ± 14.6), 26 females (42.6%) were randomized to receive a new oral supplement in sachets containing probiotics, prebiotics, magnesium, and Crocus sativus L. extract or placebo containing probiotics, prebiotics and magnesium daily for 6 months. Glycemic control was assessed with a continuous glucose monitoring system and laboratory measurement of HbA1c and lipid profile was also examined. Blood pressure at baseline and end of intervention was also measured. Individuals were either on a continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion with an insulin pump or in multiple daily injection regimens. Diabetes distress and satiety were assessed through a questionnaire and body composition was assessed with bioelectrical impedance.

RESULTS

At the end of the intervention, the two groups differed significantly only in serum triglycerides (p = 0.049). After 6 months of treatment, a significant reduction in the active group was observed in glycated hemoglobin (p = 0.046) and serum triglycerides (p = 0.021) compared to baseline. The other primary endpoints (glycemic control, lipid profile, blood pressure) did not differ within the groups from baseline to end of intervention, and there was no significant difference between the two groups. Diabetes distress score improved significantly only in the active group (p = 0.044), suggesting an overall improvement in diabetes disease burden in these individuals but that was not significant enough between the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

A probiotic supplement with saffron extract improves serum triglycerides in well-controlled people with DMT-1 and may potentially be a valuable adjunct for enhancing glycemic control.

Therapeutic potential of hypnotic herbal medicines: A comprehensive review

Insomnia affects millions of people worldwide, prompting considerable interest in herbal remedies for its treatment. This review aims to assess the therapeutic potential of such remedies for insomnia by analyzing current scientific evidence. The analysis identified several herbs, including Rosmarinus officinalis, Crocus sativus, Rosa damascena, Curcuma longa, Valeriana officinalis, Lactuca sativa, Portulaca oleracea, Citrus aurantium, Lippia citriodora, and Melissa officinalis, which show promise in improving overall sleep time, reducing sleep latency, and enhancing sleep quality. These plants act on the central nervous system, particularly the serotonergic and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic systems, promoting sedation and relaxation. However, further research is necessary to fully understand their mechanisms of action, optimal dosages, and treatment protocols. Combining herbal medicines with conventional treatments may offer an effective natural alternative for those seeking medication. Nevertheless, individuals should consult their healthcare provider before using herbal remedies for insomnia. While this review provides evidence supporting their use, additional high-quality studies are needed to firmly establish their clinical efficacy.

Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-mitophagy effects of trans sodium crocetinate on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in BALB/C57 mice

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the degeneration of myelin and inflammation in the central nervous system. Trans sodium crocetinate (TSC), a novel synthetic carotenoid compound, possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of TSC against the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a well-established model for MS. Female BALB/C57 mice were divided into different groups, including control, EAE, vehicle, TSC-treated (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg, administered via gavage) + EAE, methyl prednisone acetate + EAE, and TSC-treated (100 mg/kg, administered via gavage for 28 days) groups. EAE was induced using MOG35-55, complete Freund's adjuvant, and pertussis toxin. In the mice spinal cord tissues, the oxidative markers (GSH and MDA) were measured using spectrophotometry and histological evaluation was performed. Mitophagic pathway proteins (PINK1and PARKIN) and inflammatory factors (IL-1β and TNF-α) were evaluated by western blot. Following 21 days post-induction, EAE mice exhibited weight loss, and the paralysis scores increased on day 13 but recovered after TSC (100 mg/kg) administration on day 16. Furthermore, TSC (50 and 100 mg/kg) reversed the altered levels of MDA and GSH in the spinal cord tissue of EAE mice. TSC (100 mg/kg) also decreased microgliosis, demyelination, and the levels of inflammatory markers IL-1β and TNF-α. Notably, TSC (100 mg/kg) modulated the mitophagy pathway by reducing PINK1 and Parkin protein levels. These findings demonstrate that TSC protects spinal cord tissue against EAE-induced MS through anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-mitophagy mechanisms.

ADME/PK Insights of Crocetin: A Molecule Having an Unusual Chemical Structure with Druglike Features

Crocetin is a promising phyto-based molecule to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD). The chemical structure of crocetin is incongruent with various standard structural features of CNS drugs. As poor pharmacokinetic behavior is the major hurdle for any candidate to become a drug, we elucidated its druggable characteristics by implementing in silico, in vitro, and in vivo approaches, as limited ADME/PK information is available. Results demonstrate several attributes of crocetin based on rules of drug-likeness, lipophilicity, pKa, P-gp inhibitory activity, plasma stability, RBC partitioning, metabolic stability, CYP inhibitory action, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, oral bioavailability, and pharmacokinetic interaction with marketed anti-Alzheimer's drugs (memantine, donepezil, galantamine, and rivastigmine). However, aqueous solubility, chemical stability, plasma protein binding, and P-gp induction are some concerns associated with this molecule that should be taken into consideration during its further development. Overall results indicate favorable ADME/PK behavior and potential druggable candidature of crocetin.

Therapeutic potential of saffron in brain disorders: From bench to bedside

Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus L., which has been used for centuries as a coloring and flavoring agent, as well as a source of medicinal compounds. Saffron contains various bioactive constituents, such as crocin, crocetin, safranal, picrocrocin, and kaempferol, that have shown potential benefits for human health. Among them, crocin is the most abundant and characteristic constituent of saffron, responsible for its bright red color and antioxidant properties. One of the most promising applications of saffron and its constituents is in the prevention and treatment of neurological disorders, such as depression, anxiety, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and other brain disorders. Saffron and its constituents have been reported to exert neuroprotective effects through various mechanisms, such as modulating neurotransmitters, enhancing neurogenesis, reducing neuroinflammation, regulating oxidative stress, activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway, and modulating epigenetic factors. Several clinical and preclinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy and safety of saffron and its constituents in improving cognitive function, mood, and other neurological outcomes. In this review, we summarize the current evidence on the therapeutic potential of saffron and its constituents in neurological disorders, from bench to bedside. We also discuss the challenges and future directions for the development of saffron-based therapies for brain health.

Effects of chronic social equality and inequality conditions on passive avoidance memory and PTSD-like behaviors in rats under chronic empathic stress

INTRODUCTION

Social inequality conditions induce aversion and affect brain functions and mood. This study investigated the effects of chronic social equality and inequality (CSE and CSI, respectively) conditions on passive avoidance memory and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)-like behaviors in rats under chronic empathic stress.

METHODS

Rats were divided into different groups, including control, sham-observer, sham-demonstrator, observer, demonstrator, and co-demonstrator groups. Chronic stress (2 h/day) was administered to all stressed groups for 21 days. Fear learning, fear memory, memory consolidation, locomotor activity, and PTSD-like behaviors were evaluated using the passive avoidance test. Apart from the hippocampal weight, the correlations of memory and right hippocampal weight with serum corticosterone (CORT) levels were separately assessed for all experimental groups.

RESULTS

Latency was significantly higher in the demonstrator and sham-demonstrator groups compared to the control group. It was decreased significantly in other groups compared to the control group. Latency was also decreased in the observer and co-demonstrator groups compared to the demonstrator group. Moreover, the right hippocampal weight was significantly decreased in the demonstrator and sham-demonstrator groups compared to the control group. Pearson's correlation of memory and hippocampal weight with serum CORT levels supported the present findings.

CONCLUSION

Maladaptive fear responses occurred in demonstrators and sham-demonstrators. Also, extremely high levels of psychological stress, especially under CSI conditions (causing abnormal fear learning) led to heightened fear memory and PTSD-like behaviors. Right hippocampal atrophy confirmed the potential role of CSI conditions in promoting PTSD-like behaviors. Compared to inequality conditions, the abnormal fear memory was reduced under equality conditions.

The effect of crocin-selenium nanoparticles on the cognition and oxidative stress markers of multiple sclerosis patients: a randomized triple-blinded placebo-controlled clinical trial

The prevalence of cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients is estimated to be approximately 40-60%. There is an increasing body of evidence regarding the impact of both selenium and crocin as antioxidant agents on cognitive function. In the present study, for the first time, we investigated the effect of crocin-selenium nanoparticles (Cor@SeNs) on cognitive function and oxidative stress markers in MS patients. A triple-blind randomized clinical trial was conducted among 60 MS patients. The participants were randomly divided in a 1:1 ratio to either the Cor@SeNs or placebo group, employing block randomization. During the course of 12 weeks, the participants received Cor@SeNs capsules, containing 5.74 mg crocin and 55 mcg Selenium, or placebo capsules. Cognition assessed using the Persian version of the Brief International Cognitive Assessment for MS (BICAMS) battery. Serum levels of total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione reductase (GR) activity and malondialdehyde (MDA) determined by colorimetric kits. Data analysis was performed in SPSS, version 26. P < 0.05 was considered as the significant range. The mean ± SD of TAC change was 0.03 ± 0.07 mM vs. - 0.03 ± 0.09 mM in intervention and placebo groups, respectively (Time × group effect P: 0.01; effect size: 0.10). The time effect of intervention on the California Verbal Learning Test second edition (CVLT-II) (P < 0.01; effect size: 0.29), CVLT-II-delay (P < 0.01; effect size: 0.29), and the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) (P < 0.01; effect size: 0.18) was increasing and significant. In addition, the time effect of intervention on GR activity was significant and decreasing in both groups (P < 0.01; effect size: 0.20). Our results suggested a significant effect of the Cor@SeNs intervention in improving TAC. We also observed a significant improvement in cognitive function in both groups during our study. However, although not statistically significant, a higher amount of change in cognitive function and serum antioxidant markers was noted in the Cor@SeNs group compared to the placebo group. This is the first study on this nano product with low dose of selenium and crocin. More investigations with longer duration and varied doses are suggested.

NAMPT‑NAD+ is involved in the senescence‑delaying effects of saffron in aging mice

As the proportion of the elderly population grows rapidly, the senescence-delaying effects of Traditional Chinese Medicine is being investigated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the senescence-delaying effects of saffron in naturally aging mice. The active ingredients in an aqueous saffron extract were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Mice were divided into saffron (8- and 16-months-old) and control groups (3-, 8-, and 16-months-old), and saffron extract was administered to the former groups for 8 weeks. The open field test and Barnes maze test were used to evaluate the locomotor activity, learning and memory function of the mice. The levels of inflammatory factors in the brain were determined by ELISA. In addition, the activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and superoxide dismutase, and the contents of malondialdehyde and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) were detected by enzyme immunoassay, and the content of NAMPT was detected by ELISA, western blotting and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. The cellular distribution of NAMPT and synaptic density were evaluated by immunofluorescence, and the pathological morphologies of the liver, skin, kidneys were observed by hematoxylin and eosin staining. HPLC revealed that the crocin and picrocrocin contents of the saffron extract were 19.56±0.14 and 12.00±0.13%, respectively. Saffron exhibited the potential to improve the learning and memory function in aging mice as it increased synaptic density and decreased AChE activity. Also, saffron ameliorated the pathological changes associated with organ aging, manifested by increasing the number of hepatocytes and the thickness of the skin, and preventing the aging-induced ballooning and bleeding in the kidneys. Furthermore, saffron increased the contents of NAMPT and NAD+ in the brain and decreased the content of NAMPT in the serum. In addition, it changed the cellular distribution of NAMPT in aging mice, manifested as reduced NAMPT expression in microglia and astrocytes, and increased NAMPT expression in neurons. Saffron also decreased the contents of proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress factors in aging mice. Altogether, these findings indicate that saffron exerts senescence-delaying effects in naturally aging mice, which may be associated with the NAMPT-NAD+ pathway.

Crocin enhances the sensitivity to paclitaxel in human breast cancer cells by reducing BIRC5 expression

Paclitaxel (PTX) is one of the first-line chemotherapeutic agents for treating breast cancer. However, PTX resistance remains a major hurdle in breast cancer therapy. Crocin, the main chemical constituent of saffron, shows anti-cancer activity against various types of cancer. However, the effect of crocin on the resistance of PTX in breast cancer is still unknown. CCK-8 and TUNEL assays were employed to detect cell viability and apoptosis, respectively. The targets of crocin were predicted using HERB database and the targets associated with breast cancer were acquired using GEPIA database. The Venn diagram was utilized to identify the common targets between crocin and breast cancer. Baculoviral inhibitor of apoptosis repeat containing 5 (BIRC5) expression was detected by qRT-PCR and western blot analysis. The correlation between BIRC5 expression and survival was analyzed by Kaplan-Meier plotter and PrognoScan databases. Our data suggested that crocin aggravated PTX-induced decrease of viability and increase of apoptosis in MCF-7 and MCF-7/PTX cells. BIRC5 was identified as the target of crocin against breast cancer. Crocin inhibited BIRC5 expression in MCF-7 and MCF-7/PTX cells. BIRC5 is overexpressed in breast cancer tissues, as well as PTX-sensitive and PTX-resistant breast cancer cells. BIRC5 expression is related to the poor survival of patients with breast cancer. Depletion of BIRC5 strengthened PTX-induced viability reduction and promotion of apoptosis in MCF-7 and MCF-7/PTX cells. Moreover, BIRC5 overexpression reversed the inhibitory effect of crocin on PTX resistance in breast cancer cells. In conclusion, crocin enhanced the sensitivity of PTX in breast cancer cells partially through inhibiting BIRC5 expression.

Does crocin create new hope for the treatment of oral problems? A focus on periodontitis

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) reports, oral health has an indispensable role in the maintenance of human public health. However, oral problems, especially periodontitis, are known as bad players in this issue. Periodontitis, as the most prevalent oral disease, is a type of chronic illness mediated by bacterial pathogens and immune system reactions, which is linked with the destruction of tooth-protecting tissues, such as alveolar bone and periodontal ligament. Periodontitis has a high prevalence (over 40% in the United States) and can be associated with other systemic ailments, for instance, arthritis, osteoporosis, metabolic syndrome, cancer, respiratory diseases, chronic kidney disease, and Alzheimer's disease. The common treatments for periodontitis are classified into invasive (surgical) and noninvasive (antibiotic therapy, scaling, and root planning) methods; however, these therapies have not reflected enough effectiveness for related patients. New documents inform the beneficial effects of plant-based compounds in healing various disorders, like periodontitis. In conjunction with this subject, it has been revealed that crocin, as an active component of saffron, regulates the balance between osteoclasts and osteoblasts and has a stroking role in the accumulation of the most common collagen in teeth and bone (type 1 collagen). Besides, this carotenoid compound possesses anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects, which can be associated with the therapeutic processes of crocin in this oral disease. Hence, this narrative review study was performed to reflect the reparative/regenerative aspects of crocin agonist periodontitis.

The Effects of Crocus sativus (Saffron) on ADHD: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Crocus sativus also known as saffron, is one of the most popular traditional plants. This study aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of saffron extracts in ADHD.

METHOD

This study includes clinical trial studies that assessed the efficacy and/or safety of saffron in ADHD patients. Non-English papers, review articles, commentaries, letters, observational studies, thesis, animal studies, in-vitro studies, and conference abstracts were not included. The risk of bias in randomized studies was evaluated based on the Cochrane RoB.2, and risk of bias in pre-post intervention studies was assessed using the ROBINS-I tool.

RESULTS

Four studies met our inclusion criteria with a total of 118 patients. The results manifested an efficient role of saffron as either an adjuvant therapy to MPH or a single therapy against ADHD, without significant safety issues.

DISCUSSION

Saffron demonstrates promise in improving ADHD symptoms, with an acceptable safety profile. Future well-designed multicentral studies are suggested.

Research Progress in Heterologous Crocin Production

Crocin is one of the most valuable components of the Chinese medicinal plant Crocus sativus and is widely used in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. Traditional planting of C. sativus is unable to fulfill the increasing demand for crocin in the global market, however, such that researchers have turned their attention to the heterologous production of crocin in a variety of hosts. At present, there are reports of successful heterologous production of crocin in Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, microalgae, and plants that do not naturally produce crocin. Of these, the microalga Dunaliella salina, which produces high levels of β-carotene, the substrate for crocin biosynthesis, is worthy of attention. This article describes the biosynthesis of crocin, compares the features of each heterologous host, and clarifies the requirements for efficient production of crocin in microalgae.

Comprehensive Update on Carotenoid Colorants from Plants and Microalgae: Challenges and Advances from Research Laboratories to Industry

The substitution of synthetic food dyes with natural colorants continues to be assiduously pursued. The current list of natural carotenoid colorants consists of plant-derived annatto (bixin and norbixin), paprika (capsanthin and capsorubin), saffron (crocin), tomato and gac fruit lycopene, marigold lutein, and red palm oil (α- and β-carotene), along with microalgal Dunaliella β-carotene and Haematococcus astaxanthin and fungal Blakeslea trispora β-carotene and lycopene. Potential microalgal sources are being sought, especially in relation to lutein, for which commercial plant sources are lacking. Research efforts, manifested in numerous reviews and research papers published in the last decade, have been directed to green extraction, microencapsulation/nanoencapsulation, and valorization of processing by-products. Extraction is shifting from conventional extraction with organic solvents to supercritical CO2 extraction and different types of assisted extraction. Initially intended for the stabilization of the highly degradable carotenoids, additional benefits of encapsulation have been demonstrated, especially the improvement of carotenoid solubility and bioavailability. Instead of searching for new higher plant sources, enormous effort has been directed to the utilization of by-products of the fruit and vegetable processing industry, with the application of biorefinery and circular economy concepts. Amidst enormous research activities, however, the gap between research and industrial implementation remains wide.

Hepatoprotective Effect of Medicine Food Homology Flower Saffron against CCl4-Induced Liver Fibrosis in Mice via the Akt/HIF-1α/VEGF Signaling Pathway

Liver fibrosis refers to a complex inflammatory response caused by multiple factors, which is a known cause of liver cirrhosis and even liver cancer. As a valuable medicine food homology herb, saffron has been widely used in the world. Saffron is commonly used in liver-related diseases and has rich therapeutic and health benefits. The therapeutic effect is satisfactory, but its mechanism is still unclear. In order to clarify these problems, we planned to determine the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of saffron extract in preventing and treating liver fibrosis through network pharmacology analysis combined with in vivo validation experiments. Through UPLC-Q-Exactive-MS analysis, a total of fifty-six nutrients and active ingredients were identified, and nine of them were screened to predict their therapeutic targets for liver fibrosis. Then, network pharmacology analysis was applied to identify 321 targets for saffron extract to alleviate liver fibrosis. Functional and pathway enrichment analysis showed that the putative targets of saffron for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis are mainly involved in the calcium signaling pathway, the HIF-1 signaling pathway, endocrine resistance, the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, lipid and atherosclerosis, and the cAMP signaling pathway. Based on the CCl4-induced liver fibrosis mice model, we experimentally confirmed that saffron extract can alleviate the severity and pathological changes during the progression of liver fibrosis. RT-PCR and Western blotting analysis confirmed that saffron treatment can prevent the CCl4-induced upregulation of HIF-1α, VEGFA, AKT, and PI3K, suggesting that saffron may regulate AKT/HIF-1α/VEGF and alleviate liver fibrosis.

Evaluation of Crocin Content and In Vitro Antioxidant and Anti-Glycation Activity of Different Saffron Extracts

Crocin, a glycoside carotenoid that exhibits several health benefits, is mainly obtained from saffron (Crocus sativus L.), whose quality and content of phytochemicals can be strongly affected by environmental conditions. Therefore, in this work, the crocin content and in vitro antioxidant activity of saffron extracts obtained from three different varieties (Greek, Sicilian, and Iranian saffron) were assessed. Crocin content in saffron extracts was quantified via ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The antioxidant activity of saffron extracts was evaluated using the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay and nitric oxide (NO) radical scavenging test. The Maillard reaction was used to assess anti-glycation activity. Although the Sicilian and Iranian saffron extracts contained higher amounts of crocin (128 ± 6 ng/mL and 126 ± 4 ng/mL, respectively) compared to the Greek extracts (111 ± 2 ng/mL), ORAC values (50.9 ± 0.5) and % NO inhibition (35.2 ± 0.2) were higher for the Greek variety, which displayed a total phenolic content about two-fold greater than that of the other two extracts. Sicilian and Greek saffron had similar anti-glycation activities, while Iranian saffron was less effective. These results suggest that the antioxidant activity of saffron extracts could be ascribed to their naturally occurring complex mixture of phytochemicals, deserving further investigation as supplements to prevent pathological conditions induced by radical species.

The apocarotenoid production in microbial biofactories: An overview

Carotenoids are a vast group of natural pigments that come in a variety of colors ranging from red to orange. Apocarotenoids are derived from these carotenoids, which are hormones, pigments, retinoids, and volatiles employed in the textiles, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Due to the high commercial value and poor natural host abundance, they are significantly undersupplied. Microbes like Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli act as heterologous hosts for apocarotenoid production. This article briefly reviews categories of apocarotenoids, their biosynthetic pathway commencing from the MVA and MEP, its significance, the tool enzymes for apocarotenoid biosynthesis like CCDs, their biotechnological production in microbial factories, and future perspectives.

In silico and in vitro potentials of crocin and amphotericin B on Leishmania major: Multiple synergistic mechanisms of actions

A significant barrier to optimal antileishmanial treatment is low efficacy and the emergence of drug resistance. Multiple approaches were used to monitor and assess crocin (a central component of saffron) mixed with amphotericin B (AmpB) potential in silico and in vitro consequences. The binding behavior of crocin and iNOS was the purpose of molecular docking. The results showed that crocin coupled with AmpB demonstrated a safe combination, extremely antileishmanial, suppressed Leishmania arginase absorption, and increased parasite death. This natural flower component is a robust antioxidant, significantly promoting the expression of the Th1-connected cytokines (IL12p40, IFN-γ, and TNF- α), iNOS, and transcription factors (Elk-1, c-Fos, and STAT-1). In comparison, the expression of the Th2-associated phenotypes (IL-10, IL-4, and TGF-β) was significantly reduced. The leishmanicidal effect of this combination was also mediated through programmed cell death (PCD), as confirmed by the manifestation of phosphatidylserine and cell cycle detention at the sub-GO/G1 phase. In conclusion, crocin with AmpB synergistically exerted in vitro antileishmanial action, generated nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species, modulated Th1, and Th2 phenotypes and transfer factors, enhanced PCD profile and arrested the cell cycle of Leishmania major promastigotes. The main action of crocin and AmpB involved wide-ranging mechanistic insights for conducting other clinical settings as promising drug candidates for cutaneous leishmaniasis. Therefore, this combination could be esteemed as a basis for a potential bioactive component and a logical source for leishmanicidal drug development against CL in future advanced clinical settings.

Transcriptome and metabolome analysis revealed the changes of Geniposide and Crocin content in Gardenia jasminoides fruit

BACKGROUND

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is a perennial evergreen shrub of G. jasminoides of Rubiaceae. Geniposide and Crocin are important components in the fruit of G. jasminoides. In addition to being used as medicinal materials, they are also widely used in food, medicine, cosmetics, and other fields. They have high medicinal value, economic value, and ornamental value. However, at present, the utilization rate of G. jasminoides resources is low, mainly focused on germplasm cultivation, primary processing, and clinical pharmacology, and there are few studies on the quality of Gardenia fruit.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Based on transcriptome sequencing and metabolic group analysis, the morphological and structural changes of Gardenia fruit with young fruit, middle fruit, and ripe fruit were analyzed, and the formation mechanism and content changes of Geniposide and Crocin in Gardenia fruit were studied. The content of Geniposide decreased with the development of fruit, so did the expression of the main structural gene GES, G10H, and IS in its synthesis pathway, while the content of Crocin increased with the development of fruit, and the expression of the main structural gene CCD, ALDH, and UGT in its synthesis pathway also increased. The relationship between the morphological structure of G. jasminoides and the accumulation of Geniposide and Crocin was summarized.

CONCLUSIONS

This study not only provides a theoretical basis for the mining and utilization of Geniposide and Crocin, but also provides a theoretical basis for genetic background for the identification and cloning of bioactive substances in gardenia fruit in future. At the same time, it provides support for increasing the dual-use value of G. jasminoides and breeding excellent germplasm resources.

Photon- and Singlet-Oxygen-Induced Cis-Trans Isomerization of the Water-Soluble Carotenoid Crocin

Studying the cis-trans isomerization process in crocin (CR), one of the few water-soluble carotenoids extracted from saffron, is important to better understand the physiological role of cis-carotenoids in vivo and their potential as antioxidants in therapeutic applications. For that, cis-trans isomerization of both methanol- and water-dissolved CR was induced by light or thermally generated singlet oxygen (¹O₂). The kinetics of molecular concentrations were monitored by both high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and non-destructive spectrophotometric methods. These last made it possible to simultaneously follow the cis-trans isomerization, the possible bleaching of compounds and the amount of thermally generated ¹O₂. Our results were in accordance with a comprehensive model where the cis-trans isomerization occurs as relaxation from the triplet state of all-trans- or 13-cis-CR, whatever is the way to populate the CR triplet state, either by photon or ¹O₂ energy transfer. The process is much more (1.9 to 10-fold) efficient from cis to trans than vice versa. In H₂O, a ¹O₂-induced bleaching effect on the starting CR was not negligible. However, the CR "flip-flop" isomerization reaction could still occur, suggesting that this process can represent an efficient mechanism for quenching of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in vivo, with a limited need of carotenoid regeneration.

Fingerprint of Characteristic Saffron Compounds as Novel Standardization of Commercial Crocus sativus Extracts

Food supplements based on saffron (Crocus sativus L.) dried stigma extracts are widely consumed due to their multiple bioactive properties. Saffron extract (SE) standardization is of crucial importance, as it determines the reproducibility of the product quality and is essential for the evaluation of its bioactive effect and safety. Although SEs are commonly standardized considering their safranal content, the lack of specificity of the official methods may give inaccurate measurements. In addition to the development of more precise methodologies, the evaluation of alternative saffron components, such as crocins and picrocrocin, for standardization purposes would also be of interest. Thus, in this study, qualitative and quantitative information regarding picrocrocin and crocin isomers of different commercial saffron extracts was first obtained by a validated methodology using liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to diode array (DAD) and mass spectrometer (MS) detectors. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to gain insight into the compositional variability and natural grouping of SE. These studies suggested the potential use of the relative content of crocin isomers and trans-/cis-crocins and trans-4 GG/picrocrocin ratios as novel criteria for SE standardization. Their reproducibility and stability under controlled storage conditions for 36 months was demonstrated in a commercial standardized SE (affron^®).

Crocin suppresses breast cancer cell proliferation by down-regulating tumor promoter miR-122-5p and up-regulating tumor suppressors FOXP2 and SPRY2

Crocin has been reported to have antitumor activity in several tumors including breast cancer. Nevertheless, the mechanism of action of crocin on breast cancer remains unclear. The cytotoxicity of crocin was evaluated by CCK-8 assay. Cell proliferation was assessed using EdU incorporation assay and western blot analysis. Breast cancer-related genes were extracted from GEPIA. miR-122-5p targets were predicted using Targetscan, starbase, and miRDB softwares. Luciferase reporter assay was employed to confirm whether miR-122-5p targeted sprouty2 (SPRY2) and forkhead box P2 (FOXP2). Results showed that crocin exhibited cytotoxicity and suppressed the proliferation in breast cancer cells. miR-122-5p was upregulated in breast cancer tissues and cells. Crocin suppressed miR-122-5p to block the proliferation of breast cancer cells. Seven targets of miR-122-5p were identified in breast cancer. SPRY2 and FOXP2 were selected for further experiments due to their involvement in breast cancer. miR-122-5p targeted SPRY2 and FOXP2 to inhibit their expression. miR-122-5p knockdown restrained breast cancer cell proliferation by targeting SPRY2 and FOXP2. Additionally, crocin increased SPRY2 and FOXP2 expression by inhibiting miR-122-5p expression. Together, our results suggested that crocin inhibited proliferation of breast cancer cells through decreasing miR-122-5p expression and the subsequent increase of SPRY2 and FOXP2 expression.

Therapeutic implications of crocin in Parkinson's disease: A review of preclinical research

Parkinson's disease is among the most common forms of neurodegenerative illness, with present treatment being primarily symptomatic and frequently coming with substantial adverse effects. Neuronal degeneration may arise due to a variety of pathological events, like inflammatory responses, neurotransmitter dysregulation, oxidative damage, mitochondrial malfunction, apoptosis, and genetic factors. The health issue and financial burden brought on by Parkinson's disease can worsen as the population ages. In the search for new and secure therapeutic agents for Parkinson's disease, several natural compounds have been shown to exert considerable neuroprotective benefits. Crocin, a naturally occurring carotenoid molecule, was found to have neuroprotective potential in the therapy of this disorder. Taking into account, the outcomes of various studies and the restorative actions of crocin, the present study emphasized the protective ability of crocin in this disease. Given the strong evidence supporting the neuroprotective ability of crocin, it is inferred that crocin inhibits inflammatory, apoptotic, and antioxidant processes through multiple mechanisms. Therefore, this compound is considered a safe and effective therapeutic choice for neurodegenerative illnesses like Parkinson's disease. However, more research on its efficacy as a treatment of Parkinson's disease is needed, specifically examining its mechanisms and the results obtained in clinical trials.

Saffron essential oil ameliorates CUMS-induced depression-like behavior in mice via the MAPK-CREB1-BDNF signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Saffron, the dried stigma of Crocus sativus L., has a long history of use in the treatment of depression in traditional Chinese medicine and Islamic medicine. The unique aroma of saffron, primarily derived from its volatile oil, has been widely used by folk to mitigate anxiety and depression via sniffing because the aroma of saffron has a pleasant and invigorating effect.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the antidepressant effect and the underlying mechanism of saffron essential oil (SEO) in mice exposed to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, compounds of SEO were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, while network pharmacology was used to predict potential active compounds, antidepressant targets, and related signaling pathways of SEO. The CUMS depression model was further used to explore the therapeutic effect and possible mechanism of SEO. During the modeling period, mice were regularly administered fluoxetine (3.6 mg/kg, i.g.) or diluted SEO (2%, 4%, and 6% SEO, inhalation). The antidepressant and neuroprotective effects of SEO were evaluated by behavior tests (the open field test, the sucrose preference test, the tail suspension test, and the forced swimming test), hematoxylin-eosin staining, and Nissl staining. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits were used to measure dopamine (DA), 5-serotonin (5-HT), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels in serum. The relative abundance of Raf1, MEK1, P-ERK1/2/ERK1/2, P-CREB1/CREB1, BDNF, and P-Trk B/Trk B in the hippocampus was determined using western blot (WB).

RESULTS

According to the network pharmacology analysis, seven active SEO compounds mediated 113 targets related to depression treatment, most of which were enriched in the 5-HT synapse, calcium signaling pathway, and cAMP signaling pathway. In vivo experiments indicated that fluoxetine and SEO improved depression-like behaviors in depressed mice. The levels of 5-HT, DA, BDNF, and GABA in serum increased significantly. Histopathological examinations revealed that fluoxetine and SEO ameliorated neuronal damage in the hippocampus. WB analysis showed that the relative expressions of Raf1, MEK1, P-ERK1/2/ERK1/2, P-CREB1/CREB1, BDNF, and P-Trk B/Trk B were significantly higher in the fluoxetine and SEO groups than in the CUMS group.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these findings suggest that SEO significantly alleviates the depressive symptoms in CUMS exposed mice and partially restores hippocampal neuronal damage. Meanwhile, the best efficacy was observed in 4% SEO. Furthermore, the antidepressant mechanism of SEO is primarily dependent on the regulation of the MAPK-CREB1-BDNF signaling pathway.

Saffron as a promising therapy for diabetes and Alzheimer's disease: mechanistic insights

The prevalence of both Alzheimer's disease (AD) and diabetes mellitus is increasing with the societies' aging and has become an essential social concern worldwide. Accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) of tau proteins in the brain are hallmarks of AD. Diabetes is an underlying risk factor for AD. Insulin resistance has been proposed to be involved in amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregation in the brain. It seems that diabetic conditions can result in AD pathology by setting off a cascade of processes, including inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and ROS and advanced glycation end products (AGEs) synthesis. Due to the several side effects of chemical drugs and their high cost, using herbal medicine has recently attracted attention for the treatment of diabetes and AD. Saffron and its active ingredients have been used for its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-AD properties. Therefore, in the present review paper, we take account of the clinical, in vivo and in vitro evidence regarding the anti-diabetic and anti-AD effects of saffron and discuss the preventive or postponing properties of saffron or its components on AD development via its anti-diabetic effects.

Influence of Citrates and EDTA on Oxidation and Decarboxylation of Betacyanins in Red Beet (Beta vulgaris L.) Betalain-Rich Extract

The influence of stabilizing activity of citric buffers on betacyanins, as well as their thermal dehydrogenation and decarboxylation in a beetroot betalain-rich extract (BRE), was studied at pH 3-8 and temperature 30, 50 and 85 °C with an additional effect of EDTA. In acetate/phosphate buffers, the highest stability is observed at pH 5 and it decreases toward pH 3 as well as pH 8, which is more remarkable at 85 °C. For the citrates, a contradictory effect was observed. Citric buffers tend to stabilize the substrate pigments and their intermediary products in acidic solutions, although increase their reactivity at pH 6-8. The highest impact of EDTA addition on pigment retention in acetate buffers is observed at 85 °C and pH 3-5 as well as 8, reflecting the preserving activity of EDTA at the most unfavorable conditions. At lower temperatures, pigment stability in more acidic conditions is still at higher levels even without addition of citrates or EDTA. The most striking effect on generation of betanin derivatives during heating is 2-decarboxylation which preferentially proceeds in the most acidic environment and this generation rate at 85 °C is much higher in the citrate buffers compared to acetates.

Crocin: Functional characteristics, extraction, food applications and efficacy against brain related disorders

Crocin is a bioactive compound that naturally occurs in some medicinal plants, especially saffron and gardenia fruit. Different conventional and novel methods are used for its extraction. Due to some control conditions, recent methods such as ultrasonic extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, enzyme-associated extraction, microwave extraction, and pulsed electric field extraction are widely used because these methods give more yield and efficiency. Crocin is incorporated into different food products to make functional foods. However, it can also aid in the stability of food products. Due to its ability to protect against brain diseases, the demand for crocin has been rising in the pharmaceutical industry. It also contain antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antidepressant qualities. This review aims to describe crocin and its role in developing functional food, extraction, and bioavailability in various brain-related diseases. The results of the literature strongly support the importance of crocin against various diseases and its use in making different functional foods.

Biocolorants in food: Sources, extraction, applications and future prospects

Color of a food is one of the major factors influencing its acceptance by consumers. At presently synthetic dyes are the most commonly used food colorant in food industry by providing more esthetically appearance and as a means to quality control. However, the growing concern about health and environmental due to associated toxicity with synthetic food colorants has accelerated the global efforts to replace them with safer and healthy food colorants obtained from natural resources (plants, microorganisms, and animals). Further, many of these biocolorants not only provide myriad of colors to the food but also exert biological properties, thus they can be used as nutraceuticals in foods and beverages. In order to understand the importance of nature-derived pigments as food colorants, this review provides a thorough discussion on the natural origin of food colorants. Following this, different extraction methods for isolating biocolorants from plants and microbes were also discussed. Many of these biocolorants not only provide color, but also have many health promoting properties, for this reason their physicochemical and biological properties were also reviewed. Finally, current trends on the use of biocolorants in foods, and the challenges faced by the biocolorants in their effective utilization by food industry and possible solutions to these challenges were discussed.

Protective role of crocin against sepsis-induced injury in the liver, kidney and lungs via inhibition of p38 MAPK/NF-κB and Bax/Bcl-2 signalling pathways

CONTEXT

Crocin has been reported to have multiple bioactivities. However, the effect of crocin administration on caecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis remains unknown.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the effects of crocin on CLP-induced sepsis in mice and the underlying mechanism of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Five experimental groups (n = 10) of BALB/c mice were used: control, CLP (normal saline) and CLP + crocin (50, 100 and 250 mg/kg, 30 min prior to CLP). Mice were sacrificed 24 h after CLP. Liver, kidney and lung histopathology, indicator levels, apoptotic status, pro-inflammatory cytokines and relative protein levels were evaluated.

RESULTS

Compared to the CLP group, crocin treatment significantly increased the survival rate (70%, 80%, 90% vs. 30%). Crocin groups exhibited protection against liver, kidney and lung damage with mild-to-moderate morphological changes and lower indicator levels: liver (2.80 ± 0.45, 2.60 ± 0.55, 1.60 ± 0.55 vs. 5.60 ± 0.55), kidney (3.00 ± 0.71, 2.60 ± 0.55, 1.40 ± 0.55 vs. 6.20 ± 0.84) and lungs (8.00 ± 1.59, 6.80 ± 1.64, 2.80 ± 0.84 vs. 14.80 ± 1.79). The proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10 levels in the crocin groups) were distinctly lower and the apoptotic index showed a significant decrease. Crocin administration significantly suppressed p38 MAPK phosphorylation and inhibited NF-κB/IκBα and Bcl-2/Bax activation.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Pre-treatment with crocin confers protective effects against CLP-induced liver, kidney and lung injury, implying it to be a potential therapeutic agent.

Gardenia carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4a is an efficient tool for biotechnological production of crocins in green and non-green plant tissues

Crocins are beneficial antioxidants and potential chemotherapeutics that give raise, together with picrocrocin, to the colour and taste of saffron, the most expensive spice, respectively. Crocins are formed from crocetin dialdehyde that is produced in Crocus sativus from zeaxanthin by the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 2L (CsCCD2L), while GjCCD4a from Gardenia jasminoides, another major source of crocins, converted different carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, into crocetin dialdehyde in bacterio. To establish a biotechnological platform for sustainable production of crocins, we investigated the enzymatic activity of GjCCD4a, in comparison with CsCCD2L, in citrus callus engineered by Agrobacterium-mediated supertransformation of multi genes and in transiently transformed Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. We demonstrate that co-expression of GjCCD4a with phytoene synthase and β-carotene hydroxylase genes is an optimal combination for heterologous production of crocetin, crocins and picrocrocin in citrus callus. By profiling apocarotenoids and using in vitro assays, we show that GjCCD4a cleaved β-carotene, in planta, and produced crocetin dialdehyde via C₃₀ β-apocarotenoid intermediate. GjCCD4a also cleaved C₂₇ β-apocarotenoids, providing a new route for C₁₇ -dialdehyde biosynthesis. Callus lines overexpressing GjCCD4a contained higher number of plastoglobuli in chromoplast-like plastids and increased contents in phytoene, C17:0 fatty acid (FA), and C18:1 cis-9 and C22:0 FA esters. GjCCD4a showed a wider substrate specificity and higher efficiency in Nicotiana leaves, leading to the accumulation of up to 1.6 mg/g dry weight crocins. In summary, we established a system for investigating CCD enzymatic activity in planta and an efficient biotechnological platform for crocins production in green and non-green crop tissues/organs.

Crocin molecular signaling pathways at a glance: A comprehensive review

Crocin is a hydrophilic carotenoid that is synthesized in the flowers of the Crocus genus. Numerous in vitro and in vivo research projects have been published about the biological and pharmacological properties and toxicity of crocin. Crocin acts as a memory enhancer, anxiolytic, aphrodisiac, antidepressant, neuroprotective, and so on. Here, we introduce an updated and comprehensive review of crocin molecular mechanisms based on previously examined and mentioned in the literature. Different studies confirmed the significant effect of crocin to control pathological conditions, including oxidative stress, inflammation, metabolic disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. The neuroprotective effect of crocin could be related to the activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), Notch, and cyclic-AMP response element-binding protein signaling pathways. The crocin also protects the cardiovascular system through the inhibitory effect on toll-like receptors. The regulatory effect of crocin on PI3K/AKT/mTOR, AMP-activated protein kinase, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor pathways can play an effective role in the treatment of metabolic disorders. The crocin has anticancer activity through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR, MAPK, vascular endothelial growth factor, Wnt/β-catenin, and Janus kinases-signal transducer and activator of transcription suppression. Also, the nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2 and p53 signaling pathway activation may be effective in the anticancer effect of crocin. Finally, among signaling pathways regulated by crocin, the most important ones seem to be those related to the regulatory effect on the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.

Crocins for Ischemic Stroke: A Review of Current Evidence

Crocins (CRs) and the related active constituents derived from Crocus sativus L. (Saffron) have demonstrated protective effects against cerebral ischemia and ischemic stroke, with various bioactivities including neuroprotection, anti-neuroinflammation, antioxidant, and cardiovascular protection. Among CRs, crocin (CR) has been shown to act on multiple mechanisms and signaling pathways involved in ischemic stroke, including mitochondrial apoptosis, nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of B cells pathway, S100 calcium-binding protein B, interleukin-6 and vascular endothelial growth factor-A. CR is generally safe and well-tolerated. Pharmacokinetic studies indicate that CR has poor bioavailability and needs to convert to crocetin (CC) in order to cross the blood-brain barrier. Clinical studies have shown the efficacy of saffron and CR in treating various conditions, including metabolic syndrome, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and coronary artery disease. There is evidence supporting CR as a treatment for ischemic stroke, although further studies are needed to confirm their efficacy and safety in clinical settings.

ANTI-FATIGUE EFFICACY OF CROCIN IN MICE VIA REGULATION OF NRF-2/HO-1 PATHWAY-MEDIATED OXIDATIVE STRESS

ABSTRACT Introduction: Fatigue is a manifestation of sub-health status, which causes serious negative effects in daily life. The antioxidant properties of crocin have been widely investigated in many diseases. However, no correlation between crocin and fatigue was reported. Objective: To verify the anti-fatigue efficacy of crocin in swimming-induced exhaustive time. Materials and Methods: In this study, mice were treated with crocin for 28 days to assess its anti-fatigue efficacy. Exhaustive time, fatigue-relevant biochemical indices, inflammatory cytokines, energy metabolism indicators, oxidation parameters, and the NRF-2/HO-1 pathway were analyzed to explore evidence of crocin in high-intensity exercise. Results: Our research indicated that crocin dramatically extended swimming-induced exhaustive time. In strenuous swimming, crocin clearly eliminated BLA and SUN to maintain internal environment homeostasis, while it markedly improved glycogen concentrations in the muscles and liver to promote energy reserves. Moreover, crocin visibly improved the inflammatory reaction, as represented by reductions in TNF-a and IL-6, promoting endurance capacity. In the muscles, crocin noticeably enhanced SDH and Na+K+-ATP activities to improve energy metabolism in strenuous swimming. Lastly, crocin markedly improved SOD and CAT activities via the NRF-2/HO-1 pathway to defend against oxidative stress-induced fatigue. Conclusions: Crocin provides oxidation resistance and can be developed into anti-fatigue nutriments. Evidence level II; Comparative prospective study.

Safranal Induces Vasorelaxation by Inhibiting Ca2+ Influx and Na+/Ca2+ Exchanger in Isolated Rat Aortic Rings

Introduction: Safranal, which endows saffron its unique aroma, causes vasodilatation and has a hypotensive effect in animal studies, but the mechanisms of these effects are unknown. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms of safranal vasodilation. Methods: Isolated rat endothelium-intact or -denuded aortic rings were precontracted with phenylephrine and then relaxed with safranal. To further assess the involvement of nitric oxide, prostaglandins, guanylate cyclase, and phospholipase A₂ in safranal-induced vasodilation, aortic rings were preincubated with L-NAME, indomethacin, methylene blue, or quinacrine, respectively, then precontracted with phenylephrine, and safranal concentration–response curves were established. To explore the effects of safranal on Ca²⁺ influx, phenylephrine and CaCl₂ concentration–response curves were established in the presence of safranal. Furthermore, the effect of safranal on aortic rings in the presence of ouabain, a Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase inhibitor, was studied to explore the contribution of Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger to this vasodilation. Results: Safranal caused vasodilation in endothelium-intact and endothelium-denuded aortic rings. The vasodilation was not eliminated by pretreatment with L-NAME, indomethacin, methylene blue, or quinacrine, indicating the lack of a role for NO/cGMP. Safranal significantly inhibited the maximum contractions induced by phenylephrine, or by CaCl₂ in Ca²⁺-free depolarizing buffer. Safranal also relaxed contractions induced by ouabain, but pretreatment with safranal totally abolished the development of ouabain contractions. Discussion/Conclusion: Inhibition of Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase by ouabain leads to the accumulation of Na⁺ intracellularly, forcing the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger to work in reverse mode, thus causing a contraction. Inhibition of the development of this contraction by preincubation with safranal indicates that safranal inhibited the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger. We conclude that safranal vasodilation is mediated by the inhibition of calcium influx from extracellular space through L-type Ca²⁺ channels and by the inhibition of the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger.

An In Vitro Study of Saffron Carotenoids: The Effect of Crocin Extracts and Dimethylcrocetin on Cancer Cell Lines

Crocus sativus L. has various pharmacological properties, known for over 3600 years. These properties are attributed mainly to biologically active substances, which belong to the terpenoid group and include crocins, picrocrocin and safranal. The aim of the current work was to examine the effects of crocins (CRCs) and their methyl ester derivate dimethylcrocetin (DMCRT) on glioblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, in terms of cytotoxicity and gene expression, implicated in proapoptotic and cell survival pathways. Cell cytotoxicity was assessed with Alamar Blue fluorescence assay after treatment with saffron carotenoids for 24, 48 and 72 h and concentrations ranging from 22.85 to 0.18 mg/mL for CRCs and 11.43 to 0.09 mg/mL for DMCRT. In addition, BAX, BID, BCL2, MYCN, SOD1, and GSTM1 gene expression was studied by qRT-PCR analysis. Both compounds demonstrated cytotoxic effects against glioblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. They induced apoptosis, via BAX and BID upregulation, MYCN and BCL-2, SOD1, GSTM1 downregulation. The current research denotes the possible anticancer properties of saffron carotenoids, which are considered safe phytochemicals, already tested in clinical trials for their health promoting properties.

Anti-Epileptic Effect of Crocin on Experimental Temporal Lobe Epilepsy in Mice

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a common kind of refractory epilepsy. More than 30% TLE patients were multi-drug resistant. Some patients may even develop into status epilepticus (SE) because of failing to control seizures. Thus, one of the avid goals for anti-epileptic drug development is to discover novel potential compounds to treat TLE or even SE. Crocin, an effective component of Crocus sativus L., has been applied in several epileptogenic models to test its anti-epileptic effect. However, it is still controversial and its effect on TLE remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated the effects of crocin on epileptogenesis, generalized seizures (GS) in hippocampal rapid electrical kindling model as well as SE and spotaneous recurrent seizure (SRS) in pilocarpine-induced TLE model in ICR mice in this study. The results showed that seizure stages and cumulative afterdischarge duration were significantly depressed by crocin (20 and 50 mg/kg) during hippocampal rapid kindling acquisition. And crocin (100 mg/kg) significantly reduced the incidence of GS and average seizure stages in fully kindled animals. In pilocarpine-induced TLE model, the latency of SE was significantly prolonged and the mortality of SE was significantly decreased by crocin (100 mg/kg), which can also significantly suppress the number of SRS. The underlying mechanism of crocin may be involved in the protection of neurons, the decrease of tumor necrosis factor-α in the hippocampus and the increase of brain derived neurotrophic factor in the cortex. In conclusion, crocin may be a potential and promising anti-epileptic compound for treatment of TLE.

Crocin attenuates NF-κB-mediated inflammation and proliferation in breast cancer cells by down-regulating PRKCQ

Breast cancer (BC) is the most commonly diagnosed cancer confronting women worldwide. Crocin, a glycosylated carotenoid extracted from Crocus sativus L., possesses anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activities. This study tried to explore the influences of crocin on proliferation and inflammation of BC cells, and to investigate the possible mechanism. The protein levels of protein kinase C theta (PRKCQ) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p-p65 and p65 were examined using western blot analysis. The potential targets of crocin were predicted using the PharmMapper database. Cell viability and proliferation were determined utilizing CCK-8 and EdU incorporation assays, respectively. Inflammation was assessed by detecting the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) using RT-qPCR and ELISA. Results showed that crocin inhibited NF-κB activation and suppressed cell viability and proliferation in BC cells. Crocin caused a significant reduction of levels of TNF-α and IL-1β, suggesting that crocin suppressed inflammation in BC cells. NF-κB inhibition decreased proliferation and inflammation in BC cells. Additionally, PRKCQ was identified as a potential target of crocin according to PharmMapper database. Crocin treatment inhibited the activation of NF-κB in BC cells by reducing PRKCQ expression. Mechanistically, PRKCQ-dependent activation of NF-κB pathway reversed the effects of crocin on the proliferation and inflammation in BC cells. In conclusion, crocin inhibited NF-κB-mediated inflammation and proliferation in BC cells through reducing PRKCQ expression.

Characterization of Tuna Gelatin-Based Hydrogels as a Matrix for Drug Delivery

The skin of yellowfin tuna is one of the fishery industry solid residues with the greatest potential to add extra value to its circular economy that remains yet unexploited. Particularly, the high collagen content of fish skin allows generating gelatin by hydrolysis, which is ideal for forming hydrogels due to its biocompatibility and gelling capability. Hydrogels have been used as drug carriers for local administration due to their mechanical properties and drug loading capacity. Herein, novel tuna gelatin hydrogels were designed as drug vehicles with two structurally different antitumoral model compounds such as Doxorubicin and Crocin to be administrated locally in tissues with complex human anatomies after surgical resection. The characterization by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) of purified gelatin confirmed their heterogeneity composition, exhibiting three major bands that correspond to the β and α chains along with high molecular weight species. In addition, the Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectra of gelatin probed the secondary structure of the gelatin showing the simultaneous existence of α helix, β sheet, and random coil structures. Morphological studies at different length scales were performed by a multi-technique approach using SAXS/WAXS, AFM and cryo-SEM that revealed the porous network formed by the interaction of gelatin planar aggregates. In addition, the sol-gel transition, as well as the gelation point and the hydrogel strength, were studied using dynamic rheology and differential scanning calorimetry. Likewise, the loading and release profiles followed by UV-visible spectroscopy indicated that the novel gelatin hydrogels improve the drug release of Doxorubicin and Crocin in a sustained fashion, indicating the structure-function importance in the material composition.

Artificial Intelligence Uncovers Natural MMP Inhibitor Crocin as a Potential Treatment of Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm and Dissection

Thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection (TAAD) is a lethal cardiovascular condition without effective pharmaceutical therapy. Identifying novel drugs that target the key pathogenetic components is an urgent need. Bioinformatics analysis of pathological studies indicated “extracellular matrix organization” as the most significant functional pathway related to TAAD, in which matrix metallopeptidase (MMP) 2 and MMP9 ranked above other proteases. MMP1-14 were designated as the prototype molecules for docking against PubChem Compound Database using Surflex-Dock, and nine natural compounds were identified. Using a generic MMP activity assay and an aminopropionitrile (BAPN)-induced TAAD mouse model, we identified crocin as an effective MMP inhibitor, suppressing the occurrence and rupture of TAAD. Biolayer interferometry and AI/bioinformatics analyses indicated that crocin may inhibit MMP2 activity by direct binding. Possible binding sites were investigated. Overall, the integration of artificial intelligence and functional experiments identified crocin as an MMP inhibitor with strong therapeutic potential.