Influence of packaging conditions on biogenic amines and fatty acids evolution during 15 months storage of a typical spreadable salami (‘Nduja)

Biogenic amines levels in food processing: Efforts for their control in foodstuffs

Fermented and/or protein-rich foods, the most widely consumed worldwide, are the most susceptible to the presence of high levels of biogenic amines (BAs). Many reviews have focused on BAs toxicity and presence in foods; however, technological strategies such as evaluation of physical parameters, the addition of natural or synthetic compounds or the use of specific starter cultures of BAs reduction, and quick detection methods have been scarcely approached. In current research, there has been a focus on fast detection of BAs through colorimetric methods that allow these compounds to be quickly and easily identified by consumers. To reduce BAs presence in food, several alternatives have been developed and investigated with the aim of preventing negative effects caused by their intake, which can be applied before, during, or after processing. Food safety is one of the most important concerns of consumer and sanitary authorities. Therefore, detecting toxins such as BAs in food has become a priority for research. Recent reports that focus on the development of rapid detection methods of BAs are reviewed in this analysis. These methods have been successfully applied to food matrices with little to no sample pretreatment. Several alternatives for BAs reduction in food was also summarized. These findings will help the food industry to improve its processes for developing safe food.

Casing Contribution to Proteolytic Changes and Biogenic Amines Content in the Production of an Artisanal Naturally Fermented Dry Sausage

The effect of two kinds of casings on the production and characteristics of a dry fermented sausage was investigated. In detail, an Italian product, naturally fermented at low temperatures and normally wrapped in beef casing instead of the most diffused hog one, was selected. Two different productions (one traditionally in beef casing (MCB) and another in hog casing (MCH)) were investigated over time to determine the differences particularly regarding proteolytic changes during fermentation and ripening. First of all, the product in hog casing required a longer ripening time, up to 120 days, instead of 45–50 days, because of the lower drying rate, while the microbial dynamics were not significantly modified. Conversely, the proteolysis showed a different evolution, being more pronounced, together with the biogenic amines content up to 341 mg/Kg instead of 265 mg/Kg for the traditional products. The latter products were instead characterized by higher quantities of total free amino acids, 3-methyl butanoic acid, 3-Methyl-1-butanal, and 2-Methylpropanal, enriching the final taste and aroma. The traditional product MCB also showed lower hardness and chewiness than MCH. The results highlight how the choice of casing has a relevant impact on the development of the final characteristics of fermented sausages.

Process improvement to prevent the formation of biogenic amines during soy sauce brewing

Biogenic amines (BAs) are a class of bioactive organics produced during the fermentation of soy sauce. A high concentration of BAs may bring about serious physiological and toxicological effects on the human body. In this study, we reported an optimized process to produce soy sauce with lower BA concentration and found the contents of putrescine, cadaverine and histamine increased with the increase of fermentation temperature but decreased with the increase of NaCl concentration. The final content of total BAs with improved fermentation was 105.56 ± 0.13 mg/L, which was reduced by 89.11% compared to traditional brewing. Besides, the pilot production test was performed to verify the optimized conditions and physicochemical indexes were measured to better understand the change principle of the chemical compounds. Taken together, we present an effective process to inhibit the formation of BAs while ensuring that characteristic nutrients are not lost.

Preparation and characterization of lutein ester-loaded oleogels developed by monostearin and sunflower oil

The marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) flower is rich in lutein ester with many health-promoting activities. In this study, the effects of vegetable oil type and extracting the temperature on the extraction efficiency of lutein ester in the marigold flower were evaluated. Then, the structuring of the lutein ester-loaded sunflower oil with the addition of different amounts of monostearin and cooling temperatures (4 and 20°C) was investigated. The XRD analysis suggested that these oleogels were stabilized by the network formed by monostearin crystals in the sunflower oil. The textural properties (firmness, cohesiveness, and hardness) of oleogels were positively related to the monostearin dosage, but negatively related to the cooling temperature. According to the rheological results, the oleogels belonged to the pseudoplastic gel and their gelation temperature (T_g ) was only related to the concentration of monostearin. The light stability of lutein ester in the oleogels was also significantly improved in a monostearin dosage-dependent manner. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The edible lutein ester-loaded oleogel for foods developed by structuring the sunflower oil with monostearin is introduced in this study. Its texture and rheological properties can be adjusted to cater to different requirements in the food industry by changing the monostearin dosage and cooling temperature. This study provides a reference for the development of other liposoluble nutraceuticals.

Biogenic amines profile and concentration in commercial milks for infants and young children

Commercial milks for infants and young children (CMIYC) received much attention during last years for their impact on the nutritional status, health and development of the new-born and babies. Among possible contaminants contained in these foods, biogenic amines (BAs) have rarely been determined although they can exert toxic effects in humans if ingested at high concentrations. Spermine, spermidine, putrescine, histamine, tyramine, β-phenylethylamine and cadaverine have been quantified in CMIYC samples by LC-UV after derivatisation with dansyl-chloride. Once optimised in terms of linearity (R² ≥ 0.989), recovery percentages (92.9-97.3), LOD (0.2-0.4 μg g^-1 or 0.03-0.05 μg mL^-1 depending on the samples), LOQ (0.5-1.0 μg g^-1 and 0.08-0.13 μg mL^-1 depending on the samples) and repeatability (0.1-0.2 intra-day; 0.2-0.4 inter-day), the method has been applied to real samples. Very low total BAs concentrations have been found in reconstituted (1.18-3.12 mg L^-1) and liquid milks (0.33-2.30 mg L^-1), with different biogenic amine profiles and distributions. A risk assessment based on the available information regarding Acute Reference Doses of histamine and tyramine, as well as the application of common Biogenic Amine Indexes, showed that none of the analysed samples represented a possible risk for babies, also considering a worst case evaluation. These findings confirmed the strict safety and quality protocols adopted during the production of CMIYC. Chemical compounds studied in this article: Ammonium chloride (PubChem CID: 25517); Cadaverine hydrochloride (PubChem CID: 5351467); Hydrochloridric acid (PubChem CID: 313); Histamine dihydrochloride (PubChem CID: 5818); Phenylethylamine hydrochloride (PubChem CID: 9075); Putrescine dihydrochloride (PubChem CID: 9532); Sodium hydroxide (PubChem CID: 14798); Spermine tetrahydrochloride (PubChem CID: 1103); Spermidine trihydrochloride (PubChem CID: 1102); Tyramine hydrochloride (PubChem CID: 66449).

Evolution of Volatile Compounds and Spoilage Bacteria in Smoked Bacon during Refrigeration Using an E-Nose and GC-MS Combined with Partial Least Squares Regression

The changes in the concentration of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and biogenic amines (BAs) in smoked bacon during 45-day refrigerated storage is investigated using solid-phase micro-extraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography. In total, 56 VOCs and 6 BAs were identified and quantified. The possible pathways leading to their formation are analyzed and considered as the potential signs of microbial activity, especially by specific spoilage microorganisms (SSOs). Leuconostoc and Lactobacillus, which levels increased markedly with the extension of storage time, were recognized as SSOs. An electronic nose (e-nose) was employed to determine the changes in concentration of the odor components per sample present within half an hour. Partial least squares regression was then carried out to analyze the correlation between SSO growth, metabolite concentration, BA accumulation, and e-nose response. The results show that ten VOCs (ethanol, 2-furanmethanol, 1-hexanol, 1-propanol, phenol, 2-methoxyphenol, acetic acid, 3-ethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one, furfural, and ethyl hexanoate) and three BAs (putrescine, cadaverine, and tyramine) can be associated with the growth of SSOs. Thus, they can be adopted as potential indicators to evaluate and monitor the quality of the bacon and develop appropriate detection methods. E-noses can used to recognize odors and diagnose quality of bacon.