Acceptance of insects as food in Germany: Is it about sensation seeking, sustainability consciousness, or food disgust?

Willingness to Consume and Purchase Food with Edible Insects among Generation Z in Poland

The consumption of insects (entomophagy) is attracting attention for economic, environmental and health reasons. The wide range of edible insect species, rich in protein, fat, minerals, vitamins and fibre, can play an important role in addressing global food insecurity. However, consumer acceptance remains a major barrier to the adoption of insects as a food source in many countries, including Europe. The aim of this study was to determine whether health and environmental concerns, attitudes and intentions towards purchasing edible insects and foods containing edible insects are associated with willingness to consume edible insects and foods containing edible insects among young consumers (Generation Z) in Poland. An empirical study was carried out in 2023, using a questionnaire with an indirect interview method via an online platform. On the basis of surveys conducted among Generation Z in Poland, it can be concluded that health and environmental concerns determine the willingness to consume selected products containing edible insects. At the same time, it should be noted that the more positive the respondents' attitudes towards health and environmental concerns are, the greater their willingness to consume foods containing edible insects is. Attitudes and intentions towards purchasing foods containing edible insects were positively correlated with willingness to purchase and consume this type of food. The results obtained can contribute to efforts to promote the legitimacy of the production of new foods with edible insects in their composition.

Determinants of Consumers' Acceptance and Adoption of Novel Food in View of More Resilient and Sustainable Food Systems in the EU: A Systematic Literature Review

This review article aims to provide an up-to-date overview of the main determinants of consumers' acceptance of novel foods (new foods and ingredients) in the EU with emphasis on product's intrinsic properties (sensory characteristics) and individual factors (socio-demographics, perceptive, psychological) by adopting a systematic approach following the PRISMA methodology. Case studies on terrestrial (i.e., insects, cultured meat and other animal origin products, plant-based food including mushrooms, plant-based analogues, pulses, and cereals) and aquatic systems (i.e., algae and jellyfish) are included focusing on age-related and cross-national differences in consumer acceptance of novel foods and ingredients. General trends have emerged that are common to all the novel foods analysed, regardless of their aquatic or terrestrial origin. Aspects such as food neophobia, unfamiliarity, and poor knowledge of the product are important barriers to the consumption of novel foods, while healthiness and environmental sustainability perception are drivers of acceptance. Sensory properties are challenging for more familiar ingredients such as plant-based food (e.g., novel food made by pulses, mushrooms, cereals and pseudocereals). Results are discussed in terms of feasibility of introducing these products in the EU food systems highlighting strategies that can encourage the use of new ingredients or novel foods.

Consumers' perception of novel foods and the impact of heuristics and biases: A systematic review

According to the definition adopted in the European Union, novel foods are foods that were not consumed to a significant degree within the Union before May 15, 1997. This includes cultivated meat and insects. Novel foods are meant to play a critical role in the transition towards sustainable food systems. However, their success depends on whether and to what extent they will be incorporated into the diets at the population level. This review investigates consumers' perception of novel food products by narratively synthesising results on the influence of heuristics and biases triggered by emotions, personality traits, and socio-cultural factors. Empirical studies conducted in Western countries and published in English after 1997 were eligible, which led to 182 studies being included. Notably, most included studies focused on insects and cultivated meat. Disgust and fear are shown to be the main emotions driving rejection of novel foods, together with food neophobia and specific cultural norms common across countries included in the scope of the review. Familiarity with novel foods and curiosity both led to higher acceptance. Despite being investigated directly in a minority of studies, heuristics and related biases mostly fell under the "affect," the "natural-is-better," and the "trust" heuristics. The review also discusses to what extent consumers' perception reflects in the regulatory framework applicable to novel foods in the European Union, how it influences the regulation of insects and cultivated meat and which lessons can be drawn for the future of the regulatory framework.

Edible Insects in Slavic Culture: Between Tradition and Disgust

Insects are a conventional food in many cultures worldwide. Why therefore are they treated with aversion by the majority of people in Western countries? The aim of this work is to understand cultural norms and historical practices related to insects that can explain why in the countries of the West it is so difficult to accept them as a foodstuff, and why the disgust that they arouse is more common than in other regions of the world. Insects in Western countries are associated with negative experiences resulting from cultural and religious beliefs, traditions, stories, myths and individual experiences. Although there are species of insect that have positive associations, the high number of negative terms popularized the negative image of these creatures in people's minds, as a result of which the concept of insects as a foodstuff arouses disgust in the culture of the West. Understanding the aversion to insects will contribute to the broader understanding of consumer attitudes, cultural influences on consumption, or potential shifts in food choices. It also can help develop strategies or methods that will assist in changing this reluctance and encourage the utilization of insects as a food source.

Attitudes and purchase intentions of polish university students towards food made from insects-A modelling approach

The marketing of insect-derived protein has led to the development of respective legal regulations on such insects-based foods in the European Union. Despite the interest in the area of insect-based food, European researchers have paid relatively little attention to consumer attitudes and behaviors towards such products or the factors that may affect them. Attempts undertaken so far in this respect are insufficient; therefore, there is a need to continue and expand research in this field. The present study attempts to verify the following research hypotheses: H1. Attitudes towards food containing insects are related to the attributes/characteristics of these products, care for health and the natural environment, and attitudes towards novelty (neophilic/neophobic); H2. Intentions to purchase food containing insects can be predicted based on attitudes towards food from insects, product attributes, and attitudes towards environmental health and novelties. An empirical study was conducted among university students (N = 1063) by an indirect interview method using a specially designed questionnaire, via an online platform (Computer-Assisted Web Interview, CAWI) in November 2023. The questionnaire was validated by assessing the construction validity and estimating the reliability of the scales used. The study results demonstrated that the attributes of insect-based food products can influence the positive attitudes towards them and behavioral intentions to consume them, and that the strength of the impact of health quality traits is far greater than that of the organoleptic or functional traits. A negative, statistically significant value of the correlation coefficient between neophobic attitude and intention to purchase this type of food was observed. Thus, respondents without food neophobia were characterized by a positive attitude towards the purchase of foods containing edible insects in their composition.

The Impact of Information Presentation on Consumer Perceptions of Cricket-Containing Chocolate Chip Cookies

As a source of protein and other nutrients for a growing population, edible insect production offers environmental and sustainability advantages over traditional meat production. Although around 2 billion people consume insects worldwide, Western consumers are still reluctant to practice entomophagy, hindered largely by neophobia and negative emotions. In addition to sensory quality and safety, an informational component may be crucial to consumers' decision making involving insect consumption. In this study, three different information types, namely text, image, and a tangible product, were used to convey information about chocolate chip cookies (CCCs) containing cricket flour. The nature of the information was related to the ingredient usage level (5%), the type of insect (cricket), nutritional values, sustainability benefits, packaging, celebrity endorsement, and/or visual appearance of an actual product. Consumers' willingness to consume (WTC), acceptance, and purchase intent (PI) were measured in response to each informed condition. Once informed of the insect ingredient, all scores significantly (α = 0.05) dropped. The lowest WTC (1.97 ± 1.06, Text), acceptance (3.55 ± 2.23, Image), and PI (1.85 ± 1.05, Text) scores were found after identifying cricket as the insect ingredient. Compared to other informed conditions, the presentation of a real chocolate chip cookie containing insects achieved the highest scores on all affective scores (WTC: 3.4 ± 1.04, acceptance: 6.17 ± 1.89, PI: 3.07 ± 1.09). The greatest improvement in scores was observed after information about nutrition and sustainability benefits (based on ANOVA), which was more impactful for males than females (based on a t-test). Celebrity endorsement did not have a significant effect. The presentation of the actual CCC containing cricket flour (for visual observation only) significantly increased WTC, acceptance, and PI compared to presenting text and images alone. Acceptance, WTC, and certain information cues were significant predictors of PI for CCCs containing cricket flour.

Puppy power: How neophobia, attitude towards sustainability, and animal empathy affect the demand for insect-based pet food

Despite growing commercial interest in novel foods, there are few studies that analyse consumer willingness to purchase them as pet food. This study aimed to test whether consumers are willing to accept the use of foods with insect-based ingredients, which are found to be poorly accepted for human consumption, to feed their pets. In our case study, we analysed the willingness of 400 Italian dog and/or cat caregivers to pay for pet foods containing insect proteins, as measured by the Multiple Price List methodology. We also explored the role of food neophobia, attention to environmental sustainability, and empathy toward one's pet. The results of the study pointed out that the usual determinants of acceptance in the consumption of novel foods, such as food neophobia and attention to environmental sustainability, play an important role even when the purchase is for the household pet, and that empathy as an expression of the pet caregiver's personal relationship with their pet becomes an additional factor. Insect-based pet foods proved to be attractive for purchase only when consumers are well informed about the product's properties in terms of sustainability and healthiness for their pets.

Legal situation and consumer acceptance of insects being eaten as human food in different nations across the world-A comprehensive review

Insect consumption is a traditional practice in many countries. Currently, the urgent need for ensuring food sustainability and the high pressure from degrading environment are urging food scientists to rethink the possibility of introducing edible insects as a promising food type. However, due to the lack of the standardized legislative rules and the adequate scientific data that demonstrate the safety of edible insects, many countries still consider it a grey area to introduce edible insects into food supply chains. In this review, we comprehensively reviewed the legal situation, consumer willingness, acceptance, and the knowledge on edible insect harvesting, processing as well as their safety concerns. We found that, despite the great advantage of introducing edible insects in food supply chains, the legal situation and consumer acceptance for edible insects are still unsatisfactory and vary considerably in different countries, which mostly depend on geographical locations and cultural backgrounds involving psychological, social, religious, and anthropological factors. Besides, the safety concern of edible insect consumption is still a major issue hurdling the promotion of edible insects, which is particularly concerning for countries with no practice in consuming insects. Fortunately, the situation is improving. So far, some commercial insect products like energy bars, burgers, and snack foods have emerged in the market. Furthermore, the European Union has also recently issued a specific item for regulating new foods, which is believed to establish an authorized procedure to promote insect-based foods and should be an important step for marketizing edible insects in the near future.

Packaging Communication as a Tool to Reduce Disgust with Insect-Based Foods: Effect of Informative and Visual Elements

Disgust associated with insect consumption is a significant challenge faced by the insect-based food industry. One cost-effective approach that managers can employ to increase consumer acceptance is by enhancing packaging design. The packaging represents a cheap and effective means of communication. It is also referred to as a silent seller. This study investigates the potential of packaging communication in reducing disgust towards insect-based products in Germany. In a survey, 422 participants were confronted with packaging designs representing different visual and informative elements. The results showed that images of familiar ingredients and transparent windows on the packaging are particularly effective in reducing disgust. The presence of the organic and specific Ento seals significantly increased the assumed food safety. Claims about protein content and sustainability were less effective. Cricket images had a significant impact on increasing disgust. Practical implications for managers who are seeking to address consumer resistance towards insect-based food products are discussed.

Factors Influencing Consumption Intention of Insect-Fed Fish among Italian Respondents

The rise in the world's demand for fish is increasingly met by aquaculture. However, this sector still shows various criticalities in terms of sustainability of practices, first and foremost, that of feed availability. Nowadays, the use of insect meal represents one of the potential sustainable solutions, but consumption intention of fish fed with insect meal and the factors affecting it have not yet been adequately understood. This study investigates 318 Italian consumers' intentions to buy fish fed with insect meal using an extended version of the Theory of Planned Behavior, including consumers' moral attitude and sustainability consciousness as additional constructs. The results of structural equation models show that consumers' high sustainability consciousness (6.16 on a scale from 1 to 7) does not influence their consumption intention of this product. Also, the two moderating variables involved in the model, i.e., the country of origin and price sensitivity, do not significantly affect consumers' intentions. Since the analysis demonstrates that, for consumers, insect meal-fed fish conforms to their moral principles and a significant positive attitude toward this practice it could be argued that fish fed with insect meal can match the demand from consumers who feel responsible for their consumer behavior. Although the limited area of investigations and the high education of interviewed do not allow for generalizing of the results, this paper provides pivotal food for thought for companies, policymakers, and academics responding to previous research calls on understanding the role of some constructs of consumption intention and highlighting the levers on which to act to foster the consumption intention of insect-fed fish.

Booming the bugs: How can marketing help increase consumer acceptance of insect-based food in Western countries?

Edible insects could be a promising answer to the question of how to feed a growing human population with a healthier and more sustainable source of protein. Despite the increasing interest in entomophagy in food science and industry, however, consumer acceptance for insect-based food products remains low in Western countries. This systematic review provides a comprehensive and timely overview of studies relevant for researchers, practitioners and other stakeholders involved in the marketing of these products. Reviewing data from 45 selected studies, we focus on marketing measures tested for their influence on Western consumers' preference, acceptance, willingness to try, eat and/or buy insect-based food products. Organising the findings according to the 4Ps of the marketing mix framework, five main ways of enhancing the appeal and acceptance of insect-based food products are discussed: 1) developing product attributes that align with the specific preferences of target consumers; 2) a more subtle labelling of the presence of insects; 3) using value-added or competition-based pricing strategies; 4) making products consistently available in the marketplace; and 5) promoting products more effectively through advertising, tasting activities, and social influence. The heterogeneity we find among the studies, whether due to differences in the products researched, in sampling countries, or in data-collection methods, indicates key research gaps for future studies to address.

A social norm intervention increases liking and intake of whole crickets, and what this tells us about food disgust

Edible insects are healthy and sustainable but are rejected as food in Western populations due to disgust. We tested the effectiveness of written interventions to reduce disgust and increase intake of whole crickets. Cricket acceptance after reading a descriptive social norm or food preparation intervention passage was compared with a control passage, and an unfamiliar but non-disgusting food (leblebi, roasted chickpeas). Participants (N = 120) were randomised to one of four conditions (control + crickets, food preparation + crickets, social norm + crickets and control + leblebi). Outcome measures included taste pleasantness, desire to eat, food intake and, to measure disgust, self-report disgust, tactile sensitivity and latency to eat. In the control condition, crickets were rejected due to disgust and low desire to eat. In comparison, in the social norm condition, crickets were rated as tasting more pleasant, more desirable, and less disgusting, and intake was greater. The food preparation passage had a small but positive effect on cricket intake. For the first time, this study shows that a descriptive social norm can affect eating behaviour even when a food is disgusting; however, a food preparation intervention cannot overcome high disgust. The pattern of results suggested that expected and perceived taste pleasantness affects disgust. Therefore, taste quality and normalising consumption are targets for promoting acceptance of insects, and probably other novel, sustainable foods.

It tastes OK, but I don't want to eat it: New insights into food disgust

To better understand food-disgust, we investigated the long-standing theory that disgust towards a food causes it to taste 'bad'. To induce disgust, participants were served cookies labelled as containing crickets (Study 1); or served whole crickets versus novel (leblebi) and familiar (peanuts) control foods (Study 2). Participants (Study 1: N = 80; Study 2: N = 90) tasted the foods and rated taste pleasantness, desire to eat, disgust and, in Study 1, 16 taste attributes (e.g., nuttiness). Latency to eat and food intake were included as behavioural indicators of disgust. In both studies disgusting foods were presumed to taste bad, but this was disconfirmed after tasting - disgust did not cause the food to taste bad. Nonetheless, the taste attribute results suggested increased attention towards cricket flavours/textures. Furthermore, desire to eat and intake results suggested that disgust, but not novelty, was associated with reduced food wanting. Even if a disgust-inducing food tastes OK, people do not 'want' to consume it. By offering novel insights into our understanding of disgust, these results may stimulate progress in new avenues of emotion research, as well as informing the development of methods to reduce disgust and increase the acceptance of novel, sustainable, foods. For example, interventions should encourage tasting to overcome negative expectations of taste pleasantness and should tackle low levels of wanting, e.g., by normalising consumption of the target food.

Insects as food - Changes in consumers' acceptance of entomophagy in Hungary between 2016 and 2021

Public interest in entomophagy (consumption of insects) has developed significantly over the past several years. Possible nutritional benefits are perceived by consumers according to several recent studies, as well as sustainability and food security. However, most European communities, including the Hungarian, do not embrace entomophagy, despite the widespread practice elsewhere globally. This study aims to evaluate the changes in the perception of entomophagy among the Hungarian population between 2016 and 2021, together with the factors differentiating between acceptive and dismissive consumers. The results of the two representative quantitative surveys indicate that more than 70% of Hungarian consumers are not willing to try entomophagy, which had not changed significantly in the observed period, despite the high media coverage of this topic in recent years. Some groups open to insect consumption can still be identified. According to the socioeconomic segmentation of the data collected in 2021, consumers who accept insect-based foods can be found in high numbers among men between 18 and 39 years old (49.3%). Positive attitudes are less likely to be observed among females; however, 27.6% of highly educated women between 18 and 59 years demonstrated a certain level of interest. Those consumers willing to consume insects are driven mainly by curiosity, and also value high protein content and sustainability, and perceive insect-based food as nutritious. Consumers who prefer local and national food tend to refuse to eat insects in a higher ratio.

Will cultured meat be served on Chinese tables? A study of consumer attitudes and intentions about cultured meat in China

This research investigates the attitudes and intentions of Chinese consumers about cultured "meat" (CM). We also investigate framing effects through the names used for these products ("cultured meat," "artificial meat," and "cell-based meat") and the effect of information provision. Of the 1532 consumers in our sample, most had not heard of "cultured meat" or "cell-based meat" before, although 70% had heard of "artificial meat". Around 44% of the participants indicated that they would be willing to try CM, and 32% would be likely to purchase it. Participants disliked the terms "cultured meat" and "cell-based meat" less than they disliked the term "artificial meat," although the latter was the most familiar to them. The provision of neutral information on the production process increased consumer support for CM, but the effect was limited. Prior knowledge and naming terms were strong predictors of attitudes and willingness to buy. A key implication is that stakeholders should cautiously apply framing strategies when introducing CM to the public.

Insects as Food: Consumers' Acceptance and Marketing

The growing demand for livestock products is associated with an increase in environmental, economic, and ethical issues. New alternative sources of protein such as edible insects have recently been developed to tackle these issues with fewer drawbacks. However, several challenges are associated with insect-based food, mainly regarding consumer acceptance and commercialization. In this systematic review, we explored these challenges by reviewing 85 papers from 2010 to 2020, which were selected following the PRISMA methodology. Additionally, we applied the SPIDER (Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, and Research type) tool for developing the inclusion criteria. Our analysis adds new knowledge to previous systematic reviews on this topic. It reveals both a comprehensive framework of factors influencing consumers' acceptance of insects as food and aspects of the marketing mix of these products. Disgust, food neophobia, familiarity, visibility of insects, and taste appear to be the most significant factors that can prevent consumers from consuming insects as food. The motivations for acceptance are found to be familiarity and exposure. The results of this review provide insights for policymakers and stakeholders who wish to develop marketing strategies that can increase consumer acceptance of insects as food.

The Potential Future of Insects in the European Food System: A Systematic Review Based on the Consumer Point of View

Edible insects recently gained attention as a potential contributor to the future sustainability of the food system. Insect farming has indeed shown to have environmental and nutritional benefits, but edible insects are still an unusual foodstuff in Europe. The purpose of this article is to analyze the barriers and drivers of insect consumption in Europe and to identify the most promising strategies to convince consumers to include insect-based products in their diets. To answer these research questions, a systematic review of the literature on the consumer's point of view about insects as food was performed. The results show that the main barrier to the development of this market is related to the psychological rejection of consumers induced by disgust toward entomophagy. To break down these barriers, it is essential to increase the general knowledge about the environmental and nutritional benefits of entomophagy. Furthermore, the limited size of the edible insect market appears to be a structural barrier. Expanding the reach of the market and consumer familiarity with edible insects will increase their acceptability. Finally, some product-related strategies are also highlighted. Furthermore, this article brings new knowledge about the effectiveness of the environmental motive in convincing consumers to try edible insects.

Is Generation Z Ready to Engage in Entomophagy? A Segmentation Analysis Study

This study examines the behavior and attitudes of adult Generation Z cohort members in relation to entomophagy. Specifically, it explores their familiarity with insect consumption, prior experience, and willingness to consume certain insect-based foods and drinks. Lastly, the Z cohort is segmented based on their behavior and attitudes. Through online quantitative research, a valid sample of 742 questionnaires was collected. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, factor, hierarchical cluster, and K-means cluster analysis, as well as chi-square tests. Results revealed that 41.4% are familiar with what insect consumption is, and no one had previously engaged in entomophagy. The insect-based food that the Z cohort is most willing to try is bakery products containing insect flour. The 88.5% of the Z cohort is not willing to replace meat protein with insect protein, and 20.4% are interested in obtaining more information about entomophagy. Moreover, 6.3% of the Z cohort is "willing" to participate in sensory tests, but when contact information was requested, only one factual name with phone number was provided. Segmentation of the Z cohort's behavior was performed based on eight variables and four segments were identified: the "Future potential insect consumers" (29.1%), the "Rejecters" (26.7%), the "Disgusted, prefer to starve" (22.2%), and the "Inconsistent" (22.0%). Overall, the Z cohort is not food neophobic, but is unwilling to engage in entomophagy. Communication strategies are suggested to increase awareness and provide information about entomophagy and its benefits.

Effects of other people's facial emotional expression on consumers' perceptions of chocolate chip cookies containing cricket protein

Edible insects are recognized as a potential alternative and sustainable source of high-quality protein for the human diet. Entomophagy is highly related to negative emotions that may cause reluctance to adopt insects as food in Western countries. During human interaction, a person's facial emotional expression (FEE) may influence other people's emotional responses. A person's emotional state may affect his/her food preference and food choice. Understanding how other people's FEE would affect consumers' emotional profiles, liking, and subsequent willingness to try (WTT) and purchase intent (PI) toward insect-containing food products may help increase the acceptance of entomophagy. This study identified emotional responses toward chocolate chip cookies containing cricket protein using valence and arousal scales in order to explore the effects of other people's FEE (positive, negative, and/or sensation seeking) and to find the correlation between consumers' emotional and overall liking (OL) responses for cricket-containing chocolate chip cookies. Predicting PI for such cookies was also performed. For consumers who perceived positive emotion from other people's FEE after watching a short video clip, their emotional feeling was raised on both valence and arousal dimensions, while negative FEE stimulus imparted the opposite effects. The OL scores and emotional intensities after watching the three FEE videos were highly related to consumers' PI. Males compared to females rated the cricket-containing cookies higher on positive emotion intensity, OL, and PI. Among the three FEEs evaluated, the positive emotional stimulus would be beneficial in increasing acceptance, WTT, and PI of insect-containing foods. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Edible insects are potentially alternative and sustainable sources of high-quality protein for the human diet. Entomophagy is highly related to negative emotions that cause reluctance to adopt insects as food in Western countries. Other people's facial emotional expressions (FEEs) may affect consumer food-evoked emotional profiles, overall liking (OL), and purchase intent (PI). For consumers who perceived positive emotion from other people's FEE, their emotional feeling was raised on both valence and arousal dimensions, and OL scores and emotion intensities were highly related to consumers' PI. Exploiting positive emotional stimuli as demonstrated in this study would be beneficial in increasing acceptance of insect-containing food.

Consumers' acceptance toward whole and processed mealworms: A cross-country study in Belgium, China, Italy, Mexico, and the US

The interest in edible insects as food is growing, both in traditional and non-traditional insect-eating countries given their advantages in terms of sustainability and nutritional content. However, only a few studies have conducted cross-country investigations on the acceptance of including processed or whole insects in the diet. Thus, this study aimed to examine to which extent consumers were accepting (i) whole and visible mealworms, (ii) processed mealworms in their diet and (iii) to explore the factors affecting the acceptance level of consuming mealworms in countries with and without entomophagy tradition. An online survey was applied to collect responses (3,006) from five countries-i.e., Belgium, China, Italy, Mexico, and the US-using a quota sampling method. Moreover, an information treatment was included with about half of the participants receiving information about the advantages of edible insects as food (ingredient) and the presence of food safety regulations. Across countries, gender was the main factor affecting acceptance level as men accepted mealworms more than women. Entomophagy tradition mainly explained the differences among countries. Countries with entomophagy traditions (Mexico and China) showed higher acceptance of including whole or processed mealworms in the diet compared to countries with no entomophagy traditions (i.e., Belgium, Italy, and the US). While information and age did affect differently the acceptance of including processed mealworms in countries with entomophagy traditions showing that consumer acceptance was affected by information in Mexico and by age in China. Whereas it was found that younger people (below 42 years old) in countries without entomophagy tradition were more open to accepting processed mealworms in their diet. Moreover, across countries, the acceptance of including processed mealworms was higher compared to whole mealworms. These findings provide insights into which consumer segments to target and the potential impact of information when introducing new insect-based foods in countries with and without entomophagy traditions.

Crickets (Acheta domesticus) as Wheat Bread Ingredient: Influence on Bread Quality and Safety Characteristics

The aim of this study was to assess respondents' opinions on the choice of edible insects as a food, and to evaluate the influence of cricket flour (ECF) (10, 20, 30%) on the quality of wheat bread (WB). Whereas ECF is an additional source of acrylamide precursors, in order to reduce acrylamide formation in WB, fermentation of ECF with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum-No.122 was applied. It was established that 70.7% of the respondents had never eaten insects and more than 30% would not choose them. However, ECF was suitable substrate for fermentation (lactobacilli count 8.24 log₁₀CFU/g, pH-4.26). In addition, fermentation reduced the total biogenic amines content in ECF (by 13.1%). The highest specific volume showed WB, prepared with fermented ECF (10, 20, 30%). All the tested WB showed similar overall acceptability (on average, 7.9 points). However, the highest intensity of emotion "happy" was induced by the WB, prepared with fermented ECF. Most of the WB with non-treated and fermented ECF showed higher acrylamide concentration (except WB with 10% of fermented ECF), in comparison with the control. Finally, fermentation is recommended for ECF inclusion in the main WB formula because fermentation improves not only quality but also reduces acrylamide concentration in WB.

Japanese attitude toward insects as food: The role of tradition

This study investigated the influence of traditional insect food culture on the acceptance of novel insect foods by comparing a sample from the Kanto area (N = 485) as representative of the Japanese population, and a sample from Nagano Prefecture (N = 198), where entomophagy remains relatively commonly practiced. More than half of the Japanese participants had insect-eating experience (52.0% in the Kanto area, 81.8% in Nagano); however, among them, less than half were currently willing to eat insect foods. Furthermore, when questioned about the dietary substitution of meat and fish with insects, only 7.0% in the Kanto area and 15.7% in Nagano answered positively. Although the regions with a strong insect culture had a higher percentage of people who accepted traditional insect foods, the percentage of people who accepted novel insect foods was not significantly different between the two regions. Results of the regression analysis suggested that food neophobia and food technology neophobia have relatively positive impacts on willingness to eat novel insect foods in Nagano. However, concerns about the taste of insects owing to the experience of eating traditional insect foods counteracted this effect, indicating both positive and negative effects of tradition. Regression analysis of willingness-to-eat and willingness-to-substitute for edible insects suggested that the key to getting people to incorporate insects into their diets is not only to create awareness of the relationship between using insect foods and environmental conservation, but also to dispel concerns about the hygiene of insect foods and develop insect foods with a taste as good as that of meat and fish.

The Crick-Eatery: A Novel Approach to Evaluate Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Powder Replacement in Food Products through Product Eating Experience and Emotional Response

This study was conducted to evaluate three different food products containing cricket powder for consumer acceptability, emotional response, satiety, and plate waste. US untrained consumers (n = 108), from the San Luis Obispo, CA area, were recruited to evaluate three food products (sausage, pasta, and brownies) as components in a three-course meal that either contain cricket powder (CP) or not (Control). The CP sausage was found to have lower liking scores than the Control for the attributes tested (p < 0.05). The CP pasta was found to be higher in overall liking than the Control (p < 0.05). The CP Brownies were rated highly across the attributes, except for texture and aftertaste (p < 0.05). Though the CP products were found to be as acceptable as the Controls, the use of cricket powder may have affected the texture and flavor profile of both the CP sausage and brownies. The participants selected more positive emotions terms for both the CP and Control products than negative emotions. Negative terms selected, such as worried, decreased once the products were consumed (p < 0.05). Plate waste and subjective satiety may also be indicators of consumer acceptability. Significant correlations were found between appearance liking and satiety as well as taste liking and plate waste for both the Control and CP products/dishes (p < 0.05). Based on this work, future acceptance of insect-based products may be encouraged by evaluating the products throughout an eating experience.

The Motivations for Consumption of Edible Insects: A Systematic Review

The consumption of edible insects (EI) is traditional in many parts of the world, but not in others. In fact, despite globalization and the multiple advantages pointed out about the consumption of EI, there are still many countries where entomophagy is seen with disgust and aversion. This systematic review aimed to examine the motivations that influence the consumption of EI in diverse cultures and understand if there are differences between Western countries (WC) and insect-eating countries (IEC). It further evaluated whether the degree of acceptability was influenced by the form of consumption of the insects (eating whole insects or foods containing insects). This literature review was conducted in November 2021 within three databases, Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus, according to the Preferred Reporting of Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis and using PRISMA directives. From a total of 245 studies, 31 were selected to be included in this review, based on the inclusion criteria defined: only original research articles, from 2010 or beyond, and written in English. The results indicated that the main motivations that determine the consumption of EI are related to gender, age, sustainability, nutritional value, sensory attributes, tradition/culture, food neophobia, disgust and familiarity/past experiences. Moreover, whereas in IEC, there is a greater focus on factors related to sensory attributes, availability, affordability and preferences, in WC, there is a bigger emphasis on determinants such as nutritional value, sustainability, benefits, familiarity/past experience, tradition/culture, food neophobia and disgust. Finally, it was observed that people in WC are more willing to accept food products containing insects rather than the whole insect, which is one of the most promising points to be addressed in the future. Overall, this review highlights that there are numerous factors influencing the consumption of edible insects, and differences between WC and IEC are clear in what concerns the motivations of consumers. Hence, targeting market segments and consumers' characteristics has to be present when designing strategies to incentivize the consumption of EI in WC as a part of a global strategy for sustainability of food systems.

Will It Cricket? Product Development and Evaluation of Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Powder Replacement in Sausage, Pasta, and Brownies

Insect powders used in food products may lower the overall quality when compared to conventional counterparts. This preliminary study was used to develop and evaluate insect-based food products and to utilize them in a future consumer test. Pork sausage, dried pasta, and chocolate brownie formulations were developed to either contain NO cricket powder (Control) or have cricket powder (CP). The products were evaluated for proximate composition and product-dependent parameters. The protein content increased in the CP pasta and brownies (p < 0.05) while no changes were found in the sausage (p > 0.05). Fat content increased in both the CP pasta and brownies while it decreased in the CP sausage (p < 0.05). The CP sausage had a higher carbohydrate content than the Control (p < 0.05). Overall, this may be attributed to cricket powder being high in protein and fat while also containing dietary fiber. Cricket powder replacement may lead to noticeable color differences by increasing green and blue coloring in sausage and pasta (p < 0.05). Changes in textural properties (p < 0.05) may be attributed to cricket powder affecting protein solubility and emulsion stability in sausage while gluten formation may be interfered with in the brownies. Overall, cricket powder replacement had improved nutritional content with minor changes in quality parameters.

Effectiveness of a teaching unit on the willingness to consume insect-based food - An intervention study with adolescents from Germany

This study investigated the effect of a four-lesson teaching unit titled "Entomophagy and Sustainability" on the willingness of adolescents in Germany to consume insect-based food (N = 114; M Age = 15.77 years; SD Age = 1.12 years; female = 58.8%). The main aim of the study was to test whether the teaching unit can induce long-term changes in selected nutritional-psychological factors (food disgust, food neophobia, food technology neophobia), attitudes, knowledge, and the willingness to consume insect-based food. For this purpose, a paper-pencil questionnaire was conducted immediately before (pre-test), immediately after (post-test), and approximately six weeks after (follow-up test) the teaching unit. Although significant changes in food disgust, food neophobia, food technology neophobia, attitudes, and knowledge were recorded, adolescents' willingness to consume insect-based food was not significantly increased. Attitudes were identified as the strongest predictor of adolescents' willingness to consume, while knowledge was not a significant predictor. Conclusions and recommendations that can be applied to other educational interventions are provided to increase the effectiveness of the teaching unit.

Consumer Preference Segments for Plant-Based Foods: The Role of Product Category

A survey of willingness to consume (WTC) 5 types of plant-based (PB) food was conducted in USA, Australia, Singapore and India (n = 2494). In addition to WTC, emotional, conceptual and situational use characterizations were obtained. Results showed a number of distinct clusters of consumers with different patterns of WTC for PB foods within different food categories. A large group of consumers did not discriminate among PB foods across the various food categories. Six smaller, but distinct clusters of consumers had specific patterns of WTC across the examined food categories. In general, PB Milk and, to a much lesser extent, PB Cheese had highest WTC ratings. PB Fish had the lowest WTC, and two PB meat products had intermediate WTC. Emotional, conceptual and situational use characterizations exerted significant lifts/penalties on WTC. No penalty or lifts were imparted on WTC by the situational use of ‘moving my diet in a sustainable direction’, whereas uses related to ‘when I want something I like’ and ‘when I want something healthy’ generally imparted WTC lifts across clusters and food categories. The importance of this research for the study of PB foods is its demonstration that consumers are not monolithic in their willingness to consume these foods and that WTC is often a function of the food category of the PB food.

The Consumption of Insects in Switzerland: University-Based Perspectives of Entomophagy

Although insects have long been part of the human diet in many countries, they are poorly received and accepted in European and North American countries. Therefore, this cross-sectional observational study, based on a structured questionnaire, aimed to evaluate the level of acceptability of entomophagy among young adults in a Swiss university context. The variable “acceptability of consuming insects” (ACI) was calculated according to the perception of entomophagy of each participant. The ACI was related to various socio-demographic and behavioral aspects. A total of 290 responses were validated and analyzed. The mean ACI score was 3.7 out of 6.0 (SD 1.1). Most participants responded that the most likely reason for eating insect foods was curiosity. The most common reason for not eating such foods was disgust. None of the socio-demographic variables showed a significant association with ACI. Generally, participants in this study showed a potential interest in entomophagy—on a theoretical level, as measured here by the ACI. In practice, however, there are still barriers, including disgust, which contribute to the low consumption of these foods, at least in Switzerland.

Changes in the Chemical Composition of Edible Grasshoppers (Sphenarium purpurascens) Fed Exclusively with Soy Sprouts or Maize Leaves

Simple Summary

One of the most used insects in Mexico is the grasshopper, which is mostly consumed as a snack and collected in open fields where maize or alfalfa is grown. In this study, diet control of grasshoppers has helped to raise some important components such as protein, unsaturated fatty acids, and fiber content. Therefore, diet control could help to obtain insects with a preferred chemical and nutrient composition, making them a more nutritious alternative for human intake. Additionally, this strategy could improve the techno-functional properties of edible insects and their incorporation as ingredients in daily food.

Abstract

In recent times, insects have gained attention because of their nutritional characteristics as well as the environmental advantages of their production. In this research, the effect of the diet of grasshoppers (Sphenarium purpurascens) under controlled conditions on their chemical and nutritional content was studied. The insects were divided into two groups: maize leaf-fed grasshoppers (MFG) and soy sprout-fed grasshoppers (SFG). To evaluate the changes in composition, chemical analysis (protein, fiber, fat, ashes, and chitin) was carried out in triplicate according to AOAC procedures, and a Student’s t-test was used to determine any significant differences. The results showed a higher content of crude protein, in vitro protein digestibility percentage, and sum of non-essential amino acids (NEAAs) in the MFG samples compared with the SFG samples. The total dietary fiber, insoluble dietary fiber, soluble dietary fiber, sum of the EAA, non-essential amino acid percentage (EAA%), and biological value percentage (BV%) were higher in the SFG than the MFG, while in the amino acid profile and chitin content, no significant differences were obtained, although an increase in oleic acid in the SFG was observed. In FTIR, a β-sheet appeared in the SFG, which could be related to the low in vitro protein digestibility. The use of a soy sprout diet caused changes in the chemical composition and nutritional content of grasshoppers. This represents an opportunity to improve their nutritional value for commercial interests.

Satiety of Edible Insect-Based Food Products as a Component of Body Weight Control

Among the many aspects determining the nutritional potential of insect-based foods, research into the satiating potential of foods is an important starting point in the design of new functional foods, including those based on edible insects. The aim of this study was to assess the satiating value of products with the addition of freeze-dried insect flour. The test material included wheat pancakes in which corresponding proportions of wheat flour were substituted with 10% Mw, 0% Mw, and 30% Mw of flour from freeze-dried Tenebrio molitor, 10% Bw, 20% Bw, and 30% Bw of flour from Alphitobius diaperinus, and 10% Cr, 20% Cr, and 30% Cr of flour from Acheta domesticus. The study included the characterisation of physico-chemical properties and their effect on the satiating potential of the analysed pancakes. A total of 71 healthy volunteers (n = 39 women, n = 32 men) with no food phobias were qualified for the study. Each subject rated the level of hunger and satiety before and after ingestion at 30 min intervals over the subsequent 180 min on two separate graphical scales. The rating was done on an unstructured 100 mm visual analogue scale (VAS). A portion intended for testing had a value of 240 kcal. The highest average satiety values were noted for the pancakes with an addition of 30% Alphitobius diaperinus (Bw) and with the addition of 20% and 30% addition of Acheta domesticus flour (Cr). The Tenebrio molitor-based products were the least satiating. However, the largest addition of 30% of an insect flour for each variant considerably increased the satiating potential as compared to the control sample. Satiety was influenced the most by the protein content in the test wheat pancakes. The results support the idea of a possible usage of insect-based food products in the composition of obesity treatment diets, carbohydrate-limiting diets, and as alternative sources of protein.

Detection of Alphitobius diaperinus by Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction With a Single-Copy Gene Target

Use of edible insects as an alternative source of proteins in food and feed is increasing. These last years, numerous companies in Europe have started producing insects for food and feed purposes. In the European Union, the use of edible insects for human consumption falls within Regulation (EU) No. 2015/2283 on novel foods. For feed, Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/893 authorizes seven insect species as processed animal proteins for aquaculture. Methods of authentication are required to check the conformity of the products. In this study, we propose a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method for the specific detection of the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus), one of the species included in the shortlist of authorized insects. The selected target is the cadherin gene with a single-copy (per haploid genome) illustrated by our experimental evidence. The PCR test amplified a 134-bp fragment of the cadherin gene. The qualitative method was assessed toward several performance criteria. Specificity was checked against 54 insect species next to other animal and plant species. The sensitivity, efficiency, robustness, and transferability of the PCR assay were also successfully tested. Finally, the applicability of the test was assessed on real-life processed samples (industrial meals) of A. diaperinus. The study also showed that there seems to be a huge confusion on the correct labeling of the marketed mealworms. We did not succeed to get Alphitobius laevigatus samples. They all appeared to belong to the A. diaperinus taxon.

Consumers' acceptance of the first novel insect food approved in the European Union: Predictors of yellow mealworm chips consumption

Climate and environmental-related challenges are high on the agenda of the European Union (EU). One priority is to redesign the existing food system into a more sustainable one, where the link between healthy people and a balanced environment is considered. The EU bets on the role of insect farming in supporting the transition toward healthier and future-proof diets. Following this orientation, we investigated consumers' attitude toward yellow mealworm chips (YMC) and identified the predictors of YMC consumption. The causal relationships between constructs were explored using the structural equation modeling (SEM) based on partial least squares (PLS) using SmartPLS software. The perceived lower environmental impact of YMC compared to meat was the most appreciated characteristic of YMC. The study identified five predictors of YMC consumption, among which the perceived characteristics of YMC have the strongest influence on the consumption probability. Against the expectations of the authors, disgust with the accidental encounter of insects in foods did not influence the probability of eating YMC. Age was another predictor of YMC consumption. It is known that food preferences and eating behaviors are mainly developed during childhood and tend to manifest in adult life. Consequently, it can be inferred that acceptance and preference for insect-based foods (IBF) should be stimulated from early childhood. Finally, practical implications are advanced as possible solutions to overcome the obstacles toward YMC consumption.

Acceptance of Insect-Based Food Products in Western Societies: A Systematic Review

Consuming insects is a possible alternative to meat consumption that has few detrimental impacts on the environment and human health. Whether novel foods made from insects will become established in Western societies in the coming years depends largely on their acceptance by the respective populations. Numerous studies on the acceptance of insects as a novel food have already been conducted. In this systematic review, the main findings of quantitative, experimental, and tasting studies on the acceptance of insects as a novel food are summarized. The present paper is designed to serve as an orientation for practitioners in the food industry and provides information useful for the design of marketing strategies and target group-oriented product development. In addition, we highlight in which fields future studies could be conducted to further improve the understanding of the acceptance of insects as food in Western societies.

Acceptance of Cultured Meat in Germany-Application of an Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour

This study examines the willingness to consume a cultured meat burger in Germany. Based on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), we assessed attitudes, perceived behavioural control, and subjective norms via an online questionnaire. Attitudes were operationalized in this research as general attitudes towards cultured meat and specific attitudes towards a cultured meat burger. Furthermore, the TPB was extended with nutritional-psychological variables including food (technology) neophobia, food disgust, sensation seeking, and green consumption values. In total, 58.4% of the participants reported being willing to consume a cultured meat burger. Using a path model, the extended TPB accounted for 77.8% of the variance in willingness to consume a cultured meat burger. All components of the TPB were significant predictors except general attitudes. The influence of general attitudes was completely mediated by specific attitudes. All nutritional-psychological variables influenced general attitudes. Food technology neophobia was the strongest negative, and green consumption values were the strongest positive predictor of general attitudes. Marketing strategies should therefore target the attitudes of consumers by encouraging the natural perception of cultured meat, using a less technological product name, enabling transparency about the production, and creating a dialogue about both the fears and the environmental benefits of the new technology.

Use of Preference Analysis to Identify Early Adopter Mind-Sets of Insect-Based Food Products

Insects may potentially provide an alternative protein source. However, consumers may not easily accept insects due to feelings of disgust. Therefore, identifying early adopters of insect-based food products may determine their future acceptance. This study was conducted to (1) identify early adopter Mind-Sets of insect-based food products, (2) determine product features early adopters would prefer in an insect-based food product, and (3) determine differences in Mind-Sets in different countries. Two studies were distributed online in the US and the Philippines. The first study included information about insects, while the second study had no information on insects. The experimental design included elements, or product features, regarding insect-based products that participants evaluated. Preference Analysis was used to segment the participants into Mind-Sets. Based on the results, participants neither liked nor disliked the elements used. Participants in the studies without insect information were found to have higher liking when comparing liking. Participants who were aware of the study being about insects may have had less interest when evaluating the elements, as the response times between the US studies were significantly different (p < 0.05). The role of information and segmentation of the participants demonstrates the importance of experimental design when using Preference Analysis.

Effects of Tasting and Ingredient Information Statement on Acceptability, Elicited Emotions, and Willingness to Purchase: A Case of Pita Chips Containing Edible Cricket Protein

Sustainable and nutritious alternatives are needed to feed the ever-increasing world population. The successful incorporation of edible-cricket protein (ECP) into foods needs deeper consumer insights. Treatments (plain, Italian, and Cajun pita chips containing 6.9% w/w ECP) were evaluated by subjects for overall liking (OL), emotions, and purchase intent (PI) in three different moments: (1) before tasting, (2) after tasting/before ECP statement, and (3) after tasting/after ECP statement. Attributes’ liking scores were evaluated only after tasting/before ECP statement. Liking scores (mixed-effects ANOVA), emotions, and PI across moments within treatments/across treatments within moments were evaluated. Emotion-based penalty-lift analyses for OL within moments were assessed using two-sample t-tests (p < 0.05). Random forest model analyzed after-tasting informed PI and variables’ importance. Although formulations’ OL and PI were similar across moments, plain and Italian chips had higher after-tasting (before and after ECP statement) OL than the Cajun chips. Moments indirectly affected OL via emotions elicitation. Valence and activation/arousal emotions discriminated across moments for the plain treatment whereas valence and mostly activation/arousal terms discriminated across moments for the Italian and Cajun treatments, respectively. For either formulation or moment, “interested” and “adventurous” positively affected OL. Before and after-tasting attribute liking, “satisfied,” and “enthusiastic” emotions were critical in predicting after-tasting informed PI.

Development of a Questionnaire to Assess Knowledge and Perceptions about Edible Insects

Edible insects (EI) have been consumed as traditional foods in many parts of the globe, but in other regions, they are not readily accepted, particularly in Western countries. However, because EI are suggested to constitute a more sustainable protein food as compared with other sources of animal protein, they can be considered a future food that could help mitigate hunger and malnutrition. Additionally, new gastronomic trends are already targeting this area for exploring new potentialities. The objective of this work was to develop and validate a questionnaire to assess consumers’ perceptions and knowledge about EI in seven different domains: D1. Culture and Tradition, D2. Gastronomic Innovation and Gourmet Kitchen, D3. Environment and Sustainability, D4. Economic and Social Aspects, D5. Commercialization and Marketing, D6. Nutritional Aspects and D7. Health Effects. The 64 items were subjected to item analysis and reliability analysis for validation, and factor analysis was also conducted to identify a grouping structure. The results validated all the items of the seven subscales with high values of Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.732 for D1, α = 0.795 for D2, α = 0.882 for D3, α = 0.742 for D4, α = 0.675 for D5, α = 0.799 for D6 and α = 0.788 for D7). However, by eliminating 17 items, the final values of the alpha increased in all subscales. Factor analysis with extraction by principal component analysis with varimax rotation extracted 14 factors that explained, in total, 65% of the variance, although the first two factors were the most important (35.7% variance explained). In conclusion, the confirmed usefulness of the questionnaire has been hereby validated for assessing consumer perceptions of and knowledge about EI.

Effect of Disclosed Information on Product Liking, Emotional Profile, and Purchase Intent: A Case of Chocolate Brownies Containing Edible-Cricket Protein

Edible insects, a sustainable and nutritious alternative to conventionally derived proteins, are unfamiliar to Westerners and often associated with negative sentiments. Edible-cricket protein (ECP) added to chocolate brownies (CB) [0% ECP = CBWO (without) vs. 6% w/w ECP = CBW (with)], and disclosed information [no ECP added = (−) vs. ECP with benefits = (+), ECP− and ECP+, respectively] yielded four CB treatments (CBWO−, CBWO+, CBW−, and CBW+). Subjects (n = 112 female and n = 98 male) rated liking, selected emotions before- and after-tasting, and determined consumption (CI) and purchase intent (PI) after tasting. Likings were analyzed with mixed-effects ANOVA and post hoc Tukey’s HSD test. Emotions were evaluated with Cochran’s-Q test and correspondence analysis. Emotions driving or inhibiting overall liking (OL) were assessed with penalty-lift analyses using two-sample t-tests. A random forest algorithm was used to predict PI and estimate variables’ importance. Female’s and male’s expected OL were higher for CBWO− than for CBWO+. Females’ actual OL was higher for CBWO than for CBW regardless of the disclosed information but males’ actual OL was the same across treatments. Females exhibited negative-liking disconfirmation for CBW−. In both tasting conditions, the disclosed information affected treatments’ emotional profiles more than formulation. After-tasting emotions “happy” and “satisfied” were critical predictors of PI.