Iron in fortified biscuits: A simple method for its quantification, bioaccessibility study and physicochemical quality

Peruvian fava beans for health and food innovation: physicochemical, morphological, nutritional, and techno-functional characterization

Peruvian fava beans (PFB) are used in traditional cuisine as a nutrient-rich, flavorful, and textural ingredient; however, little is known about their industrial properties. This study evaluated the physicochemical, nutritional, and techno-functional characteristics of PFB varieties: Verde, Quelcao, and Peruanita. PFB exhibited distinct physical characteristics, quality parameters, and morphology. The color patterns of the seed coat and the hardness were the main parameters for distinguishing them. Nutritionally, all three samples exhibited high protein (23.88-24.88 g/100 g), with high proportion of essential amino acids, high dietary fiber (21.74-25.28 g/100 g), and mineral content. They also contain polyphenols (0.79-1.25 mg GAE/g) and flavonoids (0.91-1.06 mg CE/g) with antioxidant potential (16.60-21.01 and 4.68-5.17 µmol TE/g for ABTS and DPPH assays, respectively). Through XRD measurements, the semi-crystalline nature of samples was identified, belonging to the C-type crystalline form. Regarding techno-functionality, PFB flours displayed great foaming capacity, with Verde variety being the most stable. Emulsifying capacity was similar among samples, although Peruanita was more stable during heating. Upon heating with water, PFB flours reached peak viscosities between 175 and 272 cP, and final viscosities between 242 and 384 cP. Quelcao and Verde formed firmer gels after refrigeration. Based on these results, PFB would be useful to developing innovative, nutritious, and healthy products that meet market needs.

Chemometrics, health and environmental risk assessments of commonly consumed biscuits in Lagos and Ibadan metropolises, Southwestern Nigeria

The United Nations' Agenda 2030 for sustainable development calls, amongst others, for universal action toward ending malnutrition and ensuring healthy living and well-being for all. So, efforts have intensified to attain the sustainable development goal-2 targets on stunting and wasting in children. Reported herein, therefore, is the quantification of metals in biscuits. Biscuits are commonly consumed snacks world-over and have become sources of nourishment for children and adults due to growing sedentary lifestyles and hectic school/work schedules. Nine metals (Pb, Ni, Cu, Co, Zn, Fe, Na, Mg and Ca) were assayed in six biscuit types (crackers, cookies, shortcakes, digestives, cabins and wafers) via wet digestion and flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and the ensuing data subjected to multivariate analyses (analysis of variance, Tukey's test, Pearson correlation, and principal component and hierarchical cluster analyses). The highest concentrations of macrominerals were found in the wafers (Ca), crackers (Na) and cabins (Mg) whereas the micronutrients peaked in the cookies (Fe, Zn), crackers (Cu), shortcake (Co) and wafers (Ni), respectively. The metal levels in the sampled biscuits were all safe for consumption, except for Pb at 0.83 ± 0.76-2.3 ± 1.3 mg/kg. Similarly, the health risk assessments of ingesting metals from the biscuits exposed Pb as potentially liable to cause adverse non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health effects in children (aged 4-20 years) but Co and Ni exhibited borderline non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks, respectively, in children. Gratifyingly, the ecological risk assessments to evaluate the likelihood of wastes, from expired and/or egested potentially toxic metals-contaminated biscuits, to cause damage to ecology were categorized as low. Nonetheless, constant evaluation and monitoring remain germane.

Critical assessment of wheat biofortification for iron and zinc: a comprehensive review of conceptualization, trends, approaches, bioavailability, health impact, and policy framework

Addressing global hidden hunger, particularly in women of childbearing age and children under five, presents a significant challenge, with a focus on iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) deficiency. Wheat, a staple crop in the developing world, is crucial for addressing this issue through biofortification efforts. While extensive research has explored various approaches to enhance Fe and Zn content in wheat, there remains a scarcity of comprehensive data on their bioavailability and impact on human and animal health. This systematic review examines the latest trends in wheat biofortification approaches, assesses bioavailability, evaluates the effects of biofortified wheat on health outcomes in humans and animals, and analyzes global policy frameworks. Additionally, a meta-analysis of per capita daily Fe and Zn intake from average wheat consumption was conducted. Notably, breeding-based approaches have led to the release of 40 biofortified wheat varieties for commercial cultivation in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Mexico, Bolivia, and Nepal, but this progress has overlooked Africa, a particularly vulnerable continent. Despite these advancements, there is a critical need for large-scale systematic investigations into the nutritional impact of biofortified wheat, indicating a crucial area for future research. This article can serve as a valuable resource for multidisciplinary researchers engaged in wheat biofortification, aiding in the refinement of ongoing and future strategies to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal of eradicating hunger and malnutrition by 2030.

Factors affecting iron absorption and the role of fortification in enhancing iron levels

Iron is an important micronutrient required for a number of biological processes including oxygen transport, cellular respiration, the synthesis of nucleic acids and the activity of key enzymes. The World Health Organization has recognised iron deficiency as the most common nutritional deficiency globally and as a major determinant of anaemia. Iron deficiency anaemia affects 40% of all children between the ages of 6 and 59 months, 37% of mothers who are pregnant and 30% of women between the ages of 15 and 49 years worldwide. Dietary iron exists in two main forms known as haem iron and non-haem iron. Haem iron is obtained from animal sources such as meat and shows higher bioavailability than non-haem iron, which can be obtained from both plant and animal sources. Different components in food can enhance or inhibit iron absorption from the diet. Components such as meat proteins and organic acids increase iron absorption, while phytate, calcium and polyphenols reduce iron absorption. Iron levels in the body are tightly regulated since both iron overload and iron deficiency can exert harmful effects on human health. Iron is stored mainly as haemoglobin and as iron bound to proteins such as ferritin and hemosiderin. Iron deficiency affects individuals at increased risk due to factors such as age, pregnancy, menstruation and various diseases. Different solutions for iron deficiency are applied at individual and community levels. Iron supplements and intravenous iron can be used to treat individuals with iron deficiency, while various types of iron-fortified foods and biofortified crops can be employed for larger communities. Foods such as rice, flour and biscuits have been used to prepare fortified iron products. However, it is important to ensure the fortification process does not exert significant negative effects on organoleptic properties and the shelf life of the food product.

Formulation of fiber enriched crackers biscuit: Effect on nutritional composition, physical and sensory properties

Refined wheat flour commonly used in making crackers biscuits is rich in starch but low in protein and fibre. This study investigated the effect of adding different levels of lemon basil (LBP) and scent leaf powders (SLP) and cashew kernel flour (CKF) incorporation in crackers biscuits on the nutritional, phytochemical, physical and sensory properties. Seven formulations of crackers biscuits were prepared by mixing LBP and SLP in the ratio of 1.0%, 2.5% and 5.0%, respectively and 20% CKF with wheat flour. The result showed that the ash, crude protein, fat and crude fibre content of the enriched crackers was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the control. Samples containing 5.0% LBP and SLP had the highest calcium, sodium and magnesium and differed significantly (p < 0.05) from the control. Increase in the incorporation with LBP and SLP resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the phytochemical content. The incorporation of LBP and SLP had no significant (p > 0.05) effect on the height and weight of the crackers. The control crackers scored highest for overall acceptability and this was followed closely by the crackers enriched with 2.5% LBP and 1.0% SLP. Nutritious and acceptable crackers could thus be produced with 1.0% SLP and 2.5% LBP incorporation.

Technological, sensory, nutritional and bioactive potential of pan breads produced with refined and whole grain buckwheat flours

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Breads made with 30% refined buckwheat flour or 30% whole grain buckwheat flour had minor interference in technological quality.

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Breads made with 30% or 45% whole grain buckwheat flour presented higher mineral contents.

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Breads made with refined buckwheat flour presented higher mineral bioaccessibility.

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After baking, rutin and quercetin levels increased, mainly in breads with 45% whole grain buckwheat flour.

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Breads made with 30% refined buckwheat flour or 30% whole grain buckwheat flour were well accepted by consumers.

The nutritional quality and bioactive potential of breads made with partial replacement of refined wheat flour (RWF) with 30% or 45% refined buckwheat flour (RBF) or whole buckwheat flour (WGBF) was assessed through mineral bioaccessibility, starch digestibility, dietary fiber content and bioactive potential by determining rutin and quercetin levels during processing. Moreover, technological quality and sensory acceptance were also evaluated. Breads made with 30% or 45% WGBF showed higher mineral and fiber contents compared to the control, while the formulations with RBF showed higher bioaccessibility. No changes were observed in the rutin levels of the dough before and after fermentation, but after baking, rutin and quercetin levels increased. The highest starch hydrolysis was found in the formulation containing 45% RBF. The formulations made with 30% RBF or 30% WGBF were well accepted by consumers. Our study shows interesting results, as few studies report the effect of processing on bioactive compounds.

New approaches, bioavailability and the use of chelates as a promising method for food fortification

Food fortification has been used for many years to combat micronutrient deficiencies; the main challenge with food fortification is the combination of a bioavailable, affordable fortificant with the best (food) vehicle as a carrier to reach at-risk populations. This paper considers mineral deficiencies, especially iron, food fortification, target populations, and the use of chelates in food fortification, as well as different types of mineral-chelate complexes, advantages and limitations of previous trials, methods used for analysis of these complexes, bioavailability of minerals, factors influencing it, and methods particularly those in vitro for predicting outcomes. Three innovative methods (encapsulation, nanoparticulation, and chelation) were explored, which aim to overcome problems associated with conventional fortification, especially those affecting organoleptic properties and bioavailability; but often lead to the emergence of new limitations (for example instability, impracticality and high costs) requiring further research.

Kernel characterization and starch morphology in five varieties of Peruvian Andean maize

Peruvian Andean maize (PAM) has been commonly used as an ingredient that confers color, flavor, and texture in culinary. Nevertheless, no studies are focusing on agro-industrial interest characteristics to develop new products. This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical, nutritional, and technological characteristics of kernels and the starch granule morphology of the five main PAM varieties: Chullpi, Piscorunto, Giant Cuzco, Sacsa, and Purple. PAM's characterization was performed according to the official methods, and its morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Physically, the varieties of larger kernels (Giant Cuzco and Sacsa) presented a higher 1000-kernel weight and a lower hectoliter weight than those of smaller size (Piscorunto, Purple, and Chullpi). Nutritionally, PAM had higher ether extract (5%) and ash (2%) contents than other pigmented maizes. Likewise, they presented more significant amounts of essential amino acids, as leucine (10 mg/g protein) and tryptophan (up to 2 mg/g protein); unsaturated fatty acids, oleic (30%) and linoleic (53%); and minerals, as magnesium (104 mg/100 g). SEM showed that endosperm structure and starch morphology vary according to maize types and their grain location. Starch granules of floury PAM varieties were small and polyhedral in the sub-aleurone endosperm, whereas those of the central area were bigger and spherical. In Chullpi, it was observed a portion of vitreous endosperm with a compact structure. The low protein content (8.3%) and the endosperm structure of floury varieties of PAM influenced their pasting properties. Their pasting temperature was <69 to 71 °C>, peak viscosity < 3200 to 4400 cP>, and seatback <1250 to 1706 cP>; therefore, they do not retrograde easily. The results suggest that PAM has characteristics that would help elaborate regional products with added value, such as soups, willows, beverages, and porridges.

Iron supplementation and iron-fortified foods: a review

About one-third of the world population is suffering from iron deficiency. Delivery of iron through diet is a practical, economical, and sustainable approach. Clinical studies have shown that the consumption of iron-fortified foods is one of the most effective methods for the prevention of iron deficiency. However, supplementing iron through diet can cause undesirable side-effects. Thus, it is essential to develop new iron-rich ingredients, iron-fortified products with high bioavailability, better stability, and lower cost. It is also essential to develop newer processing technologies for more effective fortification. This review compared the iron supplementation strategies used to treat the highly iron-deficient population and the general public. We also reviewed the efficacy of functional (iron-rich) ingredients that can be incorporated into food materials to produce iron-fortified foods. The most commonly available foods, such as cereals, bakery products, dairy products, beverages, and condiments are still the best vehicles for iron fortification and delivery.Scope of reviewThe manuscript aims at providing a comprehensive review of the latest publications that cover three aspects: administration routes for iron supplementation, iron-rich ingredients used for iron supplementation, and iron-fortified foods.

In vitro evaluation of the bioaccessibility of antioxidative properties in commercially baby foods

Fruit-vegetable based products are essential for infants as they widely used the first complementary solid foods. This study aimed to investigate the physicochemical properties, the antioxidant capacities, total phenolic content, and bioaccessibility of 24 different commercially fruit-vegetable based complementary foods. To determination of bioaccessibility, samples were processed by an in vitro digestive enzymatic extraction that mimics the conditions in the gastrointestinal tract. Total polyphenol content was analyzed using Folin-Ciocalteu assay, and antioxidant capacities were assessed by CUPRAC and ABTS methods. The total phenol content of the samples ranges from 892.21 to 1729.13 mg GAE mg/100 g. While the antioxidant capacity of the samples averages 256.26 µmol TE mg/100 g according to the ABTS method, they were found 2417.79 µmol TE mg/100 g for CUPRAC method. Also, the bioaccessibility of total phenol content determined 62.72-98.48% of all samples. As a result, antioxidant properties and bioaccessibility of the samples were changed according to the sample content and chemical composition. The use of fruit or fruit juice in the preparation of commercial baby food has improved antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility, thus increasing the beneficial health effect and nutraceutical properties of the baby meal.

Effect of phytase treatment of sorghum flour, an alternative for gluten free foods and bioaccessibility of essential minerals

This study evaluated the effect of phytase treatment on the bioavailability of iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn), and myo-inositol phosphate fractions in sorghum flour; and characterized its macronutrients and minerals. The proximate composition and mineral content indicated that, sorghum flour has a nutritional potential superior to wheat and maize. The results obtained in the solubility and dialysis assays indicated that, naturally occurring minerals (without phytase treatment) in sorghum flour, presented considerable bioaccessibility; reaching 32, 47 and 67% of dialyzable Fe, Zn, and Ca respectively. The use of phytase had a positive influence on the reduction of myo-inositol phosphates, mainly the IP6 fraction, present in sorghum flour samples, and an increase in the soluble percentage (Fe 52% for one sample, for Zn higher than 266%) and dialyzed minerals (Fe 7.8-150%; Zn 19.7 for one sample; and Ca 5-205%) for most samples. Therefore, the essential minerals naturally occurring in sorghum have an absorption potential; and the use of phytase reduced the IP6 fraction and improved the availability of the minerals evaluated.

Effect of Rice Flour Fermentation with Lactobacillus spicheri DSM 15429 on the Nutritional Features of Gluten-Free Muffins

Lactobacillus Spicheri DSM 15429 strain was used to ferment rice flour, aiming at exploiting its influence on the amino-acids, minerals, lactic acid, total phenols, and antioxidant activity of the rice sourdough and gluten-free muffins. Gluten-free muffins were prepared by using 15% rice sourdough fermented with the above strain of lactic acid bacteria and compared with rice spontaneous fermentation. Methods like LC-MS (Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry), AA (atomic absorption), HPLC (High-performance liquid chromatography), Folin–Ciocalteu, and 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity (DPPH) were used to fulfill the aim of the study. The addition of rice sourdough fermented with LAB was reflected in the chemical composition of the final baked good, improving its amount on bioactive compounds such as amino acids, mineral bioavailability, total phenols, and antioxidant activity. Total phenols and antioxidant activity increased their amount by 70.53% and 73.70%, respectively, meanwhile, lactic acid, minerals, and amino-acids increased their values at least twice. Thus, rice fermented with Lactobacilus spicheri DSM 15429 strain could be a tool to further increase the nutritional value of gluten-free baked products.

Fortification of whole wheat flour with different iron compounds: effect on quality parameters and stability

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of fortification of whole wheat flour with different iron compounds, such as ferrous sulfate (FS), ferrous fumarate (FF), reduced iron (RI), ferric sodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate (NaFeEDTA), microencapsulated ferrous sulfate (FSm) and microencapsulated ferrous fumarate (FFm), on quality parameters: color, titratable acidity, peroxide value (PV) and hexanal values, during 120 days of storage. An iron content of 1.38 mg/100 g was quantified in non-fortified whole wheat flour and after fortification, the iron levels ranged from 4.80 to 6.29 mg/100 g. The fortification of whole wheat flour with different iron compounds showed changes on the quality parameters evaluated during storage with exception of the color. The whole flour acidity was affected mainly by NaFeEDTA. Compounds FS and FFm presented the highest PV in whole flour after 30 days of storage. Whole flours fortified with FS and FSm presented higher hexanal levels after 30 and 90 days of storage, respectively. Whole flours fortified with RI and NaFeEDTA presented more stability on quality parameters evaluated during storage period. Therefore, the different iron compounds, when used on whole wheat flour fortification, affect differently the quality of the product during storage.

Whey Peptide-Iron Complexes Increase the Oxidative Stability of Oil-in-Water Emulsions in Comparison to Iron Salts

Food fortification with iron may favor lipid oxidation in both food matrices and the human body. This study aimed at evaluating the effect of peptide-iron complexation on lipid oxidation catalyzed by iron, using oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions as a model system. The extent of lipid oxidation of emulsions containing iron salts (FeSO₄ or FeCl₂) or iron complexes (peptide-iron complexes or ferrous bisglycinate) was evaluated during 7 days, measured as primary (peroxide value) and secondary products (TBARS and volatile compounds). Both salts catalyzed lipid oxidation, leading to peroxide values 2.6- to 4.6-fold higher than the values found for the peptide-iron complexes. The addition of the peptide-iron complexes resulted in the formation of lower amounts of secondary volatiles of lipid oxidation (up to 78-fold) than those of iron salts, possibly due to the antioxidant activity of the peptides and their capacity to keep iron apart from the lipid phase, since the iron atom is coordinated and takes part in a stable structure. The peptide-iron complexes showed potential to reduce the undesirable sensory changes in food products and to decrease the side effects related to free iron and the lipid damage of cell membranes in the organism, due to the lower reactivity of iron in the complexed form.

Bioaccessibility of Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Zn, and crude protein in beef, pork and chicken after thermal processing

The bioaccessibility of Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Zn, and crude protein was evaluated after submitting beef, pork, and chicken to five different thermal treatments. The bioaccessibility of crude protein and metals were simulated by using in vitro enzymatic digestion with a gastric fluid solution and dialysability approach. Inductively coupled plasma optical spectrometry was used to quantify the dialyzable fraction and the total mineral content after microwave-assisted digestion. Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry quantified Cu in chicken dialyzable fraction. The increase of temperature and heat exposure period decreased the protein bioaccessibility. Considering the total and dialyzable fraction, beef is an important source of Cu, Fe, Mg, and Zn to the human diet. The results of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy indicated physical changes in the treated samples related to protein denaturation, which was probably responsible for the decreased bioaccessibility of minerals and protein, mainly at higher temperatures.

Bioaccessibility of calcium, iron and magnesium in residues of citrus and characterization of macronutrients

The aim of this study was to estimate bioaccessibility of Ca, Fe and Mg in residues of orange, lime, and their mixture, in order to evaluate the effects of cooking in water on mineral bioaccessibility and also to determine the composition of macronutrients and myo-inositol phosphate content. The citrus samples contained on average 9.53g/100 g moisture, 6.09g/100 g protein, 3.23g/100g ash, 3.15g/100g lipids, 34.26g/100g insoluble fiber, 27.88g/100g soluble fiber and 25.64g/100g carbohydrates. The percentage of soluble and dialyzable minerals ranged from 19.36 to 77.33% and from 5.59 to 69.06% for Fe, from 33.34 to 60.84% and 14.71 to -26.13% for Ca, and from 29.95 to 94.20% and 34.42 to 62.51%, for Mg, respectively. It was verified that cooking influenced the minerals bioaccessibility and increased the dialyzable fraction of Fe and Mg, but decreased the fraction of Ca dialysate, except to orange. No myoinositol phosphate esters were detected. The Principal Component Analysis allowed the separation of different types of citrus residues, but did not discriminate the raw and cooked samples. This study pointed the potential of citrus residue to be used for human consumption and contribute to the necessary dietary minerals and macronutrients, with high content of soluble and insoluble fibers.