A preliminary survey of carrion breeding insects associated with the Eid ul Azha festival in remote Pakistan

Why humans kill animals and why we cannot avoid it

Killing animals has been a ubiquitous human behaviour throughout history, yet it is becoming increasingly controversial and criticised in some parts of contemporary human society. Here we review 10 primary reasons why humans kill animals, discuss the necessity (or not) of these forms of killing, and describe the global ecological context for human killing of animals. Humans historically and currently kill animals either directly or indirectly for the following reasons: (1) wild harvest or food acquisition, (2) human health and safety, (3) agriculture and aquaculture, (4) urbanisation and industrialisation, (5) invasive, overabundant or nuisance wildlife control, (6) threatened species conservation, (7) recreation, sport or entertainment, (8) mercy or compassion, (9) cultural and religious practice, and (10) research, education and testing. While the necessity of some forms of animal killing is debatable and further depends on individual values, we emphasise that several of these forms of animal killing are a necessary component of our inescapable involvement in a single, functioning, finite, global food web. We conclude that humans (and all other animals) cannot live in a way that does not require animal killing either directly or indirectly, but humans can modify some of these killing behaviours in ways that improve the welfare of animals while they are alive, or to reduce animal suffering whenever they must be killed. We encourage a constructive dialogue that (1) accepts and permits human participation in one enormous global food web dependent on animal killing and (2) focuses on animal welfare and environmental sustainability. Doing so will improve the lives of both wild and domestic animals to a greater extent than efforts to avoid, prohibit or vilify human animal-killing behaviour.

Identification of Forensically Important Blow Flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in China Based on COI

Blow flies are among the most important insects in forensic entomology casework. Identification of blow fly species can be a time consuming and difficult task, especially at their early development stages. Present DNA-based technologies provide a promising identification method for these forensically important calliphorids. The cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) sequence has been applied as a suitable DNA marker in calliphorid identification for many years; however, limitation exists in using short sequence to determine genetically close species. In this study, COI long sequences were utilized in species-level identification. Seventy-two specimens were collected from 27 locations across 22 Chinese provinces, and unambiguously determined as 16 species under seven genera of Calliphoridae. Analysis of long mitochondrial COI sequence (1,021-1,382 bp) data from forensically relevant blow flies collected in the inland region of China provided a reliable marker for accurate identification. Our data provide genetic diversity and reference for global forensic-related blow fly species identification, and conductive meaning on future utilization of Chinese calliphorids used in forensic entomological practice.

Scuttle Flies (Diptera: Phoridae) Inhabiting Rabbit Carcasses Confined to Plastic Waste Bins in Malaysia Include New Records and an Undescribed Species

Scuttle flies (Diptera: Phoridae) are small-sized insects of forensic importance. They are well known for diversified species and habitats, but in the context of forensic entomology, scuttle flies' inhabitance of corpses remains inadequately explored. With recent reports indicating the existence of more scuttle fly species possibly inhabiting these environments, a decomposition study using animal carcasses in enclosed environments was conducted. The aim was to record the occurrence of scuttle flies on rabbit carcasses placed in sealed plastic waste bins for a 40-day period. The study was conducted as two replicates in Bangi, Selangor. Sampling was carried out at different time intervals inside a modified mosquito net as a trap. Inside the trap, adult scuttle flies were aspirated and preserved in 70% ethanol. The fly larvae and pupae were reared until their adult stage to facilitate identification. From this study, six scuttle fly species were collected, i.e., Dahliphora sigmoides (Schmitz) ♂, Gymnoptera simplex (Brues) ♀, Megaselia scalaris (Loew) ♂♀, Puliciphora borinquenensis (Wheeler) ♂, Puliciphora obtecta Meijere ♀ and Spiniphora sp. ♀. Both D. sigmoides and P. obtecta were newly recorded in Malaysia, whilst the Spiniphora sp. was considered an unknown species until it was linked to its male counterpart. The sealed waste bins were found to be accessible for the scuttle flies with delayed arrival (day 4-5). Megaselia scalaris was the primary scuttle fly species attracted to the carcass, and its occurrence could be observed between days 4-7 (replicate 1) and days 5-33 (replicate 2). This study also revealed Sarcophaga spp. (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) as the earliest species to colonize the remains and the longest to inhabit them (days 2-40). The larvae of Hermetia illucens (Linneaus) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) and Fannia sp. (Diptera: Fanniidae) were found on the carcasses during the mid-advanced decay period. These findings expand the knowledge on the diversity of forensically important scuttle flies and coexisting dipterans in enclosed environments in Malaysia.

Forensic Entomology in Animal Cruelty Cases

Forensic entomology can be useful to the veterinary professional in cases of animal cruelty. A main application of forensic entomology is to determine the minimum postmortem interval by estimating the time of insect colonization, based on knowledge of the rate of development of pioneer colonizers and on insect species succession during decomposition of animal remains. Since insect development is temperature dependent, these estimates require documentation of the environmental conditions, including ambient temperature. It can also aid in the detection and recognition of wounds, as well as estimate the timing of periods of neglect. Knowledge of the geographic distribution of insects that colonize animal remains may suggest that there has been movement or concealment of the carcass or can create associations between a suspect, a victim, and a crime scene. In some instances, it can aid in the detection of drugs or toxins within decomposed or skeletonized remains. During animal cruelty investigations, it may become the responsibility of the veterinary professional to document and collect entomological evidence from live animals or during the necropsy. The applications of forensic entomology are discussed. A protocol is described for documenting and collecting entomological evidence at the scene and during the necropsy, with additional emphasis on recording geographic location, meteorological data, and collection and preservation of insect specimens.

Temperature-dependent appearance of forensically useful beetles on carcasses

Estimating the pre-appearance interval (PAI) of carrion insects from temperature is a new and promising improvement of entomological methods for post-mortem interval estimation. In order to use this approach in casework, a taxon should demonstrate a close relationship between PAI and temperature. In this article we test this relationship in selected species of beetles, namely Thanatophilus sinuatus Fabr., T. rugosus L., Necrodes littoralis L. (Silphidae), Necrobia rufipes De Geer, N. violacea L. (Cleridae), Dermestes frischii Kug. (Dermestidae), Creophilus maxillosus L., Philonthus politus L., Ontholestes murinus L. (Staphylinidae), Saprinus semistriatus Scriba, S. planiusculus Motch. and Margarinotus brunneus Fabr. (Histeridae). Data were collected from 30 pig carcasses decomposing under different temperature conditions in open and forest habitats of Western Poland. Beetles were sampled with pitfall traps and with manual and soil sampling. The on-site temperature of the ground level was recorded. The relationship was tested separately in adult and larval stages. All species, except for D. frischii, revealed significant relationship between PAI and temperature. In all cases PAI was found to decrease exponentially with an increase in temperature. Moreover, above some temperature it was nearly constant. The relationship was strong in the case of adult and larval N. littoralis, adult N. rufipes, adult and larval C. maxillosus, adult P. politus, S. semistriatus and S. planiusculus. The relationship of moderate strength was found for adult and larval T. sinuatus, adult N. violacea and adult M. brunneus. In the case of adult T. rugosus and O. murinus the relationship was weak. Current results demonstrate that there are solid premises for estimating PAI from temperature in T. sinuatus, N. littoralis, N. rufipes, N. violacea, C. maxillosus, P. politus, S. semistriatus, S. planiusculus and M. brunneus. Implications for forensic entomology are discussed.