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Yu H, Zou ZX, Wei W, Li Y. Conjugated Linoleic Acid Reduces Lipid Accumulation via Down-regulation Expression of Lipogenic Genes and Up-regulation of Apoptotic Genes in Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) Adipocyte In Vitro. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 26:169-180. [PMID: 38224425 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-024-10286-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
The relationship between conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and lipogenesis has been extensively studied in mammals and some cell lines, but it is relatively rare in fish, and the potential mechanism of action of CLA reducing fat mass remains unclear. The established primary culture model for studying lipogenesis in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) preadipocytes was used in the present study, and the objective was to explore the effects of CLA on intracellular lipid and TG content, fatty acid composition, and mRNA levels of adipogenesis transcription factors, lipase, and apoptosis genes in grass carp adipocytes in vitro. The results showed that CLA reduced the size of adipocyte and lipid droplet and decreased the content of intracellular lipid and TG, which was accompanied by a significant down-regulation of mRNA abundance in transcriptional regulators including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) α, sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) 1c, lipase genes including fatty acid synthase (FAS), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), lipoprotein lipase (LPL). Meanwhile, it decreased the content of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and n - 6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-6 PUFA) and increased the content of monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and n - 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) in primary grass carp adipocyte. In addition, CLA induced adipocyte apoptosis through downregulated anti-apoptotic gene B-cell CLL/lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) mRNA level and up-regulated pro-apoptotic genes tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax), Caspase-3, and Caspase-9 mRNA level in a dose-dependent manner. These findings suggest that CLA can act on grass carp adipocytes through various pathways, including decreasing adipocyte size, altering fatty acid composition, inhibiting adipocyte differentiation, promoting adipocyte apoptosis, and ultimately decreasing lipid accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Yu
- College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 400047, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhao-Xia Zou
- College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 400047, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Wei
- College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 400047, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Li
- College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 400047, People's Republic of China.
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Infectious Spleen and Kidney Necrosis Virus (ISKNV) Triggers Mitochondria-Mediated Dynamic Interaction Signals via an Imbalance of Bax/Bak over Bcl-2/Bcl-xL in Fish Cells. Viruses 2022; 14:v14050922. [PMID: 35632664 PMCID: PMC9144193 DOI: 10.3390/v14050922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular pathogenesis of infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV) infections is important but has rarely been studied in connection to host organelle behavior. In the present study, we demonstrated that ISKNV can induce host cell death via a pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member imbalance in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP or ΔΨm) regulation in GF-1 cells. The results of our study on ISKNV infection showed that it can induce host cell death by up to 80% at day 5 post-infection. Subsequently, in an apoptotic assay, ISKNV infection was seen to induce an increase in Annexin-V-positive signals by 20% and in propidium iodide (PI) staining-positive signals by up to 30% at day 5 (D5) in GF-1 cells. Then, through our studies on the mechanism of cell death in mitochondria function, we found that ISKNV can induce MMP loss by up to 58% and 78% at days 4 and 5 with a JC1 dye staining assay. Furthermore, we found that pro-apoptotic members Bax and Bak were upregulated from the early replication stage (day one) to the late stage (day 5), but the expression profiles were very dynamically different. On the other hand, by Western blotted analysis, the anti-apoptotic members Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL were upregulated very quickly at the same time from day one (two-fold) and continued to maintain this level at day five. Finally, we found that pro-apoptotic death signals strongly activated the downstream signals of caspase-9 and -3. Taken together, these results suggest that ISKNV infection can induce Bax/Bak-mediated cell death signaling downstream of caspase-9 and -3 activation. During the viral replication cycle with the cell death induction process, the anti-apoptotic members Bcl-2/Bcl-xL interacted with the pro-apoptotic members Bax/Bak to maintain the mitochondrial function in the dynamic interaction so as to maintain the MMP in GF-1 cells. These findings may provide insights into DNA-virus control and treatment.
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Chen KW, Chiu HW, Chiu YW, Wu JL, Hong JR. EPA and DHA can modulate cell death via inhibition of the Fas/tBid-mediated signaling pathway with ISKNV infection in grouper fin cell line (GF-1) cells. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 97:608-616. [PMID: 31614198 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2019] [Revised: 10/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) play important roles in organisms, including the structure and liquidity of cell membranes, anti-oxidation and anti-inflammation. Very little has been done in terms of the effect of PUFAs on cell death, especially on DNA virus. In this study, we demonstrated that the infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV) can induce host cell death via the apoptotic cell death pathway, which correlated to modulation by PUFAs in grouper fin cell line (GF-1) cells. We screened the PUFAs, including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), for the ability of different dosages to prevent cell death in GF-1 cells with ISKNV infection. In the results, each 10 μM of DHA and EPA treatment enhanced host cell viability up to 80% at day 5 post-infection. Then, in Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) dUTP Nick-End Labeling (TUNEL) assay, DHA- and EPA-treated groups reduced TUNEL positive signals 50% in GF-1 cells with ISKNV infection. Then, through studies of the mechanism of cell death, we found that ISKNV can induce both the Bax/caspase-3 and Fas/caspase-8/tBid death signaling pathways in GF-1 cells, especially at day 5 post-infection. Furthermore, we found that DHA and EPA treatment can either prevent caspase-3 activation on 17-kDa form cleavage or Bid cleaved (15-kDa form) for activation by caspase-8, apparently. On the other hand, the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2 was upregulated 0.3-fold and 0.15-fold at day 3 and day 5, respectively, compared to ISKNV-infected and DHA-treated cells; that this did not happen in the EPA-treated group showed that different PUFAs trigger different signals. Finally, ISKNV-infected GF-1 cells treated with either DHA or EPA showed a 5-fold difference in viral titer at day 5. Taken together, these results suggest that optimal PUFA treatment can affect cell death signaling through both the intrinsic and extrinsic death pathways, reducing viral expression and viral titer in GF-1 cells. This finding may provide insight in DNA virus infection and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuang-Wen Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology and Bioindustry Sciences, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC; Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsuan-Wen Chiu
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology and Bioindustry Sciences, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC; Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yu-Wei Chiu
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology and Bioindustry Sciences, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC; Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jen-Leih Wu
- Laboratory of Marine Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Jiann-Ruey Hong
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology and Bioindustry Sciences, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC; Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC.
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Ke F, Zhang QY. Aquatic animal viruses mediated immune evasion in their host. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 86:1096-1105. [PMID: 30557608 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Viruses are important and lethal pathogens that hamper aquatic animals. The result of the battle between host and virus would determine the occurrence of diseases. The host will fight against virus infection with various responses such as innate immunity, adaptive immunity, apoptosis, and so on. On the other hand, the virus also develops numerous strategies such as immune evasion to antagonize host antiviral responses. Here, We review the research advances on virus mediated immune evasions to host responses containing interferon response, NF-κB signaling, apoptosis, and adaptive response, which are executed by viral genes, proteins, and miRNAs from different aquatic animal viruses including Alloherpesviridae, Iridoviridae, Nimaviridae, Birnaviridae, Reoviridae, and Rhabdoviridae. Thus, it will facilitate the understanding of aquatic animal virus mediated immune evasion and potentially benefit the development of novel antiviral applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Qi-Ya Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, China.
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Cáceres B, Ramirez A, Carrillo E, Jimenez G, Griñán-Lisón C, López-Ruiz E, Jiménez-Martínez Y, Marchal JA, Boulaiz H. Deciphering the Mechanism of Action Involved in Enhanced Suicide Gene Colon Cancer Cell Killer Effect Mediated by Gef and Apoptin. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11020264. [PMID: 30813432 PMCID: PMC6406936 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11020264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the great advances in cancer treatment, colorectal cancer has emerged as the second highest cause of death from cancer worldwide. For this type of tumor, the use of suicide gene therapy could represent a novel therapy. We recently demonstrated that co-expression of gef and apoptin dramatically inhibits proliferation of the DLD-1 colon cell line. In the present manuscript, we try to establish the mechanism underlying the enhanced induction of apoptosis by triggering both gef and apoptin expression in colon tumor cells. Scanning microscopy reveals that simultaneous expression of gef and apoptin induces the apparition of many "pores" in the cytoplasmic membrane not detected in control cell lines. The formation of pores induced by the gef gene and accentuated by apoptin results in cell death by necrosis. Moreover, we observed the presence of apoptotic cells. Performing protein expression analysis using western blot, we revealed an activation of mitochondrial apoptosis (increased expression of Pp53, cytochrome c, Bax, and caspase 9) and also the involvement of the extrinsic pathway through caspase 8activation. In conclusion, in this manuscript we demonstrate for the first time that the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis and pore formation is also involved in the cell death caused by the co-expression of the gef and apoptin genes. Our results suggest that co-expression of gef and apoptin genes induces an increase in post-apoptotic necrotic cell death and could be a valuable tool in the design of new antitumor strategies focused on the enhancement of the immune response against cancer cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanca Cáceres
- Motril Health Center, Hospital Santa Ana, Motril, 18600 Granada, Spain.
| | - Alberto Ramirez
- Biopathology and Medicine Regenerative Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs. GRANADA), SAS-Universidad de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
| | - Esmeralda Carrillo
- Biopathology and Medicine Regenerative Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs. GRANADA), SAS-Universidad de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Research Unit "Modeling Nature" (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
| | - Gema Jimenez
- Biopathology and Medicine Regenerative Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs. GRANADA), SAS-Universidad de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Research Unit "Modeling Nature" (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
| | - Carmen Griñán-Lisón
- Biopathology and Medicine Regenerative Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs. GRANADA), SAS-Universidad de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Research Unit "Modeling Nature" (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
| | - Elena López-Ruiz
- Biopathology and Medicine Regenerative Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs. GRANADA), SAS-Universidad de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Research Unit "Modeling Nature" (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Jaén, E-23071 Jaén, Spain.
| | - Yaiza Jiménez-Martínez
- Biopathology and Medicine Regenerative Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs. GRANADA), SAS-Universidad de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Research Unit "Modeling Nature" (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
| | - Juan A Marchal
- Biopathology and Medicine Regenerative Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs. GRANADA), SAS-Universidad de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Research Unit "Modeling Nature" (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
| | - Houria Boulaiz
- Biopathology and Medicine Regenerative Institute (IBIMER), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Biosanitary Institute of Granada (ibs. GRANADA), SAS-Universidad de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
- Research Unit "Modeling Nature" (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain.
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Reshi L, Wang HV, Hui CF, Su YC, Hong JR. Anti-apoptotic genes Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL overexpression can block iridovirus serine/threonine kinase-induced Bax/mitochondria-mediated cell death in GF-1 cells. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 61:120-129. [PMID: 28025159 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2016.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Although serine/threonine (ST) kinase is known to induce host cell death in GF-1 cells, it remains unclear how ST kinase induces mitochondrial function loss. In the present study, we addressed the issue of mitochondrial function loss by determining whether the Bcl-2 family members Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL can prevent ST kinase-induced cell death activity via interacting with the pro-apoptotic gene Bax. Grouper fin cells (GF-1) carrying EGFP-Bal-xL and EGFP-Bcl-2 fused genes were selected, established in cell culture, and used to examine the involvement of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL overexpression in protection of GF-1 cells from the effects of the giant sea perch iridovirus (GSIV) ST kinase gene. Using the TUNEL assay, we found that EGFP-Bcl-2 and EGFP-Bcl-xL reduced GSIV ST kinase-induced apoptosis to 20% all at 24 h and 48 h post-transfection (pt). Also, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL substantially reduced the percentage of cells with GSIV ST kinase-induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψps) at 24 and 48 hpt, respectively, and this reduction correlated with a 30% and 50% enhancement of host cell viability at 24 and 48 hpt as compared with vector control. Moreover, analysis of the effect of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL interaction with Bax targeted to mitochondria during ST kinase expression at 48 hpt found that Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL also interacted with Bax to block cytochrome c release. Finally, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL overexpression caused blockage of ST kinase function at 48 hpt, which was correlated with preventing caspase-9 and -3 cleavage and activation, thereby blocking downstream death signaling events. Taken together, our results suggest that the ST kinase-induced Bax/mitochondria-mediated cell death pathway can be blocked by the interaction of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL with Bax to inhibit cytochrome c release during MMP loss. This rescue activity also correlated with inhibition of caspase-9 and -3 activation, thereby enhancing cell viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Latif Reshi
- Lab of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Life Sciences, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hua-Ven Wang
- Department of Life Sciences, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Cho-Fat Hui
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yu-Chin Su
- Lab of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jiann-Ruey Hong
- Lab of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Biotechnology and Bioindustry, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1 University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan, ROC.
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Reshi L, Wu HC, Wu JL, Wang HV, Hong JR. GSIV serine/threonine kinase can induce apoptotic cell death via p53 and pro-apoptotic gene Bax upregulation in fish cells. Apoptosis 2016; 21:443-58. [PMID: 26833308 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-016-1219-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that GSIV induces apoptotic cell death through upregulation of the pro-apoptotic genes Bax and Bak in Grouper fin cells (GF-1 cells). However, the role of viral genome-encoded protein(s) in this death process remains unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that the Giant seaperch iridovirus (GSIV) genome encoded a serine/threonine kinase (ST kinase) protein, and induced apoptotic cell death via a p53-mediated Bax upregulation approach and a downregulation of Bcl-2 in fish cells. The ST kinase expression profile was identified through Western blot analyses, which indicated that expression started at day 1 h post-infection (PI), increased up to day 3, and then decreased by day 5 PI. This profile indicated the role of ST kinase expression during the early and middle phases of viral replication. We then cloned the ST kinase gene and tested its function in fish cells. The ST kinase was transiently expressed and used to investigate possible novel protein functions. The transient expression of ST kinase in GF-1 cells resulted in apoptotic cell features, as revealed with Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase biotin-dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assays and Hoechst 33258 staining at 24 h (37 %) and 48 h post-transfection (PT) (49 %). Then, through studies on the mechanism of cell death, we found that ST kinase overexpression could upregulate the anti-stress gene p53 and the pro-apoptotic gene Bax at 48 h PT. Interestingly, this upregulation of p53 and Bax also correlated to alterations in the mitochondria function that induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and activated the initiator caspase-9 and the effector caspase-3 in the downstream. Moreover, when the p53-dependent transcriptional downstream gene was blocked by a specific transcriptional inhibitor, it was found that pifithrin-α not only reduced Bax expression, but also averted cell death in GF-1 cells during the ST kinase overexpression. Taken altogether, these results suggested that aquatic GSIV ST kinase could induce apoptosis via upregulation of p53 and Bax expression, resulting in mitochondrial disruption, which activated a downstream caspases-mediated cell death pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Latif Reshi
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology and Bioindustry Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC.,Department of Life Sciences, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Horng-Cherng Wu
- Laboratory Department of Food Science and Technology, Chin Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan, 717, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jen-Leih Wu
- Laboratory of Marine Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hao-Ven Wang
- Department of Life Sciences, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jiann-Ruey Hong
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology and Bioindustry Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, No 1. University Road, Tainan City, 701, Taiwan, ROC.
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Chen XY, Wen CM, Wu JL, Su YC, Hong JR. Giant seaperch iridovirus (GSIV) induces mitochondria-mediated cell death that is suppressed by bongkrekic acid and cycloheximide in a fish cell line. Virus Res 2015; 213:37-45. [PMID: 26548846 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2015.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Giant seaperch iridovirus (GSIV) induces cell death by an unknown mechanism. We postulated that this mechanism involves mitochondria-mediated cell death. Cell viability assays revealed a steady increase in dead grouper fin cells (GF-1) after GSIV infection, from 11% at 2 days post-infection (dpi) to 67% at 5 dpi. Annexin V/PI staining revealed GSIV infection induced apoptosis in a steadily increasing fraction of cells, from 4% at 1 dpi to 29% at 5 dpi. Furthermore, post-apoptotic necrosis was apparent at 4 and 5 dpi in the late replication stage. In the early replication stage, JC-1 dye revealed mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) loss in 42% of infected cells at 1 dpi, increasing to 98% at 3 dpi. Phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure and loss of ΔΨm from apoptosis/necrosis was attenuated by treatment with the adenine nucleotide translocase inhibitor bongkrekic acid (BKA) and the protein synthesis inhibitor cyclohexamide (CHX). These data suggest GSIV induces GF-1 apoptotic/necrotic cell death through pathways that require newly synthesized protein and involve the mitochondrial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Yu Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Chiu-Ming Wen
- Department of Life Sciences, National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Leih Wu
- Laboratory of Marine Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chin Su
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Jiann-Ruey Hong
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan.
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Chen XY, Wen CM, Hui CF, Chen MC, Wu JL, Hsueh TC, Lei WH, Hong JR. Giant seaperch iridovirus infection upregulates Bas and Bak expression, leading to apoptotic death of fish cells. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 45:848-857. [PMID: 26067170 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2015.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Revised: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The giant seaperch iridovirus (GSIV) induces host cell apoptosis by a poorly-understood process. In this study, GSIV is shown to upregulate the pro-apoptotic death genes Bax and Bak at the middle replication stage, and factors in the grouper fin cell line (GF-1) are shown to modulate this process. Studying the mechanism of cell death, we found that upregulated, de novo-synthesized Bax and Bak proteins formed heterodimers. This up-regulation process correlated with mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) loss, increased caspase-3 activity, and increased apoptotic cell death. All effects were diminished by treatment of infected GF-1 cells with the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide. Interestingly, overexpression of the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-xL also diminished GSIV-induced mitochondria-mediated cell death, increasing host cell viability and decreasing MMP loss at the early replication stage. Our data suggest that GSIV induces GF-1 apoptotic cell death through up-regulation of the pro-apoptotic genes Bax and Bak, which are regulated by Bcl-xL overexpression on mitochondria in GF-1 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Yu Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Chiu-Ming Wen
- Department of Life Sciences, National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan
| | - Cho-Fat Hui
- Laboratory of Marine Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chyuan Chen
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, National Kaohsiung Marine University, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Leih Wu
- Laboratory of Marine Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Tsai-Ching Hsueh
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Han Lei
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Jiann-Ruey Hong
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan.
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Kung HC, Evensen Ø, Hong JR, Kuo CY, Tso CH, Ngou FH, Lu MW, Wu JL. Interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1) is involved in the induction of phosphatidylserine receptor (PSR) in response to dsRNA virus infection and contributes to apoptotic cell clearance in CHSE-214 cell. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:19281-306. [PMID: 25342322 PMCID: PMC4227274 DOI: 10.3390/ijms151019281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The phosphatidylserine receptor (PSR) recognizes a surface marker on apoptotic cells and initiates engulfment. This receptor is important for effective apoptotic cell clearance and maintains normal tissue homeostasis and regulation of the immune response. However, the regulation of PSR expression remains poorly understood. In this study, we determined that interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1) was dramatically upregulated upon viral infection in the fish cell. We observed apoptosis in virus-infected cells and found that both PSR and IRF-1 increased simultaneously. Based on a bioinformatics promoter assay, IRF-1 binding sites were identified in the PSR promoter. Compared to normal viral infection, we found that PSR expression was delayed, viral replication was increased and virus-induced apoptosis was inhibited following IRF-1 suppression with morpholino oligonucleotides. A luciferase assay to analyze promoter activity revealed a decreasing trend after the deletion of the IRF-1 binding site on PSR promoter. The results of this study indicated that infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) infection induced both the apoptotic and interferon (IFN) pathways, and IRF-1 was involved in regulating PSR expression to induce anti-viral effects. Therefore, this work suggests that PSR expression in salmonid cells during IPNV infection is activated when IRF-1 binds the PSR promoter. This is the first report to show the potential role of IRF-1 in triggering the induction of apoptotic cell clearance-related genes during viral infection and demonstrates the extensive crosstalk between the apoptotic and innate immune response pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsin-Chia Kung
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11574, Taiwan.
| | - Øystein Evensen
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo 0454, Norway.
| | - Jiann-Ruey Hong
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan.
| | - Chia-Yu Kuo
- Department of Aquaculture, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 20224, Taiwan.
| | - Chun-Hsi Tso
- Department of Aquaculture, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 20224, Taiwan.
| | - Fang-Huar Ngou
- Department of Aquaculture, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 20224, Taiwan.
| | - Ming-Wei Lu
- Department of Aquaculture, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 20224, Taiwan.
| | - Jen-Leih Wu
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11574, Taiwan.
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11
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Zhang H, Shao D, Wu Y, Cai C, Hu C, Shou X, Dai B, Ye B, Wang M, Jia X. Apoptotic responses of Carassius auratus lymphocytes to nodularin exposure in vitro. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 33:1229-1237. [PMID: 22951228 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2012.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2012] [Revised: 07/29/2012] [Accepted: 08/08/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Nodularin, a metabolite of Nodularin spumigena, is widely detected in water blooms worldwide and causes serious negative effects on fish. The apoptosis-related cytotoxic effects and mechanisms of nodularin on Carassius auratus lymphocytes were investigated. Transmission electron microscopy results showed that nodularin-treated lymphocytes display a series of morphological changes, including condensed cytoplasm, nuclear chromatin agglutination and marginalization. DNA fragmentation was verified by the DNA-ladder and formation of sub-G1 DNA peaks. These cell characteristics confirmed the occurrence of apoptosis in lymphocytes. Flow cytometric results showed that the percentages of apoptotic cells incubated with 1, 5, 10, and 100 μg/L nodularin for 12 h reached 15.76%, 17.36%, 20.34% and 44.21%, respectively; controls showed low rates of apoptosis (2.4%). The mechanism of apoptosis induced by nodularin was determined, and results showed that nodularin exposure caused a significant increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential in a dose-dependent manner, upregulation of intracellular Ca²⁺, downregulation of Bcl-2 and upregulation of Bax expression at the mRNA and protein levels, and activation of caspase-3 and caspase-9 without caspase-8. In summary, all the results suggest that nodularin induces lymphocyte apoptosis via the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and destroys the immune response of fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hangjun Zhang
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Xuelin Road 16#, Xiasha Gaojiao Dongqu, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province 310036, China.
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12
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Huang HL, Liu YT, Chen MC, Wu JL, Hong JR. Zebrafish anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-xL can prevent aquatic birnavirus-induced cell death in fish cells without affecting expression of viral proteins. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 31:970-977. [PMID: 21906684 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2011.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2011] [Revised: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 08/20/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The aquatic birnavirus induces mitochondria-mediated cell death in fish; however, the molecular mechanism remains unknown. In the present study, we demonstrated that aquatic birnavirus-induced mitochondria-mediated cell death is regulated by the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member, zfBcl-xL, which is anti-apoptotic and enhances host cell viability. First, CHSE-214 cells carrying EGFP-zfBcl-xL fused genes were selected, established in culture, and used to examine the involvement of zfBcl-xL in host cell protection from the effects of viral infection. EGFP-zfBcl-xL was found to prevent infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV)-induced phosphatidylserine exposure up to 40% at 12 h and 24 h post-infection (p.i.), block IPNV-induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and enhance host viability at the middle and late replication stages. In addition, zfBcl-xL overexpression prevented IPNV-induced caspase-9 activation up to 25% and 85% at the middle (12 h p.i.) and late (24 h p.i.) replication stages without affecting expression of viral proteins such as VP3 (as a viral death protein) protein. In the present study, we demonstrated that aquatic birnavirus-induced cell death is prevented by the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member, zfBcl-xL, which enhances host cell viability through blockage of mitochondrial disruption and caspase-9 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Ling Huang
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
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13
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Huang HL, Wu JL, Chen MHC, Hong JR. Aquatic birnavirus-induced ER stress-mediated death signaling contribute to downregulation of Bcl-2 family proteins in salmon embryo cells. PLoS One 2011; 6:e22935. [PMID: 21901118 PMCID: PMC3161983 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2011] [Accepted: 07/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aquatic birnavirus induces mitochondria-mediated cell death, but whether connects to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is still unknown. In this present, we characterized that IPNV infection triggers ER stress-mediated cell death via PKR/eIF2α phosphorylation signaling for regulating the Bcl-2 family protein expression in fish cells. The IPNV infection can induce ER stress as follows: (1) ER stress sensor ATF6 cleavaged; (2) ER stress marker GRP78 upregulation, and (3) PERK/eIF2α phosphorylation. Then, the IPNV-induced ER stress signals can induce the CHOP expression at early (6 h p.i.) and middle replication (12 h p.i.) stages. Moreover, IPNV-induced CHOP upregulation dramatically correlates to apparently downregulate the Bcl-2 family proteins, Bcl-2, Mcl-1 and Bcl-xL at middle replication stage (12 h p.i.) and produces mitochondria membrane potential (MMP) loss and cell death. Furthermore, with GRP78 synthesis inhibitor momitoxin (VT) and PKR inhibitor 2-aminopurine (2-AP) treatment for blocking GRP78 expression and eIF2α phosphorylation, PKR/PERK may involve in eIF2α phosphorylation/CHOP upregulation pathway that enhances the downstream regulators Bcl-2 family proteins expression and increased cell survival. Taken together, our results suggest that IPNV infection activates PKR/PERK/eIF2α ER stress signals for regulating downstream molecules CHOP upregulation and Bcl-2 family downregulation that led to induce mitochondria-mediated cell death in fish cells, which may provide new insight into RNA virus pathogenesis and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ling Huang
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jen Leih Wu
- Laboratory of Marine Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Mark Hung Chih Chen
- Bioluminescence in Life-image Laboratory, Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Hungkuang University, Taichung, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (JRH); (MHCC)
| | - Jiann Ruey Hong
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (JRH); (MHCC)
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14
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Su YC, Wu JL, Hong JR. Betanodavirus up-regulates chaperone GRP78 via ER stress: roles of GRP78 in viral replication and host mitochondria-mediated cell death. Apoptosis 2011; 16:272-87. [PMID: 21170590 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-010-0565-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Whether viral pathogens that induce ER stress responses benefit the host or the virus remains controversial. In this study we show that betanodavirus induced ER stress responses up-regulate GRP78, which regulates the viral replication and host cellular mitochondrial-mediated cell death. Betanodavirus (redspotted grouper nervous necrosis virus, RGNNV) infection resulted in the following increased ER stress responses in fish GF-1 grouper fin cells: (1) IRE-1 and ATF-6 sensors at 48 h post-infection (p.i.) that up-regulated chaperone protein GRP78; (2) activation of caspase-12; and (3) PERK phosphorylation and down-regulation of Bcl-2. Analyses of GRP78 functions during viral replication using either loss-of-function or gain-of-function approaches showed that GRP78 over-expression also enhanced viral replication and induced cell death. Then, we found that zfGRP78 localization gradually increased in mitochondria after RGNNV infection by EGFP tagging approach. Furthermore, zfGRP78 can interact with viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) by using immunofluorescent and immunoprecipitation assays. Finally, we found that blocking GRP78-mediated ER signals can reduce the viral death factors protein α and protein B2 expression and decrease the Bcl-2 down-regulation mediated mitochondria-dependent cell death, which also enhances host cellular viability. Taken together, our results suggest that RGNNV infection and expression can trigger ER stress responses, which up-regulate the chaperone GRP78 at early replication stage. Then, GRP78 can interact with RdRp that may enhance the viral replication for increasing viral death factors' expressions at middle-late replication stage, which can enhance mitochondrial-mediated cell death pathway and viral spreading. These results may provide new insights into the mechanism of ER stress-mediated cell death in RNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chin Su
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan, ROC
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15
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Wang WL, Hong JR, Lin GH, Liu W, Gong HY, Lu MW, Lin CC, Wu JL. Stage-specific expression of TNFα regulates bad/bid-mediated apoptosis and RIP1/ROS-mediated secondary necrosis in Birnavirus-infected fish cells. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16740. [PMID: 21304825 PMCID: PMC3033425 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Accepted: 01/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) can induce Bad-mediated apoptosis followed by secondary necrosis in fish cells, but it is not known how these two types of cell death are regulated by IPNV. We found that IPNV infection can regulate Bad/Bid-mediated apoptotic and Rip1/ROS-mediated necrotic death pathways via the up-regulation of TNFα in zebrafish ZF4 cells. Using a DNA microarray and quantitative RT-PCR analyses, two major subsets of differentially expressed genes were characterized, including the innate immune response gene TNFα and the pro-apoptotic genes Bad and Bid. In the early replication stage (0–6 h post-infection, or p.i.), we observed that the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNFα underwent a rapid six-fold induction. Then, during the early-middle replication stages (6–12 h p.i.), TNFα level was eight-fold induction and the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members Bad and Bid were up-regulated. Furthermore, specific inhibitors of TNFα expression (AG-126 or TNFα-specific siRNA) were used to block apoptotic and necrotic death signaling during the early or early-middle stages of IPNV infection. Inhibition of TNFα expression dramatically reduced the Bad/Bid-mediated apoptotic and Rip1/ROS-mediated necrotic cell death pathways and rescued host cell viability. Moreover, we used Rip1-specific inhibitors (Nec-1 and Rip1-specific siRNA) to block Rip1 expression. The Rip1/ROS-mediated secondary necrotic pathway appeared to be reduced in IPNV-infected fish cells during the middle-late stage of infection (12–18 h p.i.). Taken together, our results indicate that IPNV triggers two death pathways via up-stream induction of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNFα, and these results may provide new insights into the pathogenesis of RNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Lun Wang
- Institute of Fisheries Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Jiann-Ruey Hong
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Gen-Hwa Lin
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Wangta Liu
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Hong-Yi Gong
- Department of Aquaculture, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ming-Wei Lu
- Department of Aquaculture, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ching-Chun Lin
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Jen-Leih Wu
- Institute of Fisheries Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
- * E-mail:
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16
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Noguera PA, Bruno DW. Liver involvement in post-smolt Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., infected with infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV): a retrospective histopathological study. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2010; 33:819-832. [PMID: 20854352 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2761.2010.01193.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Histological changes associated with infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) infection have historically been described for the pancreas and gut, but any involvement of the liver was poorly acknowledged or described. The aims of this study were to find robust evidence that the reported increase in liver pathology in Atlantic salmon post-smolts in natural outbreaks was effectively related to IPNV infection and retrospectively to report when such a shift in the involvement of the liver had taken place, supported by a histopathological description for a differential diagnosis. The study reports new findings concerning the dynamics of liver pathology development, with apoptosis, demonstrated by histological and immunological techniques, described as the most relevant and particular feature. Immunohistochemical examination of affected liver suggests apoptosis is not only the result of the virus infection itself but triggered through the action of the host's innate immune response. Liver involvement contributes to the nature of infection and becomes an important factor in the disease process. Additionally, it was established that the increase in infectious pancreatic necrosis prevalence is correlated with a new distinct pattern of outbreak distribution throughout the year. The role of smolt category (i.e. S1, S1/2 or S0), hence timing of seawater transfer as a strong correlating factor, is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Noguera
- Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, Scotland.
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17
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Aquatic birnavirus capsid protein, VP3, induces apoptosis via the Bad-mediated mitochondria pathway in fish and mouse cells. Apoptosis 2010; 15:653-68. [DOI: 10.1007/s10495-010-0468-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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