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Nederlof RA, van der Veen D, Perrault JR, Bast R, Barron HW, Bakker J. Emerging Insights into Brevetoxicosis in Sea Turtles. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:991. [PMID: 38612230 PMCID: PMC11010821 DOI: 10.3390/ani14070991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
This review summarizes the current understanding of how brevetoxins, produced by Karenia brevis during harmful algal blooms, impact sea turtle health. Sea turtles may be exposed to brevetoxins through ingestion, inhalation, maternal transfer, and potentially absorption through the skin. Brevetoxins bind to voltage-gated sodium channels in the central nervous system, disrupting cellular function and inducing neurological symptoms in affected sea turtles. Moreover, the current evidence suggests a broader and longer-term impact on sea turtle health beyond what is seen during stranding events. Diagnosis relies on the detection of brevetoxins in tissues and plasma from stranded turtles. The current treatment of choice, intravenous lipid emulsion therapy, may rapidly reduce symptoms and brevetoxin concentrations, improving survival rates. Monitoring, prevention, and control strategies for harmful algal blooms are discussed. However, as the frequency and severity of blooms are expected to increase due to climate change and increased environmental pollution, continued research is needed to better understand the sublethal effects of brevetoxins on sea turtles and the impact on hatchlings, as well as the pharmacokinetic mechanisms underlying brevetoxicosis. Moreover, research into the optimization of treatments may help to protect endangered sea turtle populations in the face of this growing threat.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Justin R. Perrault
- Loggerhead Marinelife Center, Juno Beach, FL 33408, USA; (J.R.P.); (H.W.B.)
| | - Robin Bast
- Clinic for the Rehabilitation of Wildlife, Inc., Sanibel, FL 33957, USA;
| | - Heather W. Barron
- Loggerhead Marinelife Center, Juno Beach, FL 33408, USA; (J.R.P.); (H.W.B.)
| | - Jaco Bakker
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Lange Kleiweg 161, 2288 GJ Rijswijk, The Netherlands;
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Barbe P, Molgó J, Thai R, Urman A, Servent D, Arnich N, Keck M. Acute Effects of Brevetoxin-3 Administered via Oral Gavage to Mice. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:644. [PMID: 38132965 PMCID: PMC10744354 DOI: 10.3390/md21120644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Brevetoxins (BTXs) constitute a family of lipid-soluble toxic cyclic polyethers mainly produced by Karenia brevis, which is the main vector for a foodborne syndrome known as neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) in humans. To prevent health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated shellfish in France, the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) recommended assessing the effects of BTXs via an acute oral toxicity study in rodents. Here, we investigated the effect of a single oral administration in both male and female mice with several doses of BTX-3 (100 to 1,500 µg kg-1 bw) during a 48 h observation period in order to provide toxicity data to be used as a starting point for establishing an acute oral reference dose (ARfD). We monitored biological parameters and observed symptomatology, revealing different effects of this toxin depending on the sex. Females were more sensitive than males to the impact of BTX-3 at the lowest doses on weight loss. For both males and females, BTX-3 induced a rapid, transient and dose-dependent decrease in body temperature, and a transient dose-dependent reduced muscle activity. Males were more sensitive to BTX-3 than females with more frequent observations of failures in the grip test, convulsive jaw movements, and tremors. BTX-3's impacts on symptomatology were rapid, appearing during the 2 h after administration, and were transient, disappearing 24 h after administration. The highest dose of BTX-3 administered in this study, 1,500 µg kg-1 bw, was more toxic to males, leading to the euthanasia of three out of five males only 4 h after administration. BTX-3 had no effect on water intake, and affected neither the plasma chemistry parameters nor the organs' weight. We identified potential points of departure that could be used to establish an ARfD (decrease in body weight, body temperature, and muscle activity).
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Affiliation(s)
- Peggy Barbe
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (P.B.); (J.M.); (R.T.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (P.B.); (J.M.); (R.T.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Robert Thai
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (P.B.); (J.M.); (R.T.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Apolline Urman
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (P.B.); (J.M.); (R.T.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Denis Servent
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (P.B.); (J.M.); (R.T.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Nathalie Arnich
- Risk Assessment Directorate, ANSES—French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France;
| | - Mathilde Keck
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (P.B.); (J.M.); (R.T.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
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Hall ER, Dixon LK, Kirkpatrick GJ, Nissanka A, Pederson BA. Phytoplankton communities of the west coast of Florida - multiyear and seasonal responses to nutrient enrichment. HARMFUL ALGAE 2023; 130:102547. [PMID: 38061821 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2023.102547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Blooms of the harmful algae species Karenia brevis are frequent off the southwest coast of Florida despite having relatively slow growth rates. The regional frequency of these harmful algal blooms led to the examination of the dominant estuarine outflows for effects on both K. brevis and the phytoplankton community in general. There is comparatively little information on the growth rates of non-Karenia taxonomic groups other than diatoms. A seasonally based series (Fall, Winter, and Spring) of bioassay experiments were conducted to determine the nutrient response of the coastal phytoplankton community. Treatments included estuarine waters (Tampa Bay, Charlotte Harbor, and the Caloosahatchee River) applied in a 1:25 dilution added to coastal water to mimic the influence of estuarine water in a coastal environment. Other treatments were 5-15 μM additions of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and silica (Si) species, amino acids, and N (urea) + P added to coastal water. Incubations were conducted under ambient conditions with shading for 48 h. Analyses of dissolved and particulate nutrients were coupled with HPLC analysis of characteristic photopigments and taxonomic assignments of biomass via CHEMTAX. The coastal phytoplankton community, dominated by diatoms, cyanophytes and prasinophytes, was significantly different both by bioassay and by season, indicating little seasonal fidelity in composition. Specific growth rates of chlorophyll a indicated no significant difference between any controls, any estuarine treatment, P, or Si treatments. Conditions were uniformly N-limited with the highest growth rates in diatom biomass. Despite differing initial communities, however, there were seasonally reproducible changes in community due to the persistent growth or decline of the various taxa, including haptophytes, cyanophytes, and cryptophytes. For the one bioassay in which K. brevis was present, the slow growth of K. brevis relative to diatoms in a mixed community was evident, indicating that identifying the seasonally based behavior of other taxa in response to nutrients is critical for the simulation of phytoplankton competition and the successful prediction of the region's harmful algal blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Hall
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States.
| | - L K Dixon
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
| | - G J Kirkpatrick
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
| | - A Nissanka
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
| | - B A Pederson
- Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, United States
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Lund J, Wheeler E, Peredy T. Clam calamity: five concurrent cases of neurotoxic shellfish poisoning with varying presentations following ingestion of clams from Gulf of Mexico water contaminated with Karenia brevis confirmed by serum brevetoxin assays. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2023; 61:702-704. [PMID: 37831009 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2023.2260558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Karinia brevis, a marine dinoflagellate, is the causative organism for "red-tide" on the east coast of Florida.This microbe produces brevetoxins, which bioaccumulate in filter feeding bivalve shellfish. In humans, inhalational exposure is common, while ingestion of contaminated shellfish is more rare. Ingested brevetoxin causes gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms collectively known as neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. CASE CLUSTER A group of tourists collected clams from a beach during a red tide event. The clams were soaked in brine, microwaved, and consumed for lunch. The index patient experienced seizure-like activity postprandially prompting the cohort to present for medical attention. Five people presented to the emergency department with neurotoxic shellfish poisoning-related symptoms. All patients received supportive care only. Symptoms resolved within 24 hours. Serum brevetoxin concentrations were reported for four patients. DISCUSSION Ingestion of brevetoxin is rare but may become more common as the frequency and severity of "red-tide" events increase. In our cluster, each person consumed a different number of clams and presented with classic and some "non-classic" symptoms. A trend toward more severe symptoms with a larger number of clams ingested was observed. CONCLUSIONS This case cluster describes the clinical course of individuals after consumption of brevetoxin contaminated shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Lund
- Pharmaceutical Care Services, Sarasota Memorial Healthcare System, Sarasota, FL, USA
- Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Emily Wheeler
- Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, USA
- Emergency Medicine, Sarasota Memorial Healthcare System, Sarasota, FL, USA
| | - Tamas Peredy
- Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, USA
- Emergency Medicine, Sarasota Memorial Healthcare System, Sarasota, FL, USA
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Bloch RA, Faulkner G, Hilborn ED, Wismer T, Martin N, Rhea S. Geographic Variability, Seasonality, and Increase in ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center Harmful Blue-Green Algae Calls-United States and Canada, 2010-2022. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:505. [PMID: 37624262 PMCID: PMC10467101 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15080505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) exposures can cause illness or death in humans and animals. We characterized American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) Animal Poison Control Center (APCC) harmful blue-green algae (HBGA) call data, compared it to a measure of harmful algal bloom public awareness, and considered its suitability as a public health information source. ASPCA APCC dog and cat "HBGA exposure" calls made 1 January 2010-31 December 2022 were included. We calculated annual HBGA call percentages and described calls (species, month, origin, exposure route). We characterized public awareness by quantifying Nexis Uni® (LexisNexis Academic; New York, NY, USA)-indexed news publications (2010-2022) pertaining to "harmful algal bloom(s)". Call percentage increased annually, from 0.005% (2010) to 0.070% (2022). Of 999 HBGA calls, 99.4% (n = 993) were dog exposures. Over 65% (n = 655) of calls were made July-September, largely from the New England (n = 154 (15.4%)) and Pacific (n = 129 (12.9.%)) geographic divisions. Oral and dermal exposures predominated (n = 956 (95.7%)). Harmful algal bloom news publications increased overall, peaking in 2019 (n = 1834). Higher call volumes in summer and in the New England and Pacific geographic divisions drove HBGA call increases; public awareness might have contributed. Dogs and humans have similar exposure routes. ASPCA APCC HBGA call data could serve as a public health information source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A. Bloch
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA; (R.A.B.); (G.F.); (E.D.H.)
| | - Grace Faulkner
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA; (R.A.B.); (G.F.); (E.D.H.)
| | - Elizabeth D. Hilborn
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA; (R.A.B.); (G.F.); (E.D.H.)
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA
| | - Tina Wismer
- American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Animal Poison Control Center, Champaign, IL 61820, USA; (T.W.); (N.M.)
| | - Nicole Martin
- American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Animal Poison Control Center, Champaign, IL 61820, USA; (T.W.); (N.M.)
| | - Sarah Rhea
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA; (R.A.B.); (G.F.); (E.D.H.)
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Troiano AT, Peel M, Cameron AI, Bast R, Flewelling L, Abbott J, Barron H. INVESTIGATING BLOOD LACTATE CONCENTRATION AS A PROGNOSTIC INDICATOR FOR BIRDS PRESENTING WITH BREVETOXICOSIS: 2020-2021. J Zoo Wildl Med 2023; 54:23-31. [PMID: 36971625 DOI: 10.1638/2022-0087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/18/2022] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Large blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis cause annual harmful algal bloom events, or "red tides" on Florida's Gulf Coast. Each year, the Clinic for the Rehabilitation of Wildlife (CROW) is presented with hundreds of cases of aquatic birds that exhibit neurologic clinical signs due to brevetoxicosis. Double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auratus) are the most common species seen, and typically present with a combination of ataxia, head tremors, knuckling, and/or lagophthalmos. Blood lactate levels are known to increase in mammals for a variety of reasons, including stress, hypoxia, sepsis, and trauma, but there is limited literature on blood lactate values in avian species. The objective of this study was to determine the prognostic value of blood lactate concentration on successful rehabilitation and release of birds presenting with clinical signs consistent with brevetoxicosis. Blood lactate levels were collected on intake, the morning after presentation and initial therapy, and prior to disposition (release or euthanasia) from 194 birds (including 98 cormorants) representing 17 species during the 2020-2021 red tide season. Overall, mean blood lactate at intake, the morning after intake, and predisposition was 2.9, 2.8, and 3.2 mmol/L, respectively, for released birds across all species (2.9, 2.9, and 3.2 mmol/L for released cormorants); 3.4, 3.4, and 6.5 mmol/L for birds that died (4.0, 3.5, and 7.9 mmol/L for cormorants that died); and 3.1, 3.5, and 4.7 mmol/L for birds that were euthanized (3.5, 4.7, and 4.9 mmol/L for cormorants that were euthanized). On average, birds that died or were euthanized had an elevated lactate at all time points as compared to those that were released, but these results were not statistically significant (P = 0.13). These results indicate that blood lactate levels do not appear to be useful as a prognostic indicator for successful release of birds, including double-crested cormorants, affected by brevetoxicosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melanie Peel
- Clinic for the Rehabilitation of Wildlife, Sanibel, FL 33957 USA
| | | | - Robin Bast
- Clinic for the Rehabilitation of Wildlife, Sanibel, FL 33957 USA
| | - Leanne Flewelling
- Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA
| | - Jay Abbott
- Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA
| | - Heather Barron
- Clinic for the Rehabilitation of Wildlife, Sanibel, FL 33957 USA
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