Unpacking walkability indices and their inherent assumptions

Urban environment exposures, energy balance-related behaviors and their combination in preschoolers from three European countries

BACKGROUND

Urban environments are characterized by many factors that may influence children's energy balance-related behaviors (EBRBs), but there is limited research on the impact of prospective exposure to multiple urban factors in preschoolers. We evaluated prospective associations between various urban exposures and EBRBs in preschoolers across Europe, with EBRBs considered both individually and combined into lifestyle patterns.

METHODS

We used data from 4,073 preschoolers (aged 3-4 years) participating in three European cohorts from the EU Child Cohort Network: BiB (United Kingdom), EDEN (France), and INMA (Spain). Eighteen built and food environment, green spaces, road traffic and ambient air pollution exposures were characterized at residential addresses. Various EBRBs were considered as the outcomes including screen time, sleep duration and diet (fruit, vegetables, discretionary sweet foods, sweet beverages) individually and combined into unhealthy lifestyle patterns, using principal components analysis. Associations between urban exposures and outcomes were estimated using a single-exposure analysis and the deletion-substitution-addition algorithm was used to construct multi-exposure models.

RESULTS

In multi-exposure models, greater walkability and smaller distance to the nearest road were associated with higher scores on the unhealthy lifestyle patterns. Likewise, greater walkability was associated with higher screen time and more frequent discretionary sweet food consumption. A smaller distance to the nearest road was also associated with lower sleep duration and more frequent sweet beverages consumption. On the other hand, higher levels of street connectivity showed an inverse association with the unhealthy lifestyle patterns. In the same vein, greater street connectivity was associated with decreased screen time.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive examination of multiple urban exposures indicates that residing in walkable environments and in close proximity to roads in densely-populated areas may not be advantageous for children EBRBs, while residing in neighborhoods with higher street connectivity appears to supposedly be beneficial.

Associations between neighborhood walkability and walking following residential relocation: Findings from Alberta's Tomorrow Project

Introduction

Cross-sectional studies consistently find that the neighborhood built environment (e.g., walkability) is associated with walking. However, findings from the few existing longitudinal residential relocation studies that have estimated associations between changes in neighborhood built characteristics and walking are equivocal. The study objective was to estimate whether changes in neighborhood walkability resulting from residential relocation were associated with leisure, transportation, and total walking levels among adults.

Methods

This study included longitudinal data from the "Alberta's Tomorrow Project"-a province-wide cohort study (Alberta, Canada). The analysis included data collected at two time points (i.e., baseline and follow-up) from 5,977 urban adults. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) captured self-reported walking. We estimated neighborhood walkability, an index capturing intersection, destination, and population counts for the 400 m Euclidean buffer around participants' homes. Using household postal codes reported at baseline and follow-up, we categorized participants into three groups reflecting residential relocation ("non-movers:" n = 5,679; "movers to less walkability:" n = 164, and; "movers to more walkability:" n = 134). We used Inverse-Probability-Weighted Regression Adjustment to estimate differences [i.e., average treatment effects in the treated (ATET)] in weekly minutes of leisure, transportation, and total walking at follow-up between residential relocation groups, adjusting for baseline walking, sociodemographic characteristics, and walkability. The median time between baseline and follow-up was 2-years.

Results

The three residential relocation groups mainly included women (61.6-67.2%) and had a mean age of between 52.2 and 55.7 years. Compared to "non-movers" (reference group), weekly minutes of transportation walking at follow-up was significantly lower among adults who moved to less walkable neighborhoods (ATET: -41.34, 95 CI: -68.30, -14.39; p < 0.01). We found no other statistically significant differences in walking between the groups.

Discussion

Our findings suggest that relocating to less walkable neighborhoods could have detrimental effects on transportation walking to the extent of adversely affecting health. Public health strategies that counteract the negative impacts of low walkable neighborhoods and leverage the supportiveness of high walkable neighborhoods might promote more walking.

A Systematic Review with Framework Synthesis of the Ways That Urban Environments Influence Opportunities for Healthy and Sustainable Mobility in Older Age

Supporting older people's use of sustainable transport is important for both population health and sustainable development, especially in the context of global population ageing. This systematic review identifies individual and environmental factors that influence older people's sustainable transport use and synthesises findings using a framework approach. Factors influencing older people's walking (n = 10 studies), bus use (n = 11), community transport use (n = 1), bicycling (n = 1), and e-bicycling (n = 1) were found to be physical, geographical, facility-based, economic, time-based, fear-based, space-based, information-based, or interpersonal. Many factors were common across transport modes. One reason for this is that environmental features designed to facilitate the use of one particular transport mode also influenced the use of other modes (e.g., bus shelters influence not only bus use but also walking as they provide pedestrian seating). Thus, environments need to be considered from the perspective of multiple, different types of road users. Another reason is that many factors related to the ways individuals experienced their environment (e.g., finding information guiding behaviour in public spaces to be unclear), regardless of any specific transport mode. This review highlights the important need for greater cross-sectoral action and input from older people.

Perceived Walkability and Respective Urban Determinants: Insights from Bologna and Porto

Walking is undoubtedly a sustainable and healthy mode of transport. However, the decision to walk is influenced by many built environment and streetscape attributes. Specifically, the term walkability is used to describe the extent to which the urban environment is pedestrian-friendly, usually by quantifying multiple built environment attributes at the neighbourhood scale. The present study adopts a qualitative approach to evaluate perceived walkability. Based on a questionnaire (n = 1438) administered in the cities of Bologna and Porto, this paper analyses how respondents perceived and evaluated 19 built environment and streetscape attributes. An Exploratory Factor Analysis was carried out to examine the correlations between the various attributes and to identify the underlying walkability determinants. The analysis indicated that 13 attributes were highly correlated, resulting in four determinants: (i) urban ambiance, which includes land use and street design attributes, such as land use mix, enclosure, transparency, and architectural and landscape diversity; (ii) pedestrian infrastructure, which is related to sidewalk conditions; (iii) street connectivity and proximity to community facilities; and iv) access to other modes of transport. In turn, traffic safety and security were not correlated with perceived walkability in both cities. These findings suggest that specific urban design and pedestrian infrastructure attributes should be highly considered when formulating policies aiming to create more pedestrian-friendly cities, as well as in walkability studies and when developing walkability scores and indexes.

Spatial Pattern of the Walkability Index, Walk Score and Walk Score Modification for Elderly

Contemporary cities require excellent walking conditions to support human physical activity, increase humans’ well-being, reduce traffic, and create a healthy urban environment. Various indicators and metrics exist to evaluate walking conditions. To evaluate the spatial pattern of objective-based indicators, two popular indices were selected—the Walkability Index (WAI), representing environmental-based indicators, and Walk Score (WS), which applies an accessibility-based approach. Both indicators were evaluated using adequate spatial units (circle buffers with radii from 400 m to 2414 m) in two Czech cities. A new software tool was developed for the calculation of WS using OSM data and freely available network services. The new variant of WS was specifically designed for the elderly. Differing gait speeds, and variable settings of targets and their weights enabled the adaptation of WS to local conditions and personal needs. WAI and WS demonstrated different spatial pattern where WAI is better used for smaller radii (up to approx. 800 m) and WS for larger radii (starting from 800 m). The assessment of WS for both cities indicates that approx. 40% of inhabitants live in unsatisfactory walking conditions. A sensitivity analysis discovered the major influences of gait speed and the β coefficient on the walkability assessment.

Green Walkability and Physical Activity in UK Biobank: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Adults in Greater London

Urban greenspace provides opportunities for outdoor exercise and may increase physical activity, with accompanying health benefits. Areas suitable for walking (walkability) are also associated with increased physical activity, but interactions with greenspace are poorly understood. We investigated associations of walkability and green walkability with physical activity in an urban adult cohort. We used cross-sectional data from Greater London UK Biobank participants (n = 57,726) and assessed walkability along roads and footpaths within 1000 m of their residential addresses. Additionally, we assessed green walkability by integrating trees and low-lying vegetation into the walkability index. Physical activity outcomes included self-reported and accelerometer-measured physical activity and active transport. We assessed associations using log-linear, logistic and linear regression models, adjusted for individual- and area-level confounders. Higher green walkability was associated with favourable International Physical Activity Questionnaire responses and achievement of weekly UK government physical activity guideline recommendations. Participants living in the highest versus lowest quintile of green walkability participated in 2.41 min (95% confidence intervals: 0.22, 4.60) additional minutes of moderate-and-vigorous physical activity per day. Higher walkability and green walkability scores were also associated with choosing active transport modes such as walking and cycling. Our green walkability approach demonstrates the utility in accounting for walkability and greenspace simultaneously to understand the role of the built environment on physical activity.

Rethinking walkability and developing a conceptual definition of active living environments to guide research and practice

BACKGROUND

Walkability is a popular term used to describe aspects of the built and social environment that have important population-level impacts on physical activity, energy balance, and health. Although the term is widely used by researchers, practitioners, and the general public, and multiple operational definitions and walkability measurement tools exist, there are is no agreed-upon conceptual definition of walkability.

METHOD

To address this gap, researchers from Memorial University of Newfoundland hosted "The Future of Walkability Measures Workshop" in association with researchers from the Canadian Urban Environmental Health Research Consortium (CANUE) in November 2017. During the workshop, trainees, researchers, and practitioners worked together in small groups to iteratively develop and reach consensus about a conceptual definition and name for walkability. The objective of this paper was to discuss and propose a conceptual definition of walkability and related concepts.

RESULTS

In discussions during the workshop, it became clear that the term walkability leads to a narrow conception of the environmental features associated with health as it inherently focuses on walking. As a result, we suggest that the term Active Living Environments, as has been previously proposed in the literature, are more appropriate. We define Active Living Environments (ALEs) as the emergent natural, built, and social properties of neighbourhoods that promote physical activity and health and allow for equitable access to health-enhancing resources.

CONCLUSIONS

We believe that this broader conceptualization allows for a more comprehensive understanding of how built, natural, and social environments can contribute to improved health for all members of the population.

A Participatory Assessment of Perceived Neighbourhood Walkability in a Small Urban Environment

Walkability has become a research topic of great concern for preserving public health, especially in the era of the COVID-19 outbreak. Today more than ever, urban and transport policies, constrained by social distancing measures and travel restrictions, must be conceptualized and implemented with a particular emphasis on sustainable walkability. Most of the walkability models apply observation and subjective methods to measure walkability, whereas few studies address walkability based on sense perception. To fill this gap, we aim at investigating the perceived neighbourhood walkability (PNW) based on sense perception in a neighbourhood of Brussels. We designed a survey that integrates 22 items grouped into 5 dimensions (cleanness, visual aesthetics, landscape and nature, feeling of pressure, feeling of safety), as well as the socio-demographic attributes of the participants. Using various statistical methods, we show that socio-demographics have almost no effects on perceived neighbourhood walkability. Nonetheless, we found significant differences between groups of different educational backgrounds. Furthermore, using a binomial regression model, we found strong associations between PNW and at least one item from each grouping dimension. Finally, we show that based on a deep neural network for classification, the items have good predictive capabilities (78% of classification accuracy). These findings can help integrate sense perception into objective measurement methods of walkable environments. Additionally, policy recommendations should be targeted based on differences of perception across socio-demographic groups.

Walkability measures to predict the likelihood of walking in a place: A classification and regression tree analysis

Walkability is a popular and ubiquitous term at the intersection of urban planning and public health. As the number of potential walkability measures grows in the literature, there is a need to compare their relative importance for specific research objectives. This study demonstrates a classification and regression tree (CART) model to compare five familiar measures of walkability from the literature for their relative ability to predict whether or not walking occurs in a dataset of objectively measured locations. When analyzed together, the measures had moderate-to-high accuracy (87.8% agreement: 65.6% of true walking GPS-measured points classified as walking and 93.4% of non-walking points as non-walking). On its own, the most well-known composite measure, Walk Score, performed only slightly better than measures of the built environment composed of a single variable (transit ridership, employment density, and residential density).Thus there may be contexts where transparent and longitudinally available measures of urban form are worth a marginal tradeoff in prediction accuracy. This comparison of walkability measures using CART highlights the importance for public health and urban design researchers to think carefully about how and why particular walkability measures are used.

Associations between neighbourhood built characteristics and sedentary behaviours among Canadian men and women: findings from Alberta's Tomorrow Project

Evidence of associations between neighbourhood built characteristics and sedentary behaviours is mixed. The study aim was to investigate the associations between objectively-derived neighbourhood built characteristics and self-reported sedentary behaviours among Canadian men and women. This study sourced survey data from Alberta's Tomorrow Project (2008; n = 14,785), in which sitting and motor vehicle travel times during the last 7 days was measured. Geographic Information System was used to calculate neighbourhood built characteristics within a 400 m buffer of participant's home and a walkability score was estimated. To estimate the associations between neighbourhood characteristics and sedentary behaviours, covariate-adjusted generalized linear regression models were used. Walkability, 3-way intersections, and population count were positively associated with sitting time. Business destinations and greenness were negatively associated with sitting time. Walkability, 3-way, and 4-way intersections were negatively associated with motor vehicle travel time. Sex-specific associations between neighbourhood characteristics and sedentary behaviour were found. Among men, business destinations were negatively associated with sitting time, and 3-way intersections, population count, and walkability were negatively associated with motor vehicle travel time. Among women, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index was negatively associated with sitting time. Interventions to reduce sedentary behaviours may need to target neighbourhoods that have built characteristics which might support these behaviours. More research is needed to disentangle the complex relationships between different neighbourhood built characteristics and specific types of sedentary behaviour.

Environmental Preferences and Concerns of Recreational Road Runners

Recreational road running is growing in popularity and has been linked to numerous mental and physical health benefits. However, we know little about what environmental preferences or concerns runners have regarding participation in the sport, and whether differences exist across age and gender. We conducted a cross-sectional survey on recreational road runners to investigate the type of built and natural environments road runners prefer, as well as the safety and health concerns that may affect runners’ choice of environment. Responses were analyzed by age and gender. A total of 1228 road runners responded to the survey; 59.6% of respondents were women and 32.1% of respondents were men. Most respondents preferred to run on asphalt or sidewalk surfaces, and preferred well-lit, tree-lined routes. Major concerns for both men and women include animals and dangerous road conditions. Men and women differed significantly in their responses to the importance of running around others and their primary concerns while running. Results of this study serve to deepen our understanding of recreational road runners’ environmental preferences and concerns, providing valuable information for public health officials and city planners alike. This information must be considered if we are to continue to encourage uptake of running as a sport and reap its health effects.

The Hidden Characteristics of Land-Use Mix Indices: An Overview and Validity Analysis Based on the Land Use in Melbourne, Australia

The land-use mix index is a way to quantify the mixture of land-use patterns. Due to practical limitations, few studies have highlighted the validity of land-use mix indices. This paper aims to explore the potential characteristics of land-use mix indices using a three-step screening method. The data precision of indices was concluded after the first-step screening. A total of 10 virtual blocks and 217 blocks in Melbourne city center served as a case study and reflected the various land-use structures. The randomized controlled comparative trial was incorporated into the second- and third-screening to indicate the applicable condition and validity. The results illustrate that the value Herfindahl–Hirschman index related to the diversity of land-use types. The results also confirmed that Dissimilarity index-I was significantly associated with the balance status of the land-use mix. Entropy index reflects the evenness but did not correlate to the diversity or balance of the land-use mix. In addition, the study also provides a set of general recommendations for the application conditions of land-use mix indices.

The Methodology for Supporting Land Use Management in Collective Housing towards Achieving Energy Efficiency: A Case Study of New Belgrade, Serbia

This paper aims to establish a methodology for urban land use planning and management that provides an insight into the hierarchy of priorities between a large number of activities for planning actions, thus contributing to the concept of energy-efficient housing. This methodology includes three aspects of sustainable development: Economic, ecologic, and social, which serve as an overall criterion within which urban planners could make assessments of planned activities. The assessments are the core of the methodology—every aspect is assessed by concerning its costs, consequences on the urban environment, and the effects on the citizens’ quality of life. Ten experts were involved to prove the methodology’s effectiveness. As a result, a hierarchy between the activities is created, which would help an urban planner prioritize and order further activities. The applicability of the hierarchy was tested through a simulation of a reconstruction process of a collective housing area in New Belgrade, Serbia, from the view-point of land use and accessibility. This methodology contributes to the creation of the prioritized groups of activities, and a finalized hierarchy of the activities, while its application is seen in the process of making urban plans, and defining recommendations for its implementation.

Residential neighborhood features associated with objectively measured walking near home: Revisiting walkability using the Automatic Context Measurement Tool (ACMT)

Many distinct characteristics of the social, natural, and built neighborhood environment have been included in walkability measures, and it is unclear which measures best describe the features of a place that support walking. We developed the Automatic Context Measurement Tool, which measures neighborhood environment characteristics from public data for any point location in the United States. We explored these characteristics in home neighborhood environments in relation to walking identified from integrated GPS, accelerometer, and travel log data from 681 residents of King Country, WA. Of 146 neighborhood characteristics, 92 (63%) were associated with walking bout counts after adjustment for individual characteristics and correction for false discovery. The strongest built environment predictor of walking bout count was housing unit count. Models using data-driven and a priori defined walkability measures exhibited similar fit statistics. Walkability measures consisting of different neighborhood characteristic measurements may capture the same underlying variation in neighborhood conditions.

Neighborhood Walkability and Active Transportation: A Correlation Study in Leisure and Shopping Purposes

A walkable environment is a crucial factor for promoting active transportation. The purpose of this study is to examine the association between neighborhood walkability and active transportation for noncommuting purposes (leisure and shopping) in Seoul, Korea. The Walkability Score is used as a measure of walkability, and a multilevel logistic regression model is employed to measure the odds of active transportation (i.e., walking and cycling; nonmotorized trips) at two levels: individual (level 1) and neighborhood (level 2). The results of the study showed that the Walkability Score was significantly correlated with higher odds of active transportation in shopping models. Specifically, every one-point increase in the Walkability Score was associated with 1.5%–1.8% higher odds of active transportation in shopping models. However, there was no significant correlation between the two in leisure models. Meanwhile, individual characteristics associated with the odds of active transportation differed in the leisure and shopping models. Older age was positively correlated with the odds of active transportation in the leisure model, while females showed a positive correlation in the shopping model. Based on the study, urban and transportation planners can recommend urban policies to promote active transportation in an urban setting.

[Walkability and healthy aging: an analytical proposal for small and medium-sized Brazilian cities]

Evidence has shown that urban environments that discourage walking contribute to functional incapacity in the elderly. Various indices have been proposed to describe an area's walkability, combining different aspects of the built environment that promote (or inhibit) walking. However, due to problems with the quality and availability of data in Brazil, there is no walkability index to date applies to all cities of the country and that has been properly tested in the population. The current study aimed to propose a walkability index based on geographic information systems for a medium-sized city, with open-access data, and to test its association with functional incapacity in the elderly. The study used data from the urban area of a medium-sized Brazilian city to select a parsimonious set of variables through factor analysis. The resulting index was tested for its association with the capacity to perform activities of daily living that require more movement, in 499 elderly, using generalized estimating equations. The resulting walkability index consists of residential density, commercial density, street connectivity, presence of sidewalks, and public lighting. These variables comprised the first factor in the factor analysis, excluding only arborization which was retained in the second factor. The worst walkability score was associated with the highest functional incapacity score. Based on the results and their validation, the study suggests an easily applicable walkability index with great potential for use in action plans to adapt environments.

Neighborhood Walkability Is Not Associated with Adults' Sedentary Behavior in the Residential Setting: Evidence from Breda, The Netherlands

Sedentary behavior has negative health effects. It is assumed that the walkability of the living environment is related to the amount of time spent on sedentary behavior in the residential setting. However, evidence on such a relation is still scarce, and results are contradictory. Therefore, we examined to what extent residential neighborhood walkability is associated with a variety of sedentary behaviors that frequently occur in the residential setting among adults. We carried out a cross-sectional survey using the domain-specific sedentary behavior questionnaire among adults in Breda, the Netherlands. Respondents’ walkability of the living environment was assessed objectively by means of road network buffers. We employed gamma generalized linear regressions to assess correlations between multiple sedentary behaviors and neighborhood walkability. We found no significant associations between residential neighborhood walkability and sedentary behavior levels. The lack of correlations was consistent across buffer sizes. Our models showed that adults with a higher education, a job, and a driver’s license spent significantly less time on sedentary behaviors. Our findings suggest that person-level characteristics should be targeted when developing intervention strategies to counteract sedentary time, rather than intervening in the walkability of the residential living environment.