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Grzeczka A, Graczyk S, Pasławski R, Pasławska U. Genetic Basis of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy in Cats. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2024; 46:8752-8766. [PMID: 39194734 DOI: 10.3390/cimb46080517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2024] [Revised: 07/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a common cardiovascular condition in cats, affecting yth males and females of all ages. Some breeds, such as Ragdolls and Maine Coons, can develop HCM at a young age. The disease has a wide range of progression and severity, characterized by various pathological changes in the heart, including arteritis, fibrous tissue deposition, and myocardial cell hypertrophy. Left ventricular hypertrophy, which can restrict blood flow, is a common feature of HCM. The disease may persist into old age and eventually lead to heart failure and increased diastolic pressure. The basis of HCM in cats is thought to be genetic, although the exact mechanisms are not fully understood. Mutations in sarcomeric proteins, in particular myosin-binding protein C (MYBPC3), have been identified in cats with HCM. Two specific mutations, MYBPC3 [R818W] and MYBPC3 [A31P], have been classified as 'pathogenic'. Other variants in genes such as MYBPC3, TNNT2, ALMS1, and MYH7 are also associated with HCM. However, there are cases where cats without known genetic mutations still develop HCM, suggesting the presence of unknown genetic factors contributing to the disease. This work aims to summarise the new knowledge of HCM in cats and the alterations in cardiac tissue as a result of genetic variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arkadiusz Grzeczka
- Department for Basic and Preclinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Szymon Graczyk
- Department for Basic and Preclinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Robert Pasławski
- Department of Veterinary Surgery, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Urszula Pasławska
- Department of Diagnostics and Clinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, 87-100 Torun, Poland
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Gomes BC, Peixinho N, Pisco R, Gromicho M, Pronto-Laborinho AC, Rueff J, de Carvalho M, Rodrigues AS. Differential Expression of miRNAs in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Patients. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:7104-7117. [PMID: 37531027 PMCID: PMC10657797 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03520-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive motor neuron disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord, causing loss of muscle control, muscle atrophy and in later stages, death. Diagnosis has an average delay of 1 year after symptoms onset, which impairs early management. The identification of a specific disease biomarker could help decrease the diagnostic delay. MicroRNA (miRNA) expression levels have been proposed as ALS biomarkers, and altered function has been reported in ALS pathogenesis. The aim of this study was to assess the differential expression of plasma miRNAs in ALS patients and two control populations (healthy controls and ALS-mimic disorders). For that, 16 samples from each group were pooled, and then 1008 miRNAs were assessed through reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). From these, ten candidate miRNAs were selected and validated in 35 ALS patients, 16 ALS-mimic disorders controls and 15 healthy controls. We also assessed the same miRNAs in two different time points of disease progression. Although we were unable to determine a miRNA signature to use as disease or condition marker, we found that miR-7-2-3p, miR-26a-1-3p, miR-224-5p and miR-206 are good study candidates to understand the pathophysiology of ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Costa Gomes
- Instituto de Fisiologia, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal.
- ToxOmics, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Nuno Peixinho
- ToxOmics, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita Pisco
- ToxOmics, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Marta Gromicho
- Instituto de Fisiologia, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana Catarina Pronto-Laborinho
- Instituto de Fisiologia, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - José Rueff
- ToxOmics, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Mamede de Carvalho
- Instituto de Fisiologia, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Department of Neurosciences and Mental Health, Hospital de Santa Maria CHULN, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - António Sebastião Rodrigues
- ToxOmics, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS, FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
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Schlittler M, Pramstaller PP, Rossini A, De Bortoli M. Myocardial Fibrosis in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: A Perspective from Fibroblasts. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14845. [PMID: 37834293 PMCID: PMC10573356 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241914845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common inherited heart disease and the leading cause of sudden cardiac death in young people. Mutations in genes that encode structural proteins of the cardiac sarcomere are the more frequent genetic cause of HCM. The disease is characterized by cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and myocardial fibrosis, which is defined as the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix proteins, mainly collagen I and III, in the myocardium. The development of fibrotic tissue in the heart adversely affects cardiac function. In this review, we discuss the latest evidence on how cardiac fibrosis is promoted, the role of cardiac fibroblasts, their interaction with cardiomyocytes, and their activation via the TGF-β pathway, the primary intracellular signalling pathway regulating extracellular matrix turnover. Finally, we summarize new findings on profibrotic genes as well as genetic and non-genetic factors involved in the pathophysiology of HCM.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marzia De Bortoli
- Eurac Research, Institute for Biomedicine (Affiliated to the University of Lübeck), 39100 Bolzano, Italy
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Sucharov CC, Neltner B, Pietra AE, Karimpour-Fard A, Patel J, Ho CY, Miyamoto SD. Circulating MicroRNAs Identify Early Phenotypic Changes in Sarcomeric Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. Circ Heart Fail 2023; 16:e010291. [PMID: 36880380 PMCID: PMC10293059 DOI: 10.1161/circheartfailure.122.010291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common genetic cardiomyopathy. Pathogenic germline variation in genes encoding the sarcomere is the predominant cause of disease. However diagnostic features, including unexplained left ventricular hypertrophy, typically do not develop until late adolescence or after. The early stages of disease pathogenesis and the mechanisms underlying the transition to a clinically overt phenotype are not well understood. In this study, we investigated if circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) could stratify disease stage in sarcomeric HCM. METHODS We performed arrays for 381 miRNAs using serum from HCM sarcomere variant carriers with and without a diagnosis of HCM and healthy controls. To identify differentially expressed circulating miRNAs between groups, multiple approaches were used including random forest, Wilcoxon rank sum test, and logistic regression. The abundance of all miRNAs was normalized to miRNA-320. RESULTS Of 57 sarcomere variant carriers, 25 had clinical HCM and 32 had subclinical HCM with normal left ventricular wall thickness (21 with early phenotypic manifestations and 11 with no discernible phenotypic manifestations). Circulating miRNA profile differentiated healthy controls from sarcomere variant carriers with subclinical and clinical disease. Additionally, circulating miRNAs differentiated clinical HCM from subclinical HCM without early phenotypic changes; and subclinical HCM with and without early phenotypic changes. Circulating miRNA profiles did not differentiate clinical HCM from subclinical HCM with early phenotypic changes, suggesting biologic similarity between these groups. CONCLUSIONS Circulating miRNAs may augment the clinical stratification of HCM and improve understanding of the transition from health to disease in sarcomere gene variant carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen C. Sucharov
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Bonnie Neltner
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Ashley E. Pietra
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Cardiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO
| | - Anis Karimpour-Fard
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO
| | - Joshen Patel
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Carolyn Y. Ho
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Shelley D. Miyamoto
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Cardiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO
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Liang LW, Hasegawa K, Maurer MS, Reilly MP, Fifer MA, Shimada YJ. Comprehensive Transcriptomics Profiling of MicroRNA Reveals Plasma Circulating Biomarkers of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy and Dysregulated Signaling Pathways. Circ Heart Fail 2023; 16:e010010. [PMID: 37305994 PMCID: PMC10293060 DOI: 10.1161/circheartfailure.122.010010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is caused by mutations in genes coding for proteins essential for myocardial contraction. However, it remains unclear through which signaling pathways these gene mutations mediate HCM pathogenesis. Growing evidence indicates that microRNAs (miRNAs) play an important role in the regulation of gene expression. We hypothesized that transcriptomics profiling of plasma miRNAs would reveal circulating biomarkers and dysregulated signaling pathways in HCM. METHODS We conducted a multicenter case-control study of cases with HCM and controls with hypertensive left ventricular hypertrophy. We performed plasma transcriptomics profiling of miRNAs using RNA sequencing. We developed a transcriptomics-based discrimination model using samples retrieved during the first two-thirds of the study period at one institution (training set). We prospectively tested its discriminative ability in samples collected thereafter from the same institution (prospective test set). We also externally validated the model by applying it to samples collected from the other institutions (external test set). We executed pathway analysis of dysregulated miRNAs with univariable P<0.05. RESULTS This study included 555 patients (392 cases and 163 controls). One thousand one hundred forty-one miRNAs passed our quality control filters. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of the transcriptomics-based model derived from the training set was 0.86 (95% CI, 0.79-0.93) in the prospective test set and 0.94 (95% CI, 0.90-0.97) in the external test set. Pathway analysis revealed dysregulation of the Ras-MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) pathway and pathways related to inflammation in HCM. CONCLUSIONS This study utilized comprehensive transcriptomics profiling with RNA sequencing in HCM, revealing circulating miRNA biomarkers and dysregulated pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lusha W. Liang
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kohei Hasegawa
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mathew S. Maurer
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Muredach P. Reilly
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Irving Institute for Clinical and Translational Research, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Michael A. Fifer
- Cardiology Division, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yuichi J. Shimada
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Cardiology Division, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Tamargo J, Tamargo M, Caballero R. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: an up-to-date snapshot of the clinical drug development pipeline. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2022; 31:1027-1052. [PMID: 36062808 DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2022.2113374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a complex cardiac disease with highly variable phenotypic expression and clinical course most often caused by sarcomeric gene mutations resulting in left ventricular hypertrophy, fibrosis, hypercontractility, and diastolic dysfunction. For almost 60 years, HCM has remained an orphan disease and still lacks a disease-specific treatment. AREAS COVERED This review summarizes recent preclinical and clinical trials with repurposed drugs and new emerging pharmacological and gene-based therapies for the treatment of HCM. EXPERT OPINION The off-label drugs routinely used alleviate symptoms but do not target the core pathophysiology of HCM or prevent or revert the phenotype. Recent advances in the genetics and pathophysiology of HCM led to the development of cardiac myosin adenosine triphosphatase inhibitors specifically directed to counteract the hypercontractility associated with HCM-causing mutations. Mavacamten, the first drug specifically developed for HCM successfully tested in a phase 3 trial, represents the major advance for the treatment of HCM. This opens new horizons for the development of novel drugs targeting HCM molecular substrates which hopefully modify the natural history of the disease. The role of current drugs in development and genetic-based approaches for the treatment of HCM are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Tamargo
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, CIBERCV, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - María Tamargo
- Department of Cardiology, Hospital Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, CIBERCV, Doctor Esquerdo, 46, 28007 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ricardo Caballero
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, CIBERCV, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Pisklova M, Osmak G, Favorova O. Regulation of SMAD Signaling Pathway by miRNAs Associated with Myocardial Fibrosis: In silico Analysis of Target Gene Networks. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2022; 87:832-838. [PMID: 36171647 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297922080144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a hereditary heart disease caused by mutations in the sarcomere genes, which is accompanied by myocardial fibrosis leading to progressive heart failure and arrhythmias. Recent studies suggest that the HCM development involves dysregulation of gene expression. Among the molecules involved in this process are microRNAs (miRNAs), which are short non-coding RNAs. Typically, one miRNA regulates several target genes post-transcriptionally, hence, it might be difficult to determine the role of a particular miRNA in the disease pathogenesis. In this study, using the PubMed database, we selected 15 miRNAs whose expression is associated with myocardial fibrosis, one of the critical pathological processes in HCM. We then used an earlier developed algorithm to search in silico for the signaling pathways regulated by these miRNAs and found that ten of them participate in the regulation of the TGF-β/SMAD signaling pathway. At the same time, among the SMAD signaling pathway genes, the target of the most identified miRNAs was the MYC gene, which is involved in the development of fibrosis in some tissues. In our earlier work, we found that the TGF-β/SMAD pathway is also regulated by a set of other miRNAs associated with the myocardial hypertrophy in HCM. The fact that two sets of miRNAs identified in two independent bioinformatic studies are involved in the regulation of the same signaling pathway indicates that the SMAD signaling cascade is indeed a key element in the regulation of pathological processes in HCM. The obtained data might contribute to understanding pathological processes underlying HCM development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pisklova
- Chazov National Medical Research Center of Cardiology, Moscow, 121552, Russia.
- Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | - German Osmak
- Chazov National Medical Research Center of Cardiology, Moscow, 121552, Russia
- Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | - Olga Favorova
- Chazov National Medical Research Center of Cardiology, Moscow, 121552, Russia
- Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, 117997, Russia
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Wu D, Zhang J, Xiang Z, Wu J, Huang Y, Yang J. Myocarsdial-derived miR-29a-regulated DNMTs: A novel therapeutic target for myocardial fibrosis. Int J Cardiol 2022; 358:76. [PMID: 35452762 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2022.04.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Di Wu
- Department of Cardiology, The First College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University & Yichang Central People's Hospital, Yichang 443003, China; Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443000, China; HuBei Clinical Research Center for Ischemic Cardiovascular Disease, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443000, China; HuBei Clinical Research Center for Ischemic Cardiovascular Disease, China
| | - Zujin Xiang
- Department of Cardiology, The First College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University & Yichang Central People's Hospital, Yichang 443003, China; Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443000, China; HuBei Clinical Research Center for Ischemic Cardiovascular Disease, China
| | - Jingyi Wu
- Department of Cardiology, The First College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University & Yichang Central People's Hospital, Yichang 443003, China; Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443000, China; HuBei Clinical Research Center for Ischemic Cardiovascular Disease, China
| | - Yifan Huang
- Department of Cardiology, The First College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University & Yichang Central People's Hospital, Yichang 443003, China; Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443000, China; HuBei Clinical Research Center for Ischemic Cardiovascular Disease, China
| | - Jian Yang
- Department of Cardiology, The First College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University & Yichang Central People's Hospital, Yichang 443003, China; Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443000, China; HuBei Clinical Research Center for Ischemic Cardiovascular Disease, China.
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Chen F, Li W, Zhang D, Fu Y, Yuan W, Luo G, Liu F, Luo J. MALAT1 regulates hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes by modulating the miR-181a/HMGB2 pathway. Eur J Histochem 2022; 66. [PMID: 35726535 PMCID: PMC9251611 DOI: 10.4081/ejh.2022.3426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Noncoding RNAs are important for the regulation of cardiac hypertrophy. The function of MALAT1 (a long noncoding mRNA), miR-181a, and HMGB2, their contribution to cardiac hypertrophy, and the regulatory relationship between them during this process remain unknown. In the present study, we treated primary cardiomyocytes with angiotensin II (Ang II) to mimic cardiac hypertrophy. MALAT1 expression was significantly downregulated in Ang II-treated cardiomyocytes compared with control cardiomyocytes. Ang II-induced cardiac hypertrophy was suppressed by overexpression of MALAT1 and promoted by genetic knockdown of MALAT1. A dual-luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that MALAT1 acted as a sponge for miR-181a and inhibited its expression during cardiac hypertrophy. Cardiac hypertrophy was suppressed by overexpression of an miR-181a inhibitor and enhanced by overexpression of an miR-181a mimic. HMGB2 was downregulated during cardiac hypertrophy and was identified as a target of miR-181a by bioinformatics analysis and a dual-luciferase reporter assay. miR-181a overexpression decreased the mRNA and protein levels of HMGB2. Rescue experiments indicated that MALAT1 overexpression reversed the effect of miR-181a on HMGB2 expression. In summary, the results of the present study show that MALAT1 acts as a sponge for miR-181a and thereby regulates expression of HMGB2 and development of cardiac hypertrophy. The novel MALAT1/miR-181a/HMGB2 axis might play a crucial role in cardiac hypertrophy and serve as a new therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Chen
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong; Department of Cardiology, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Nanchang University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi .
| | - Wenfeng Li
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong; Department of Cardiology, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Nanchang University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi .
| | - Dandan Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Nanchang University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi.
| | - Youlin Fu
- Department of Cardiology, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Nanchang University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi.
| | - Wenjin Yuan
- Department of Cardiology, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Nanchang University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi.
| | - Gang Luo
- Department of Cardiology, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Nanchang University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi.
| | - Fuwei Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Nanchang University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi.
| | - Jun Luo
- Department of Cardiology, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Nanchang University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi.
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Scolari FL, Biolo A. Reply to the letter "Myocardial-derived miR-29a-regulated DNMTs: A novel therapeutic target for myocardial fibrosis". Int J Cardiol 2022; 364:95. [PMID: 35660555 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2022.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Luis Scolari
- Division of Cardiology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Ted Rogers Center for Heart Research, Peter Munk Cardiac Center, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
| | - Andreia Biolo
- Division of Cardiology, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Faculty of Medicine, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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11
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lncRNA ADAMTS9-AS1/circFN1 Competitively Binds to miR-206 to Elevate the Expression of ACTB, Thus Inducing Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:1450610. [PMID: 35401927 PMCID: PMC8989615 DOI: 10.1155/2022/1450610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a genetic cardiac disease and can result in substantial disability. The current study explored the potentials of long noncoding RNA- (lncRNA-) circular RNA- (circRNA-) microRNA- (miRNA-) messenger RNA (mRNA) networks in HCM. Firstly, HCM-related microarray data were procured from the GEO database, with differentially expressed genes (DEGs) obtained. HCM-related target genes were retrieved in combination with GeneCards and CTD databases, and candidate target genes were subsequently obtained by intersection screening. Further, an interaction network diagram of candidate target genes was constructed using the STRING database, and the hub genes in the network were determined according to the core degree. The “ClusterProfiler” package of the R software was adopted for GO and KEGG analyses of candidate target genes, to analyze the potential molecular pathways in HCM. Next, upstream miRNA, lncRNA, and circRNA of ACTB were predicted with RNAInter, mirDIP, TargetScan, DIANA-LncBase, and StarBase databases, followed by construction of lncRNA/circRNA-miRNA-mRNA coexpression networks. ACTB, miR-206, circFN1, and ADAMTS9-AS1 expression in peripheral blood samples from HCM patients and normal healthy controls were detected using RT-qPCR. Moreover, rat cardiomyocyte cell lines H9c2 and HEK293 cells were selected for in vitro verification of competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulation mechanism. A total of 15 candidate target genes related to HCM were screened using the online databases. Further protein-protein interaction analysis identified ACTB as the hub gene for HCM. The targeted binding relationship between miR-206, miR-145-5p, miR-1-3p, and ACTB was found. Furthermore, ADAMTS9-AS1 and circFN1 were discovered as the upstream genes of miR-206. Moreover, ADAMTS9-AS1, circFN1, and ACTB were found to be poorly expressed, and miR-206 was highly expressed in HCM. In vitro experimentation further confirmed that ADAMTS9-AS1 and circFN1 could competitively bind to miR-206, thereby augmenting ACTB expression. Taken all, ADAMTS9-AS1/circFN1-miR-206-ACTB regulatory network may involve in HCM occurrence, providing a novel theoretical basis for in-depth understanding of mechanism of HCM.
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12
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Di Martino MT, Arbitrio M, Caracciolo D, Cordua A, Cuomo O, Grillone K, Riillo C, Caridà G, Scionti F, Labanca C, Romeo C, Siciliano MA, D'Apolito M, Napoli C, Montesano M, Farenza V, Uppolo V, Tafuni M, Falcone F, D'Aquino G, Calandruccio ND, Luciano F, Pensabene L, Tagliaferri P, Tassone P. miR-221/222 as biomarkers and targets for therapeutic intervention on cancer and other diseases: A systematic review. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2022; 27:1191-1224. [PMID: 35282417 PMCID: PMC8891816 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2022.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Among deregulated microRNAs (miRs) in human malignancies, miR-221 has been widely investigated for its oncogenic role and as a promising biomarker. Moreover, recent evidence suggests miR-221 as a fine-tuner of chronic liver injury and inflammation-related events. Available information also supports the potential of miR-221 silencing as promising therapeutic intervention. In this systematic review, we selected papers from the principal databases (PubMed, MedLine, Medscape, ASCO, ESMO) between January 2012 and December 2020, using the keywords "miR-221" and the specific keywords related to the most important hematologic and solid malignancies, and some non-malignant diseases, to define and characterize deregulated miR-221 as a valuable therapeutic target in the modern vision of molecular medicine. We found a major role of miR-221 in this view.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariamena Arbitrio
- Institute for Research and Biomedical Innovation (IRIB), Italian National Council (CNR), Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Daniele Caracciolo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Alessia Cordua
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Onofrio Cuomo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Katia Grillone
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Caterina Riillo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giulio Caridà
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Francesca Scionti
- Institute for Research and Biomedical Innovation (IRIB), Italian National Council (CNR), Messina, Italy
| | - Caterina Labanca
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Caterina Romeo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Maria Anna Siciliano
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Maria D'Apolito
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Cristina Napoli
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Martina Montesano
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Valentina Farenza
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Valentina Uppolo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Michele Tafuni
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Federica Falcone
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe D'Aquino
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | | | - Francesco Luciano
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Licia Pensabene
- Department of Surgical and Medical Sciences, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
| | | | - Pierfrancesco Tassone
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Græcia University, Catanzaro, Italy
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13
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Huang H, Chen H, Liang X, Chen X, Chen X, Chen C. Upregulated miR-328-3p and its high risk in atrial fibrillation: A systematic review and meta-analysis with meta-regression. Medicine (Baltimore) 2022; 101:e28980. [PMID: 35244069 PMCID: PMC8896476 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000028980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several studies have shown miR-328-3p increased in atrial fibrillation (AF), but some researches indicated no difference or even decreased. This inconsistent result confuses researchers, and it is urgent to know the truth. This study is to assess the association between miR-328-3p levels in plasma/atrial tissue and patients with AF. METHODS PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest were searched from inception to February 1, 2021. The standardized mean differences (SMD) with their 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated to evaluate the association between miR-328-3p levels and AF. RESULTS Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria and were used for our meta-analysis. Overall, the levels of miR-328-3p were higher in patients with AF than in the control group (SMD = 0.69, 95% CI [0.10, 1.28], P = .022). After adjustment, the overall SMD was 0.82 (95% CI [0.22, 1.42], P = .007). Sensitivity analysis indicated that the results were stable, and the trim-fill analysis showed that the results were credible. Subgroup analyses showed that AF patients, n ≥ 30, various of comorbidity, articles published earlier, and Asia groups had higher levels of expression of miR-328-3p. CONCLUSIONS High levels of miR-328-3p are significantly associated with an increased risk of AF. It implies that miR-328-3p played an important role in diagnosis and may serve as a potential momentous, and useful biomarker to identify AF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Huang
- Department of Cardiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China
| | - Hao Chen
- Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiao Liang
- Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiuting Chen
- Department of Cardiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaoxin Chen
- Department of Cardiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China
| | - Can Chen
- Department of Cardiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China
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14
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Osmak G, Baulina N, Kiselev I, Favorova O. MiRNA-Regulated Pathways for Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Network-Based Approach to Insight into Pathogenesis. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12122016. [PMID: 34946964 PMCID: PMC8701189 DOI: 10.3390/genes12122016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common hereditary heart disease. The wide spread of high-throughput sequencing casts doubt on its monogenic nature, suggesting the presence of mechanisms of HCM development independent from mutations in sarcomeric genes. From this point of view, HCM may arise from the interactions of several HCM-associated genes, and from disturbance of regulation of their expression. We developed a bioinformatic workflow to study the involvement of signaling pathways in HCM development through analyzing data on human heart-specific gene expression, miRNA-target gene interactions, and protein-protein interactions, available in open databases. Genes regulated by a pool of miRNAs contributing to human cardiac hypertrophy, namely hsa-miR-1-3p, hsa-miR-19b-3p, hsa-miR-21-5p, hsa-miR-29a-3p, hsa-miR-93-5p, hsa-miR-133a-3p, hsa-miR-155-5p, hsa-miR-199a-3p, hsa-miR-221-3p, hsa-miR-222-3p, hsa-miR-451a, and hsa-miR-497-5p, were considered. As a result, we pinpointed a module of TGFβ-mediated SMAD signaling pathways, enriched by targets of the selected miRNAs, that may contribute to the cardiac remodeling in HCM. We suggest that the developed network-based approach could be useful in providing a more accurate glimpse on pathological processes in the disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- German Osmak
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics of Cardiovascular Disorders, National Medical Research Center for Cardiology, 121552 Moscow, Russia; (N.B.); (I.K.); (O.F.)
- Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence:
| | - Natalia Baulina
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics of Cardiovascular Disorders, National Medical Research Center for Cardiology, 121552 Moscow, Russia; (N.B.); (I.K.); (O.F.)
- Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Ivan Kiselev
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics of Cardiovascular Disorders, National Medical Research Center for Cardiology, 121552 Moscow, Russia; (N.B.); (I.K.); (O.F.)
- Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga Favorova
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics of Cardiovascular Disorders, National Medical Research Center for Cardiology, 121552 Moscow, Russia; (N.B.); (I.K.); (O.F.)
- Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
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15
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Thottakara T, Lund N, Krämer E, Kirchhof P, Carrier L, Patten M. A Novel miRNA Screen Identifies miRNA-4454 as a Candidate Biomarker for Ventricular Fibrosis in Patients with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1718. [PMID: 34827715 PMCID: PMC8615621 DOI: 10.3390/biom11111718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Left ventricular hypertrophy, myocardial disarray and interstitial fibrosis are the hallmarks of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). Access to the myocardium for diagnostic purposes is limited. Circulating biomolecules reflecting the myocardial disease processes could improve the early detection of HCM. Circulating miRNAs have been found to reflect disease processes in several cardiovascular diseases. (2) Methods: We quantified circulating miRNA molecules in the plasma of 24 HCM and 11 healthy controls using the Human v3 miRNA Expression Assay Kit Code set (Nanostring Tech., Seattle, WA, USA) and validated differentially expressed miRNAs using RT-PCR. (3) Results: In comparison to healthy controls, the levels of six miRNAs (miR-1, miR-3144, miR-4454, miR-495-3p, miR-499a-5p and miR-627-3p) were higher in the plasma of HCM patients than healthy individuals (p < 0.05). Of these, higher levels of miR-1, miR-495 and miR-4454 could be validated by real-time PCR. In addition, elevated miR-4454 levels were significantly correlated with cardiac fibrosis, detected by magnetic resonance imaging in HCM patients. (4) Conclusions: Circulating miR-1, miR-495-3p and miR-4454 levels are elevated in the plasma of HCM patients. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report showing a correlation between miR-4454 levels and cardiac fibrosis in HCM. This suggests miR-4454 as a potential biomarker for fibrosis in these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilo Thottakara
- Department of Cardiology, University Heart and Vascular Center Hamburg, 20253 Hamburg, Germany; (T.T.); (N.L.); (P.K.)
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Hamburg/Kiel/Lübeck, 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (E.K.); (L.C.)
- Division of Cardiology, Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Center of Excellence, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Natalie Lund
- Department of Cardiology, University Heart and Vascular Center Hamburg, 20253 Hamburg, Germany; (T.T.); (N.L.); (P.K.)
| | - Elisabeth Krämer
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Hamburg/Kiel/Lübeck, 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (E.K.); (L.C.)
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Paulus Kirchhof
- Department of Cardiology, University Heart and Vascular Center Hamburg, 20253 Hamburg, Germany; (T.T.); (N.L.); (P.K.)
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Hamburg/Kiel/Lübeck, 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (E.K.); (L.C.)
- Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Lucie Carrier
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Hamburg/Kiel/Lübeck, 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (E.K.); (L.C.)
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Monica Patten
- Department of Cardiology, University Heart and Vascular Center Hamburg, 20253 Hamburg, Germany; (T.T.); (N.L.); (P.K.)
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Hamburg/Kiel/Lübeck, 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (E.K.); (L.C.)
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16
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MicroRNAs in Valvular Heart Diseases: Biological Regulators, Prognostic Markers and Therapeutical Targets. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212132. [PMID: 34830016 PMCID: PMC8618095 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
miRNAs have recently attracted investigators’ interest as regulators of valvular diseases pathogenesis, diagnostic biomarkers, and therapeutical targets. Evidence from in-vivo and in-vitro studies demonstrated stimulatory or inhibitory roles in mitral valve prolapse development, aortic leaflet fusion, and calcification pathways, specifically osteoblastic differentiation and transcription factors modulation. Tissue expression assessment and comparison between physiological and pathological phenotypes of different disease entities, including mitral valve prolapse and mitral chordae tendineae rupture, emerged as the best strategies to address miRNAs over or under-representation and thus, their impact on pathogeneses. In this review, we discuss the fundamental intra- and intercellular signals regulated by miRNAs leading to defects in mitral and aortic valves, congenital heart diseases, and the possible therapeutic strategies targeting them. These miRNAs inhibitors are comprised of antisense oligonucleotides and sponge vectors. The miRNA mimics, miRNA expression vectors, and small molecules are instead possible practical strategies to increase specific miRNA activity. Advantages and technical limitations of these new drugs, including instability and complex pharmacokinetics, are also presented. Novel delivery strategies, such as nanoparticles and liposomes, are described to improve knowledge on future personalized treatment directions.
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Vakrou S, Vlachopoulos C, Gatzoulis KA. Risk Stratification for Primary Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. Arq Bras Cardiol 2021; 117:157-159. [PMID: 34320088 PMCID: PMC8294717 DOI: 10.36660/abc.20201339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Styliani Vakrou
- First University Department of Cardiology and Electrophysiology Laboratory, "Hippokration" General Hospital,National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Medicine,Athens - Grécia
| | - Charalampos Vlachopoulos
- First University Department of Cardiology and Electrophysiology Laboratory, "Hippokration" General Hospital,National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Medicine,Athens - Grécia
| | - Konstantinos A Gatzoulis
- First University Department of Cardiology and Electrophysiology Laboratory, "Hippokration" General Hospital,National and Kapodistrian University of Athens School of Medicine,Athens - Grécia
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18
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Pagiatakis C, Di Mauro V. The Emerging Role of Epigenetics in Therapeutic Targeting of Cardiomyopathies. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168721. [PMID: 34445422 PMCID: PMC8395924 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiomyopathies (CMPs) are a heterogeneous group of myocardial diseases accountable for the majority of cases of heart failure (HF) and/or sudden cardiac death (SCD) worldwide. With the recent advances in genomics, the original classification of CMPs on the basis of morphological and functional criteria (dilated (DCM), hypertrophic (HCM), restrictive (RCM), and arrhythmogenic ventricular cardiomyopathy (AVC)) was further refined into genetic (inherited or familial) and acquired (non-inherited or secondary) forms. Despite substantial progress in the identification of novel CMP-associated genetic variations, as well as improved clinical recognition diagnoses, the functional consequences of these mutations and the exact details of the signaling pathways leading to hypertrophy, dilation, and/or contractile impairment remain elusive. To date, global research has mainly focused on the genetic factors underlying CMP pathogenesis. However, growing evidence shows that alterations in molecular mediators associated with the diagnosis of CMPs are not always correlated with genetic mutations, suggesting that additional mechanisms, such as epigenetics, may play a role in the onset or progression of CMPs. This review summarizes published findings of inherited CMPs with a specific focus on the potential role of epigenetic mechanisms in regulating these cardiac disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Pagiatakis
- IRCCS-Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy
- Correspondence: (C.P.); (V.D.M.)
| | - Vittoria Di Mauro
- IRCCS-Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy
- Institute of Genetic and Biomedical Research (IRGB), Milan Unit, National Research Council, Via Fantoli 16/15, 20138 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence: (C.P.); (V.D.M.)
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