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Vidács A, Kerekes EB, Takó M, Vágvölgyi C, Krisch J. Eradication of multiple-species biofilms from food industrial and domestic surfaces using essential oils. FOOD SCI TECHNOL INT 2024; 30:361-369. [PMID: 36959708 DOI: 10.1177/10820132231165543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
Microbial biofilm formation represents a serious problem for both food industry and households. Natural biofilms are formed mostly by multiple species, and show resistance against most of the usual sanitizers. In this study, the effects of cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), marjoram (Origanum majorana) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) essential oils (EOs) and their main components (cinnamaldehyde, terpinene-4-ol, and thymol) were investigated on four-species biofilms of Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas putida and Staphylococcus aureus. Minimum bactericide concentration (MBC) and killing time were determined by means of the microdilution method. MBC of the investigated EOs and components was between 0.5 mg/mL (cinnamaldehyde) to 25 mg/mL (terpinene-4-ol). Killing times for the four-species suspension were 5 or 10 min, time spans usable in the food industry. For eradication of the mixed-population biofilm from stainless steel (SS), polypropylene (PP), tile and wood surfaces, EO- or EO component-based disinfectant solutions were developed, and their effects were compared to a peracetic acid-based industrial sanitizer (HC-DPE). Total eradication of biofilms (99.9%) was achieved, with solutions containing cinnamon and thyme EO and EO components, from SS and PP, but not from tile or wood surfaces. Apparently, cinnamon EO, terpinene-4-ol and thymol have better disinfectant activity than HC-DPE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Vidács
- Institute of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Erika Beáta Kerekes
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Miklós Takó
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Csaba Vágvölgyi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Judit Krisch
- Institute of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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2
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Hua Z, Zhu MJ. Unlocking the Hidden Threat: Impacts of Surface Defects on the Efficacy of Sanitizers Against Listeria monocytogenes Biofilms on Food-contact Surfaces in Tree Fruit Packing Facilities. J Food Prot 2024; 87:100213. [PMID: 38176613 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfp.2023.100213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Food-contact surfaces showing signs of wear pose a substantial risk of Listeria monocytogenes contamination and may serve as persistent sources of cross-contamination in fresh produce packinghouses. This study offers a comprehensive exploration into the influence of surface defects on the efficacies of commonly used sanitizers against L. monocytogenes biofilms on major food-contact surfaces. The 7-day-old L. monocytogenes biofilms were cultivated on food-contact surfaces, including stainless steel, polyvinyl chloride, polyester, low-density polyethylene, and rubber, with and without defects and organic matter. Biofilms on those surfaces were subjected to treatments of 200 ppm chlorine, 400 ppm quaternary ammonium compound (QAC), or 160 ppm peroxyacetic acid (PAA). Results showed that surface defects significantly (P < 0.05) increased the population of L. monocytogenes in biofilms on non-stainless steel surfaces and compromised the efficacies of sanitizers against L. monocytogenes biofilms across various surface types. A 5-min treatment of 200 ppm chlorine caused 1.84-3.39 log10 CFU/coupon reductions of L. monocytogenes on worn surfaces, compared to 2.79-3.93 log10 CFU/coupon reduction observed on new surfaces. Similarly, a 5-min treatment with 400 ppm QAC caused 2.05-2.88 log10 CFU/coupon reductions on worn surfaces, compared to 2.51-3.66 log10 CFU/coupon reductions on new surfaces. Interestingly, PAA sanitization (160 ppm, 1 min) exhibited less susceptibility to surface defects, leading to 3.41-4.35 log10 CFU/coupon reductions on worn surfaces, in contrast to 3.68-4.64 log10 CFU/coupon reductions on new surfaces. Furthermore, apple juice soiling diminished the efficacy of sanitizers against L. monocytogenes biofilms on worn surfaces (P < 0.05). These findings underscore the critical importance of diligent equipment maintenance and thorough cleaning processes to effectively eliminate L. monocytogenes contamination on food-contact surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi Hua
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Mei-Jun Zhu
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA.
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3
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Tuytschaever T, Raes K, Sampers I. Listeria monocytogenes in food businesses: From persistence strategies to intervention/prevention strategies-A review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2023; 22:3910-3950. [PMID: 37548605 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
In 2023, Listeria monocytogenes persistence remains a problem in the food business. A profound understanding of how this pathogen persists may lead to better aimed intervention/prevention strategies. The lack of a uniform definition of persistence makes the comparison between studies complex. Harborage sites offer protection against adverse environmental conditions and form the ideal habitat for the formation of biofilms, one of the major persistence strategies. A retarded growth rate, disinfectant resistance/tolerance, desiccation resistance/tolerance, and protozoan protection complete the list of persistence strategies for Listeria monocytogenes and can occur on themselves or in combination with biofilms. Based on the discussed persistence strategies, intervention strategies are proposed. By enhancing the focus on four precaution principles (cleaning and disinfection, infrastructure/hygienic design, technical maintenance, and work methodology) as mentioned in Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004, the risk of persistence can be decreased. All of the intervention strategies result in obtaining and maintaining a good general hygiene status throughout the establishment at all levels ranging from separate equipment to the entire building.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa Tuytschaever
- Research Unit VEG-i-TEC, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Katleen Raes
- Research Unit VEG-i-TEC, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Imca Sampers
- Research Unit VEG-i-TEC, Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Kortrijk, Belgium
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4
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Chen Q, Zhang X, Wang Q, Yang J, Zhong Q. The mixed biofilm formed by Listeria monocytogenes and other bacteria: Formation, interaction and control strategies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023; 64:8570-8586. [PMID: 37070220 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2200861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/19/2023]
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is an important foodborne pathogen. It can adhere to food or food contact surface for a long time and form biofilm, which will lead to equipment damage, food deterioration, and even human diseases. As the main form of bacteria to survive, the mixed biofilms often exhibit higher resistance to disinfectants and antibiotics, including the mixed biofilms formed by L. monocytogenes and other bacteria. However, the structure and interspecific interaction of the mixed biofilms are very complex. It remains to be explored what role the mixed biofilm could play in the food industry. In this review, we summarized the formation and influence factors of the mixed biofilm developed by L. monocytogenes and other bacteria, as well as the interspecific interactions and the novel control measures in recent years. Moreover, the future control strategies are prospected, in order to provide theoretical basis and reference for the research of the mixed biofilms and the targeted control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingying Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xingguo Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingqing Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jingxian Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingping Zhong
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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5
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Sharan M, Vijay D, Dhaka P, Bedi JS, Gill JPS. Biofilms as a microbial hazard in the food industry: A scoping review. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:2210-2234. [PMID: 35945912 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Biofilms pose a serious public health hazard with a significant economic impact on the food industry. The present scoping review is designed to analyze the literature published during 2001-2020 on biofilm formation of microbes, their detection methods, and association with antimicrobial resistance (if any). The peer-reviewed articles retrieved from 04 electronic databases were assessed using PRISMA-ScR guidelines. From the 978 preliminary search results, a total of 88 publications were included in the study. On analysis, the commonly isolated pathogens were Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Bacillus spp., Vibrio spp., Campylobacter jejuni and Clostridium perfringens. The biofilm-forming ability of microbes was found to be influenced by various factors such as attachment surfaces, temperature, presence of other species, nutrient availability etc. A total of 18 studies characterized the biofilm-forming genes, particularly for S. aureus, Salmonella spp., and E. coli. In most studies, polystyrene plate and/or stainless-steel coupons were used for biofilm formation, and the detection was carried out by crystal violet assays and/or by plate counting method. The strain-specific significant differences in biofilm formation were observed in many studies, and few studies carried out analysis of multi-species biofilms. The association between biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance wasn't clearly defined. Further, viable but non-culturable (VBNC) form of the foodborne pathogens is posing an unseen (by conventional cultivation techniques) but potent threat food safety. The present review recommends the need for carrying out systematic surveys and risk analysis of biofilms in food chain to highlight the evidence-based public health concerns, especially in regions where microbiological food hazards are quite prevalent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjeet Sharan
- Centre for One Health, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India
| | - Deepthi Vijay
- Centre for One Health, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India.,Present Address: Department of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Kerala, India
| | - Pankaj Dhaka
- Centre for One Health, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India
| | - Jasbir Singh Bedi
- Centre for One Health, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India
| | - Jatinder Paul Singh Gill
- Centre for One Health, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India
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6
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Yao S, Hao L, Zhou R, Jin Y, Huang J, Wu C. Multispecies biofilms in fermentation: Biofilm formation, microbial interactions, and communication. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2022; 21:3346-3375. [PMID: 35762651 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Food fermentation is driven by microorganisms, which usually coexist as multispecies biofilms. The activities and interactions of functional microorganisms and pathogenic bacteria in biofilms have important implications for the quality and safety of fermented foods. It was verified that the biofilm lifestyle benefited the fitness of microorganisms in harsh environments and intensified the cooperation and competition between biofilm members. This review focuses on multispecies biofilm formation, microbial interactions and communication in biofilms, and the application of multispecies biofilms in food fermentation. Microbial aggregation and adhesion are important steps in the early stage of multispecies biofilm formation. Different biofilm-forming abilities and strategies among microorganisms lead to several types of multispecies biofilm formation. The spatial distribution of multispecies biofilms reflects microbial interactions and biofilm function. Then, we discuss the intrinsic factors and external manifestations of multispecies biofilm system succession. Several typical interspecies cooperation and competition modes and mechanisms of microbial communication were reviewed in this review. The main limitations of the studies included in this review are the relatively small number of studies of biofilms formed by functional microorganisms during fermentation and the lack of direct evidence for the formation process of multispecies biofilms and microbial interactions and communication within biofilms. This review aims to provide the food industry with a sufficient understanding of multispecies biofilms in food fermentation. Practical Application: Meanwhile, it offers a reference value for better controlling and utilizing biofilms during food fermentation process, and the improvement of the yield, quality, and safety of fermented products including Chinese Baijiu, cheeese,kefir, soy sauce, kombucha, and fermented olive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangjie Yao
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Liying Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Rongqing Zhou
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yao Jin
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jun Huang
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Chongde Wu
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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7
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Yan P, Chelliah R, Jo KH, Selvakumar V, Chen X, Jo HY, Oh DH. Stability and Antibiofilm Efficiency of Slightly Acidic Electrolyzed Water Against Mixed-Species of Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:865918. [PMID: 35633663 PMCID: PMC9135065 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.865918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In the natural environment, most microorganisms live in mixed-species biofilms, in which the metabolism and growth of organisms are different from that in single-species biofilms. Adhesive bacteria and their biofilms on the surface of food processing equipment are the sources of cross-contamination, leading to the risk for humans. Slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) has been proposed as a novel sanitizer in the food and agriculture industry. In this study, we investigated the changes in the physical properties of SAEW under different conditions and the disinfection abilities of SAEW against spore-forming and non-spore-forming pathogens. Furthermore, we examined the disinfection abilities of SAEW after 12 months of shelf life on a mixed-species biofilm of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A and Staphylococcus aureus. The results showed that SAEW at 30 and 50 ppm achieved all-kill of the spore-forming pathogen Bacillus cereus within 30 s. Changes in the ACC and pH of the produced SAEW were generally affected by the storage conditions. Both spore-forming and non-spore-forming pathogens were not detected under treatment with 50 ppm SAEW for 5 min under HDPE-closed conditions throughout the whole storage period. Moreover, 25 mg/L SAEW can inactivate L. monocytogenes Scott A and S. aureus biofilm cells in ~2.45 and 2.57 log CFU/mL in biofilms within 5-min treatment. However, the decline of the two bacteria in the mixed-species biofilm was 1.95 and 1.43 log CFU/mL, respectively. The changes in the cell membrane permeability of the mixed-species biofilm under treatment with SAEW were observed by using atomic force microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy. L. monocytogenes Scott A was more sensitive to SAEW in the mixed-species biofilm cells. These findings exhibited strong antibiofilm activities of SAEW in impairing biofilm cell membranes, decreasing cell density, and eliminating biofilm, which suggest that SAEW is an excellent antibacterial agent in the food processing industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pianpian Yan
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea.,SeouLin Bioscience Company and Limited, Seongnam-si, South Korea
| | - Ramachandran Chelliah
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea.,Kangwon Institute of Inclusive Technology (KIIT), Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea.,Saveetha School of Engineering, (SIMATS) University, Sriperumbudur, India
| | - Kyoung-Hee Jo
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea.,SeouLin Bioscience Company and Limited, Seongnam-si, South Korea
| | - Vijayalakshmi Selvakumar
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Xiuqin Chen
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Hyeon-Yeong Jo
- SeouLin Bioscience Company and Limited, Seongnam-si, South Korea
| | - Deog Hwan Oh
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea.,SeouLin Bioscience Company and Limited, Seongnam-si, South Korea
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8
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Abreu ACDS, Crippa BL, Souza VVMAD, Nuñez KVM, Almeida JMD, Rodrigues MX, Silva NCC. Assessment of sanitiser efficacy against Staphylococcus spp. isolated from Minas Frescal cheese producers in São Paulo, Brazil. Int Dairy J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2021.105171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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9
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The Effects of Chemical and Mechanical Stresses on Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas fluorescens Single- and Dual-Species Biofilm Removal. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9061174. [PMID: 34072497 PMCID: PMC8228086 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9061174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilm control is mainly based on chemical disinfection, without a clear understanding of the role of the biocides and process conditions on biofilm removal. This study aims to understand the effects of a biocide (benzyldimethyldodecyl ammonium chloride-BDMDAC) and mechanical treatment (an increase of shear stress -τw) on single- and dual-species biofilms formed by Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas fluorescens on high-density polyethene (HDPE). BDMDAC effects were initially assessed on bacterial physicochemical properties and initial adhesion ability. Then, mature biofilms were formed on a rotating cylinder reactor (RCR) for 7 days to assess the effects of chemical and mechanical treatments, and the combination of both on biofilm removal. The results demonstrated that the initial adhesion does not predict the formation of mature biofilms. It was observed that the dual-species biofilms were the most susceptible to BDMDAC exposure. The exposure to increasing τw emphasised the mechanical stability of biofilms, as lower values of τw (1.66 Pa) caused high biofilm erosion and higher τw values (17.7 Pa) seem to compress the remaining biofilm. In general, the combination of BDMDAC and the mechanical treatment was synergic in increasing biofilm removal. However, these were insufficient to cause total biofilm removal (100%; an average standard deviation of 11% for the method accuracy should be considered) from HDPE.
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10
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Kim U, Kim JH, Oh SW. Review of multi-species biofilm formation from foodborne pathogens: multi-species biofilms and removal methodology. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:5783-5793. [PMID: 33663287 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1892585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Multi-species biofilms are ubiquitous worldwide and are a concern in the food industry. Multi-species biofilms have a higher resistance to antimicrobial therapies than mono-species biofilms. In addition, multi-species biofilms can cause severe foodborne diseases. To remove multi-species biofilms, controlling the formation process of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and quorum sensing (QS) effects is essential. EPS disruption, inhibition of QS, and disinfection have been utilized to remove multi-species biofilms. This review presents information on the formation and novel removal methods for multi-species biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Unji Kim
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jin-Hee Kim
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Se-Wook Oh
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea
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11
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Zwirzitz B, Wetzels SU, Dixon ED, Fleischmann S, Selberherr E, Thalguter S, Quijada NM, Dzieciol M, Wagner M, Stessl B. Co-Occurrence of Listeria spp. and Spoilage Associated Microbiota During Meat Processing Due to Cross-Contamination Events. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:632935. [PMID: 33613505 PMCID: PMC7892895 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.632935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A large part of foodborne outbreaks related to Listeria monocytogenes are linked to meat and meat products. Especially, recontamination of meat products and deli-meat during slicing, packaging, and repackaging is in the focus of food authorities. In that regard, L. monocytogenes persistence in multi-species biofilms is one major issue, since they survive elaborate cleaning and disinfection measures. Here, we analyzed the microbial community structure throughout a meat processing facility using a combination of high-throughput full-length 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequencing and traditional microbiological methods. Samples were taken at different stages during meat cutting as well as from multiple sites throughout the facility environment to capture the product and the environmental associated microbiota co-occurring with Listeria spp. and L. monocytogenes. The listeria testing revealed a widely disseminated contamination (50%; 88 of 176 samples were positive for Listeria spp. and 13.6%; 24 of 176 samples were positive for L. monocytogenes). The pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) typing evidenced 14 heterogeneous L. monocytogenes profiles with PCR-serogroup 1/2a, 3a as most dominant. PFGE type MA3-17 contributed to the resilient microbiota of the facility environment and was related to environmental persistence. The core in-house microbiota consisted mainly of the genera Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Psychrobacter (Proteobacteria), Anaerobacillus, Bacillus (Firmicutes), and Chryseobacterium (Bacteroidota). While the overall microbial community structure clearly differed between product and environmental samples, we were able to discern correlation patterns regarding the presence/absence of Listeria spp. in both sample groups. Specifically, our longitudinal analysis revealed association of Listeria spp. with known biofilm-producing Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, and Janthinobacterium species on the meat samples. Similar patterns were also observed on the surface, indicating dispersal of microorganisms from this multispecies biofilm. Our data provided a better understanding of the built environment microbiome in the meat processing context and promoted more effective options for targeted disinfection in the analyzed facility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Zwirzitz
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Competence Center for Feed and Food Quality, Safety and Innovation FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln, Austria
| | - Stefanie U. Wetzels
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Competence Center for Feed and Food Quality, Safety and Innovation FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln, Austria
| | - Emmanuel D. Dixon
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Svenja Fleischmann
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Evelyne Selberherr
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sarah Thalguter
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Narciso M. Quijada
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Competence Center for Feed and Food Quality, Safety and Innovation FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln, Austria
| | - Monika Dzieciol
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Wagner
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Competence Center for Feed and Food Quality, Safety and Innovation FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln, Austria
| | - Beatrix Stessl
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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12
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Gray JA, Chandry PS, Bowman JP, Fox EM. High-Throughput Screening of Biofilm Formation of Listeria monocytogenes on Stainless Steel Coupons Using a 96-Well Plate Format. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2220:115-122. [PMID: 32975770 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0982-8_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a foodborne pathogen capable of colonizing and persisting in the food production environment (FPE). While there are a variety of factors involved in L. monocytogenes' ability to persist in FPE, the ability to form biofilms has the potential to increase their chance of survival and long-term colonization. Understanding the mechanisms involved in L. monocytogenes ability to form biofilms may potentially help food safety managers optimize control strategies targeting it in the FPE. In this chapter, a high-throughput method to determine L. monocytogenes ability to attach and form biofilms utilizing FPE-grade stainless steel is described. This method provides fast and efficient results, facilitating scaling up to large numbers of isolates to measure their ability to form biofilms, where lower-throughput approaches can then be utilized to further characterize isolates of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - John P Bowman
- Centre for Food Safety and Innovation, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Edward M Fox
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Werribee, VIC, Australia.
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK.
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13
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Ballén V, Ratia C, Cepas V, Soto SM. Enterococcus faecalis inhibits Klebsiella pneumoniae growth in polymicrobial biofilms in a glucose-enriched medium. BIOFOULING 2020; 36:846-861. [PMID: 32972252 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2020.1824272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Catheter-related urinary tract infections are one of the most common biofilm-associated diseases. Within biofilms, bacteria cooperate, compete, or have neutral interactions. This study aimed to investigate the interactions in polymicrobial biofilms of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Enterococcus faecalis, two of the most common uropathogens. Although K. pneumoniae was the most adherent strain, it could not maintain dominance in the polymicrobial biofilm due to the lactic acid produced by E. faecalis in a glucose-enriched medium. This result was supported by the use of E. faecalis V583 ldh-1/ldh-2 double mutant (non-producer of lactic acid), which did not inhibit the growth of K. pneumoniae. Lyophilized cell-free supernatants obtained from E. faecalis biofilms also showed antimicrobial/anti-biofilm activity against K. pneumoniae. Conversely, there were no significant differences in planktonic polymicrobial cultures. In summary, E. faecalis modifies the pH by lactic acid production in polymicrobial biofilms, which impairs the growth of K. pneumoniae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Ballén
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Center for International Health Research (CRESIB), Hospital Clinic - Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Ratia
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Center for International Health Research (CRESIB), Hospital Clinic - Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Virginio Cepas
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Center for International Health Research (CRESIB), Hospital Clinic - Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara M Soto
- ISGlobal, Barcelona Center for International Health Research (CRESIB), Hospital Clinic - Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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14
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Yuan L, Wang NI, Sadiq FA, He G. Interspecies Interactions in Dual-Species Biofilms Formed by Psychrotrophic Bacteria and the Tolerance of Sessile Communities to Disinfectants. J Food Prot 2020; 83:951-958. [PMID: 32428932 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-19-396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Biofilms on the surface of food processing equipment act as potential reservoirs of microbial contamination. Bacterial interactions are believed to play key roles in both biofilm formation and antimicrobial tolerance. In this study, Aeromonas hydrophila, Chryseobacterium oncorhynchi, and Pseudomonas libanensis, which were previously isolated from Chinese raw milk samples, were selected to establish two dual-species biofilm models (P. libanensis plus A. hydrophila and P. libanensis plus C. oncorhynchi) on stainless steel at 7°C. Subsequently, three disinfectants, hydrogen peroxide (100 ppm), peracetic acid (100 ppm), and sodium hypochlorite (100 ppm), were used to treat the developed sessile communities for 10 min. Structural changes after exposure to disinfectants were analyzed with confocal laser scanning microscopy. The cell numbers of both A. hydrophila and C. oncorhynchi recovered from surfaces increased when grown as dual species biofilms with P. libanensis. Dual-species biofilms were more tolerant of disinfectants than were each single-species biofilm. Peracetic acid was the most effective disinfectant for removing biofilms, followed by hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochlorite. The results expand the knowledge of mixed-species biofilms formed by psychrotrophic bacteria and will be helpful for developing effective strategies to eliminate bacterial mixed-species biofilms. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Yuan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, People's Republic of China.,College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - N I Wang
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - Faizan A Sadiq
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, People's Republic of China
| | - Guoqing He
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, People's Republic of China
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15
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Ripolles-Avila C, Ramos-Rubio M, Hascoët AS, Castillo M, Rodríguez-Jerez JJ. New approach for the removal of mature biofilms formed by wild strains of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from food contact surfaces in an Iberian pig processing plant. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 323:108595. [PMID: 32224347 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
One of the main objectives of the food industry is to guarantee food safety by providing innocuous food products. Therefore, this sector must consider all the possible biotic or abiotic contamination routes from the entry of raw materials to the release of the final product. Currently, one important problem in this regard is the presence of biofilms on food contact surfaces which can transmit pathogens such as L. monocytogenes. In industrial conditions biofilms are found in a mature state, so it is essential that when carrying out removal effectiveness studies in vitro the tests are realized with models that produce these structures in a similarly mature state. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an alternative treatment (i.e. enzymatic detergent that include natural antimicrobial agents) and a conventional treatment (i.e. chlorinated alkaline) for the elimination of mature L. monocytogenes biofilms. The results showed a cell detachment from the formed mature biofilms with an effectivity of between 74.75%-97.73% and 53.94%-94.02% for the enzymatic treatment and the chlorinated alkaline detergent, respectively. On a qualitative level, it was observed that the dispersion in the structure was much higher for the enzymatic treatment than for the chlorinated alkaline, which continued to show obvious structure integrity. All this leads to the conclusion that treatments with an enzymatic detergent have a significantly greater impact on the removal of mature L. monocytogenes biofilms, although a further disinfection process would be needed, enhancing even more the treatment effectivity. This may imply that the industrial approach to addressing this problem should be modified to include new perspectives that are more effective than traditional ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Ripolles-Avila
- Area of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), CP 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Ramos-Rubio
- Area of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), CP 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - A S Hascoët
- Area of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), CP 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Castillo
- Area of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), CP 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - J J Rodríguez-Jerez
- Area of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), CP 08193 Barcelona, Spain.
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16
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Wu ST, Hammons SR, Wang J, Assisi C, DiPietro B, Oliver HF. Predictive risk models combined with employee- and management-implemented SSOPs identified and reduced Listeria monocytogenes prevalence in retail delis. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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17
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18
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Taylor AJ, Stasiewicz MJ. Persistent and sporadic Listeria monocytogenes strains do not differ when growing at 37 °C, in planktonic state, under different food associated stresses or energy sources. BMC Microbiol 2019; 19:257. [PMID: 31744459 PMCID: PMC6862832 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-019-1631-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes causes the potentially lethal disease listeriosis. Within food-associated environments, L. monocytogenes can persist for long periods and increase the risk of contamination by continued presence in processing facilities or other food-associated environments. Most research on phenotyping of persistent L. monocytogenes’ has explored biofilm formation and sanitizer resistance, with less data examining persistent L. monocytogenes’ phenotypic responses to extrinsic factors, such as variations in osmotic pressure, pH, and energy source availability. It was hypothesized that isolates of persistent strains are able to grow, and grow faster, under a broader range of intrinsic and extrinsic factors compared to closely related isolates of sporadic strains. Results To test this hypothesis, 95 isolates (representing 74 isolates of 20 persistent strains and 21 isolates of sporadic strains) from a series of previous studies in retail delis, were grown at 37 °C, in (i) stress conditions: salt (0, 5, and 10% NaCl), pH (5.2, 7.2, and 9.2), and sanitizer (benzalkonium chloride, 0, 2, and 5 μg/mL) and (ii) energy sources: 25 mM glucose, cellobiose, glycogen, fructose, lactose, and sucrose; the original goal was to follow up with low temperature experiments for treatments where significant differences were observed. Growth rate and the ability to grow of 95 isolates were determined using high-throughput, OD600, growth curves. All stress conditions reduced growth rates in isolates compared to control (p < 0.05). In addition, growth varied by the tested energy sources. In chemically defined, minimal media there was a trend toward more isolates showing growth in all replicates using cellobiose (p = 0.052) compared to the control (glucose) and fewer isolates able to grow in glycogen (p = 0.02), lactose (p = 2.2 × 10− 16), and sucrose (p = 2.2 × 10− 16). Still, at least one isolate was able to consistently grow in every replicate for each energy source. Conclusions The central hypothesis was rejected, as there was not a significant difference in growth rate or ability to grow for retail deli isolates of persistent strains compared to sporadic strains for any treatments at 37 °C. Therefore, these data suggest that persistence is likely not determined by a phenotype unique to persistent strains grown at 37 °C and exposed to extrinsic stresses or variation in energy sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J Taylor
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agricultural, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Matthew J Stasiewicz
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agricultural, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA.
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19
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Hua Z, Korany AM, El-Shinawy SH, Zhu MJ. Comparative Evaluation of Different Sanitizers Against Listeria monocytogenes Biofilms on Major Food-Contact Surfaces. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2462. [PMID: 31787935 PMCID: PMC6853887 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Contaminated food-contact surfaces are recognized as the primary reason for recent L. monocytogenes outbreaks in caramel apples and cantaloupes, highlighting the significance of cleaning and sanitizing food-contact surfaces to ensure microbial safety of fresh produce. This study evaluated efficacies of four commonly used chemical sanitizers at practical concentrations against L. monocytogenes biofilms on major food-contact surfaces including stainless steel, low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyester (PET), and rubber. In general, efficacies against L. monocytogenes biofilms were enhanced by increasing concentrations of quaternary ammonium compound (QAC), chlorine, and chlorine dioxide, or extending treating time from 1 to 5 min. The 5-min treatments of 400 ppm QAC, 5.0 ppm chlorine dioxide, and 200 ppm chlorine reduced 3.0-3.7, 2.4-2.7, and 2.6-3.8 log10 CFU/coupon L. monocytogenes biofilms depending on surfaces. Peroxyacetic acid (PAA) at 160 and 200 ppm showed similar antimicrobial efficacies against biofilms either at 1- or 5-min contact. The 5-min treatment of 200 ppm PAA caused 4.0-4.5 log10 CFU/coupon reduction of L. monocytogenes biofilms on tested surfaces. Surface material had more impact on the efficacies of QAC and chlorine, less influence on those of PAA and chlorine dioxide, while organic matter soiling impaired sanitizer efficacies against L. monocytogenes biofilms independent of food-contact surfaces. Data from this study provide practical guidance for effective disinfection of food-contact surfaces in food processing/packing facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi Hua
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Ahmed Mahmoud Korany
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States.,Food Hygiene and Control Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni Suef, Egypt
| | - Saadia Helmy El-Shinawy
- Food Hygiene and Control Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni Suef, Egypt
| | - Mei-Jun Zhu
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
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20
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Efficacy and safety assessment of two enterococci phages in an in vitro biofilm wound model. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6643. [PMID: 31040333 PMCID: PMC6491613 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-43115-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic wounds affect thousands of people worldwide, causing pain and discomfort to patients and represent significant economical burdens to health care systems. The treatment of chronic wounds is very difficult and complex, particularly when wounds are colonized by bacterial biofilms which are highly tolerant to antibiotics. Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis are within the most frequent bacteria present in chronic wounds. Bacteriophages (phages) have been proposed as an efficient and alternative against antibiotic-resistant infections, as those found in chronic wounds. We have isolated and characterized two novel enterococci phages, the siphovirus vB_EfaS-Zip (Zip) and the podovirus vB_EfaP-Max (Max) to be applied during wound treatment. Both phages demonstrated lytic behavior against E. faecalis and E. faecium. Genome analysis of both phages suggests the absence of genes associated with lysogeny. A phage cocktail containing both phages was tested against biofilms formed in wound simulated conditions at a multiplicity of infection of 1.0 and a 2.5 log CFU.mL−1 reduction in the bacterial load after at 3 h of treatment was observed. Phages were also tested in epithelial cells colonized by these bacterial species and a 3 log CFU.mL−1 reduction was observed using both phages. The high efficacy of these new isolated phages against multi-species biofilms, their stability at different temperatures and pH ranges, short latent periods and non-cytotoxicity to epithelial cells suggest their therapeutic use to control infectious biofilms present in chronic wounds.
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21
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Kaczmarek M, Avery SV, Singleton I. Microbes associated with fresh produce: Sources, types and methods to reduce spoilage and contamination. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2019; 107:29-82. [PMID: 31128748 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aambs.2019.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Global food security remains one of the most important challenges that needs to be addressed to ensure the increasing demand for food of the fast growing human population is satisfied. Fruits and vegetables comprise an essential component of a healthy balanced diet as they are the major source of both macro- and micronutrients. They are particularly important for communities in developing countries whose nutrition often relies solely on a plant-based diet. Recent advances in agriculture and food processing technologies have facilitated production of fresh, nutritious and safe food for consumers. However, despite the development of sophisticated chemical and physical methods of food and equipment disinfection, fresh-cut produce and fruit juice industry still faces significant economic losses due to microbial spoilage. Furthermore, fresh produce remains an important source of pathogens that have been causing outbreaks of human illness worldwide. This chapter characterizes common spoilage and human pathogenic microorganisms associated with fresh-cut produce and fruit juice products, and discusses the methods and technology that have been developed and utilized over the years to combat them. Substantial attention is given to highlight advantages and disadvantages of using these methods to reduce microbial spoilage and their efficacy to eliminate human pathogenic microbes associated with consumption of fresh-cut produce and fruit juice products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Kaczmarek
- School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Sighthill Court, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Simon V Avery
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Singleton
- School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Sighthill Court, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
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22
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Characteristics of Listeria Monocytogenes Strains Persisting in a Meat Processing Facility over a 4-Year Period. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8010032. [PMID: 30866522 PMCID: PMC6471029 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8010032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes can persist in food production facilities, resulting in serious threats to consumers due to the high mortality associated with listeriosis, especially in the very young, old and pregnant. We subtyped 124 strains of L. monocytogenes isolated from a meat processing facility in Switzerland by serotyping, multi locus sequence typing (MLST) typing and whole genome sequencing. We then analyzed their ability to form biofilms and their resistance to the disinfectants benzalkonium chloride (BC) and peracetic acid (PAA). The genotyping results of the strains showed that several clonal populations of L. monocytogenes belonging to CC9, CC204 and CC121 had persisted in this meat processing facility for at least four years. All of the strains showed biofilm forming capacity comparable to a known high biofilm forming strain. Known efflux pumps for BC were present in CC204, CC9 (brcABC) and CC121 (qacH) strains, while strains from other CC showed very low minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for BC. For PAA, minimal bactericidal concentrations of 1.2–1.6% for 20 min and minimal inhibitory concentrations between 0.1 and 0.2% were observed. These values were close to or above the recommended concentration for use (0.5–1%), suggesting that PAA might be ineffective at controlling L. monocytogenes in this and potentially other meat processing facilities.
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23
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Alvarez-Ordóñez A, Coughlan LM, Briandet R, Cotter PD. Biofilms in Food Processing Environments: Challenges and Opportunities. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2019; 10:173-195. [PMID: 30653351 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-032818-121805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
This review examines the impact of microbial communities colonizing food processing environments in the form of biofilms on food safety and food quality. The focus is both on biofilms formed by pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms and on those formed by harmless or beneficial microbes, which are of particular relevance in the processing of fermented foods. Information is presented on intraspecies variability in biofilm formation, interspecies relationships of cooperativism or competition within biofilms, the factors influencing biofilm ecology and architecture, and how these factors may influence removal. The effect on the biofilm formation ability of particular food components and different environmental conditions that commonly prevail during food processing is discussed. Available tools for the in situ monitoring and characterization of wild microbial biofilms in food processing facilities are explored. Finally, research on novel agents or strategies for the control of biofilm formation or removal is summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avelino Alvarez-Ordóñez
- Department of Food Hygiene and Technology and Institute of Food Science and Technology, Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain;
| | - Laura M Coughlan
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, County Cork, Ireland.,School of Microbiology, University College Cork, County Cork, Ireland
| | - Romain Briandet
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, 78350 France
| | - Paul D Cotter
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, County Cork, Ireland.,APC Microbiome Ireland, Cork, County Cork, Ireland
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24
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Oxaran V, Dittmann KK, Lee SHI, Chaul LT, Fernandes de Oliveira CA, Corassin CH, Alves VF, De Martinis ECP, Gram L. Behavior of Foodborne Pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus in Mixed-Species Biofilms Exposed to Biocides. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:e02038-18. [PMID: 30291117 PMCID: PMC6275347 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02038-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In nature and man-made environments, microorganisms reside in mixed-species biofilms, in which the growth and metabolism of an organism are different from these behaviors in single-species biofilms. Pathogenic microorganisms may be protected against adverse treatments in mixed-species biofilms, leading to health risk for humans. Here, we developed two mixed five-species biofilms that included one or the other of the foodborne pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus The five species, including the pathogen, were isolated from a single food-processing environmental sample, thus mimicking the environmental community. In mature mixed five-species biofilms on stainless steel, the two pathogens remained at a constant level of ∼105 CFU/cm2 The mixed five-species biofilms as well as the pathogens in monospecies biofilms were exposed to biocides to determine any pathogen-protective effect of the mixed biofilm. Both pathogens and their associate microbial communities were reduced by peracetic acid treatments. S. aureus decreased by 4.6 log cycles in monospecies biofilms, but the pathogen was protected in the five-species biofilm and decreased by only 1.1 log cycles. Sessile cells of L. monocytogenes were affected to the same extent when in a monobiofilm or as a member of the mixed-species biofilm, decreasing by 3 log cycles when exposed to 0.0375% peracetic acid. When the pathogen was exchanged in each associated microbial community, S. aureus was eradicated, while there was no significant effect of the biocide on L. monocytogenes or the mixed community. This indicates that particular members or associations in the community offered the protective effect. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms of biocide protection and to identify the species playing the protective role in microbial communities of biofilms.IMPORTANCE This study demonstrates that foodborne pathogens can be established in mixed-species biofilms and that this can protect them from biocide action. The protection is not due to specific characteristics of the pathogen, here S. aureus and L. monocytogenes, but likely caused by specific members or associations in the mixed-species biofilm. Biocide treatment and resistance are a challenge for many industries, and biocide efficacy should be tested on microorganisms growing in biofilms, preferably mixed systems, mimicking the application environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginie Oxaran
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Karen Kiesbye Dittmann
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Sarah H I Lee
- FZEA/USP, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luíza Toubas Chaul
- FF/UFG, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | | | - Carlos Humberto Corassin
- FZEA/USP, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Lone Gram
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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25
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Pereira JG, Soares VM, Tadielo LE, dos Santos EAR, Lopes GV, da Cruz Payão Pellegrini D, Duval EH, da Silva WP. Foods introduced into Brazil through the border with Argentina and Uruguay: Pathogen detection and evaluation of hygienic-sanitary quality. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 283:22-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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26
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Biofilm formation by meat-borne Pseudomonas fluorescens on stainless steel and its resistance to disinfectants. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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27
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Gray JA, Chandry PS, Kaur M, Kocharunchitt C, Bowman JP, Fox EM. Novel Biocontrol Methods for Listeria monocytogenes Biofilms in Food Production Facilities. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:605. [PMID: 29666613 PMCID: PMC5891606 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
High mortality and hospitalization rates have seen Listeria monocytogenes as a foodborne pathogen of public health importance for many years and of particular concern for high-risk population groups. Food manufactures face an ongoing challenge in preventing the entry of L. monocytogenes into food production environments (FPEs) due to its ubiquitous nature. In addition to this, the capacity of L. monocytogenes strains to colonize FPEs can lead to repeated identification of L. monocytogenes in FPE surveillance. The contamination of food products requiring product recall presents large economic burden to industry and is further exacerbated by damage to the brand. Poor equipment design, facility layout, and worn or damaged equipment can result in Listeria hotspots and biofilms where traditional cleaning and disinfecting procedures may be inadequate. Novel biocontrol methods may offer FPEs effective means to help improve control of L. monocytogenes and decrease cross contamination of food. Bacteriophages have been used as a medical treatment for many years for their ability to infect and lyse specific bacteria. Endolysins, the hydrolytic enzymes of bacteriophages responsible for breaking the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria, are being explored as a biocontrol method for food preservation and in nanotechnology and medical applications. Antibacterial proteins known as bacteriocins have been used as alternatives to antibiotics for biopreservation and food product shelf life extension. Essential oils are natural antimicrobials formed by plants and have been used as food additives and preservatives for many years and more recently as a method to prevent food spoilage by microorganisms. Competitive exclusion occurs naturally among bacteria in the environment. However, intentionally selecting and applying bacteria to effect competitive exclusion of food borne pathogens has potential as a biocontrol application. This review discusses these novel biocontrol methods and their use in food safety and prevention of spoilage, and examines their potential to control L. monocytogenes within biofilms in food production facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A. Gray
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Werribee, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Food Safety and Innovation, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | | | - Mandeep Kaur
- Centre for Food Safety and Innovation, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Chawalit Kocharunchitt
- Centre for Food Safety and Innovation, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - John P. Bowman
- Centre for Food Safety and Innovation, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Edward M. Fox
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Werribee, VIC, Australia
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28
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Costa GA, Rossatto FCP, Medeiros AW, Correa APF, Brandelli A, Frazzon APG, Motta ADESDA. Evaluation antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of the antimicrobial peptide P34 against Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2018; 90:73-84. [PMID: 29424388 DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765201820160131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The adhesion ability of bacteria to abiotic surfaces has important implications in food industries, because these organisms can survive for long periods through the biofilm formation. They can be transferred from one place to another in the industry causing contamination of the food processing environment. In this study, the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of the antimicrobial peptide P34, characterized as a bacteriocin-like substance (BLS P34) were tested against planktonic and sessile cells of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis isolated from foods. The BLS P34 showed inhibitory effect against all planktonic cells of E. faecalis. The inhibition of biofilm formation and the eradication of pre-formed biofilm were evaluated with the crystal violet assay and with the reduction of 3-bromide [4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium. The BLS P34 promoted a reduction of percentage of adhered microbial cells on the surface, not being able to perform the complete elimination of biofilm formation. The metabolic activity of S. aureus biofilms decreased considerably between 41-95%. However, E. faecalis cells showed up metabolically stimulated. The BLS P34 has the potential antibiofilm for the species S. aureus. Studies suggest more detailed approaches to a better understanding of the interactions between the antimicrobial and bacterial cells within the biofilm structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Géssica A Costa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul/UFRGS, Rua Sarmento Leite, 500, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Fernanda C P Rossatto
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul/UFRGS, Rua Sarmento Leite, 500, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Aline W Medeiros
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul/UFRGS, Rua Sarmento Leite, 500, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula F Correa
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos, Laboratório de Bioquímica e Microbiologia Aplicada, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul/UFRGS, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Adriano Brandelli
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos, Laboratório de Bioquímica e Microbiologia Aplicada, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul/UFRGS, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula G Frazzon
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul/UFRGS, Rua Sarmento Leite, 500, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Amanda DE S DA Motta
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul/UFRGS, Rua Sarmento Leite, 500, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Papaioannou E, Giaouris ED, Berillis P, Boziaris IS. Dynamics of biofilm formation by Listeria monocytogenes on stainless steel under mono-species and mixed-culture simulated fish processing conditions and chemical disinfection challenges. Int J Food Microbiol 2017; 267:9-19. [PMID: 29275280 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2017.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The progressive ability of a six-strains L. monocytogenes cocktail to form biofilm on stainless steel (SS), under fish-processing simulated conditions, was investigated, together with the biocide tolerance of the developed sessile communities. To do this, the pathogenic bacteria were left to form biofilms on SS coupons incubated at 15°C, for up to 240h, in periodically renewable model fish juice substrate, prepared by aquatic extraction of sea bream flesh, under both mono-species and mixed-culture conditions. In the latter case, L. monocytogenes cells were left to produce biofilms together with either a five-strains cocktail of four Pseudomonas species (fragi, savastanoi, putida and fluorescens), or whole fish indigenous microflora. The biofilm populations of L. monocytogenes, Pseudomonas spp., Enterobacteriaceae, H2S producing and aerobic plate count (APC) bacteria, both before and after disinfection, were enumerated by selective agar plating, following their removal from surfaces through bead vortexing. Scanning electron microscopy was also applied to monitor biofilm formation dynamics and anti-biofilm biocidal actions. Results revealed the clear dominance of Pseudomonas spp. bacteria in all the mixed-culture sessile communities throughout the whole incubation period, with the in parallel sole presence of L. monocytogenes cells to further increase (ca. 10-fold) their sessile growth. With respect to L. monocytogenes and under mono-species conditions, its maximum biofilm population (ca. 6logCFU/cm2) was reached at 192h of incubation, whereas when solely Pseudomonas spp. cells were also present, its biofilm formation was either slightly hindered or favored, depending on the incubation day. However, when all the fish indigenous microflora was present, biofilm formation by the pathogen was greatly hampered and never exceeded 3logCFU/cm2, while under the same conditions, APC biofilm counts had already surpassed 7logCFU/cm2 by the end of the first 96h of incubation. All here tested disinfection treatments, composed of two common food industry biocides gradually applied for 15 to 30min, were insufficient against L. monocytogenes mono-species biofilm communities, with the resistance of the latter to significantly increase from the 3rd to 7th day of incubation. However, all these treatments resulted in no detectable L. monocytogenes cells upon their application against the mixed-culture sessile communities also containing the fish indigenous microflora, something probably associated with the low attached population level of these pathogenic cells before disinfection (<102CFU/cm2) under such mixed-culture conditions. Taken together, all these results expand our knowledge on both the population dynamics and resistance of L. monocytogenes biofilm cells under conditions resembling those encountered within the seafood industry and should be considered upon designing and applying effective anti-biofilm strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Papaioannou
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, Greece
| | - Efstathios D Giaouris
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, School of the Environment, University of the Aegean, Myrina, Lemnos, Greece.
| | - Panagiotis Berillis
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, Greece
| | - Ioannis S Boziaris
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, Greece
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30
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Listeria monocytogenes Biofilms in the Wonderland of Food Industry. Pathogens 2017; 6:pathogens6030041. [PMID: 28869552 PMCID: PMC5617998 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens6030041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes is a concern in food safety because of its ability to form biofilm and to persist in food industry. In this mini-review, the issue represented by this pathogen and some of the latest efforts performed in order to investigate the composition of biofilms formed by L. monocytogenes are summarized.
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31
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Liu J, Yu S, Han B, Chen J. Effects of benzalkonium chloride and ethanol on dual-species biofilms of Serratia liquefaciens S1 and Shewanella putrefaciens S4. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.02.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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32
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Luo L, Zhang Z, Wang H, Wang P, Lan R, Deng J, Miao Y, Wang Y, Wang Y, Xu J, Zhang L, Sun S, Liu X, Zhou Y, Chen X, Li Q, Ye C. A 12-month longitudinal study of Listeria monocytogenes contamination and persistence in pork retail markets in China. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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33
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Taguchi M, Kanki M, Yamaguchi Y, Inamura H, Koganei Y, Sano T, Nakamura H, Asakura H. Prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in Retail Lightly Pickled Vegetables and Its Successful Control at Processing Plants. J Food Prot 2017; 80:467-475. [PMID: 28207308 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-16-062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Incidences of food poisoning traced to nonanimal food products have been increasingly reported. One of these was a recent large outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157 infection from the consumption of lightly pickled vegetables, indicating the necessity of imposing hygienic controls during manufacturing. However, little is known about the bacterial contamination levels in these minimally processed vegetables. Here we examined the prevalence of STEC, Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes in 100 lightly pickled vegetable products manufactured at 55 processing factories. Simultaneously, we also performed quantitative measurements of representative indicator bacteria (total viable counts, coliform counts, and β-glucuronidase-producing E. coli counts). STEC and Salmonella spp. were not detected in any of the samples; L. monocytogenes was detected in 12 samples manufactured at five of the factories. Microbiological surveillance at two factories (two surveys at factory A and three surveys at factory B) between June 2014 and January 2015 determined that the areas predominantly contaminated with L. monocytogenes included the refrigerators and packaging rooms. Genotyping provided further evidence that the contaminants found in these areas were linked to those found in the final products. Taken together, we demonstrated the prevalence of L. monocytogenes in lightly pickled vegetables sold at the retail level. Microbiological surveillance at the manufacturing factories further clarified the sources of the contamination in the retail products. These data indicate the necessity of implementing adequate monitoring programs to minimize health risks attributable to the consumption of these minimally processed vegetables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masumi Taguchi
- Division of Bacteriology, Osaka Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Nakamichi 1-3-69, Higashinari-Ku, Osaka 537-0025, Japan
| | - Masashi Kanki
- Division of Bacteriology, Osaka Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Nakamichi 1-3-69, Higashinari-Ku, Osaka 537-0025, Japan
| | - Yuko Yamaguchi
- Izumisano Public Health Center, Kamikawaraya 583-1, Izumisano, Osaka 598-0001, Japan
| | - Hideichi Inamura
- Izumisano Public Health Center, Kamikawaraya 583-1, Izumisano, Osaka 598-0001, Japan
| | - Yosuke Koganei
- Kishiwada Public Health Center, Nodamachi 3-13-1, Kishiwada, Osaka 596-0076, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Sano
- Food Safety Promotion Office, Environment Health Division, Department of Health Care and Welfare, Shiga Prefecture, Gotenham 13-45, Otsu, Shiga 520-0834, Japan
| | - Hiromi Nakamura
- Department of Microbiology, Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences, Tojo-cho 8-34, Tennoji-ku, Osaka 543-0026, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Asakura
- Division of Biomedical Food Research, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kamiyoga 1-18-1, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan
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35
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Abstract
Worldwide, infectious diseases are one of the leading causes of death among children. At least 65% of all infections are caused by the biofilm mode of bacterial growth. Bacteria colonise surfaces and grow as multicellular biofilm communities surrounded by a polymeric matrix as a common survival strategy. These sessile communities endow bacteria with high tolerance to antimicrobial agents and hence cause persistent and chronic bacterial infections, such as dental caries, periodontitis, otitis media, cystic fibrosis and pneumonia. The highly complex nature and the rapid adaptability of the biofilm population impede our understanding of the process of biofilm formation, but an important role for oxygen-binding proteins herein is clear. Much research on this bacterial lifestyle is already performed, from genome/proteome analysis to in vivo antibiotic susceptibility testing, but without significant progress in biofilm treatment or eradication. This review will present the multiple challenges of biofilm research and discuss possibilities to cross these barriers in future experimental studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joke Donné
- Protein Chemistry, Proteomics and Epigenetic Signalling (PPES), Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Sylvia Dewilde
- Protein Chemistry, Proteomics and Epigenetic Signalling (PPES), Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
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