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Chew NSL, Ooi CW, Yeo LY, Tan MK. Influence of MHz-order acoustic waves on bacterial suspensions. ULTRASONICS 2024; 138:107234. [PMID: 38171227 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2023.107234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The development of alternative techniques to efficiently inactivate bacterial suspensions is crucial to prevent transmission of waterborne illness, particularly when commonly used techniques such as heating, filtration, chlorination, or ultraviolet treatment are not practical or feasible. We examine the effect of MHz-order acoustic wave irradiation in the form of surface acoustic waves (SAWs) on Gram-positive (Escherichia coli) and Gram-negative (Brevibacillus borstelensis and Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria suspended in water droplets. A significant increase in the relative bacterial load reduction of colony-forming units (up to 74%) can be achieved by either increasing (1) the excitation power, or, (2) the acoustic treatment duration, which we attributed to the effect of the acoustic radiation force exerted on the bacteria. Consequently, by increasing the maximum pressure amplitude via a hybrid modulation scheme involving a combination of amplitude and pulse-width modulation, we observe that the bacterial inactivation efficiency can be further increased by approximately 14%. By combining this scalable acoustic-based bacterial inactivation platform with plasma-activated water, a 100% reduction in E. coli is observed in less than 10 mins, therefore demonstrating the potential of the synergistic effects of MHz-order acoustic irradiation and plasma-activated water as an efficient strategy for water decontamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas S L Chew
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia, 47500 Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chien W Ooi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia, 47500 Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Leslie Y Yeo
- Micro/Nanophysics Research Laboratory, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Ming K Tan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia, 47500 Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia.
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2
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Gunnarsdottir MJ, Gardarsson SM, Eriksson M, Albrechtsen HJ, Bergkvist KSG, Rossi PM, Matilainen R, Hansen LT, Jensen PE, Maréchal JYA, Myrmel M, Kalheim FC, Persson KM, Bjerkén A, Bartram J. Implementing risk-based approaches to improve drinking water quality in small water supplies in the Nordic region - barriers and solutions. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2023; 21:1747-1760. [PMID: 38153709 PMCID: wh_2023_088 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2023.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Small water supplies face similar problems worldwide, regardless of ownership or management type. Non-compliance with water quality regulations is more frequent in small supplies than in large ones, as are waterborne disease outbreaks. The new European Union Drinking Water Directive requires risk-based approach (RBA) to secure water safety as is recommended in the World Health Organization's Guidelines for drinking water quality through 'water safety plans'. This is already in regulation in the Nordic countries, although less used in small supplies. In this research, we explore the challenges, barriers and possible solutions to implementing RBA and improving compliance in small supplies. This was achieved by conducting and analysing interviews with 53 stakeholders from all eight Nordic countries to produce recommendations for action by the different implicated actors. Our findings suggest the centrality of governmental policy, including support for continuous training, provision of simple RBA guidelines and increasing cooperation in the water sector. The Nordic experience reflects global challenges with small water supplies and the trend towards systematic preventive management epitomized in the framework for drinking water safety advocated by the World Health Organization since 2004.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria J Gunnarsdottir
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland E-mail:
| | - Sigurdur M Gardarsson
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Magnus Eriksson
- Åland Environmental and Health Protection Authority, Mariehamn, Åland
| | - Hans-Jörgen Albrechtsen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kim Steve Gerlach Bergkvist
- Fiskaaling Agriculture Research Station, Við Áir, Faroe Islands; Faroese Food and Veterinary Authority, Torshavn, Faroe Islands
| | - Pekka M Rossi
- Water, Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, Finland
| | - Riikka Matilainen
- Water, Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, Finland
| | - Lisbeth Truelstrup Hansen
- Arctic DTU Sisimiut - Ilinniarfeqarfik Sisimiut, Greenland; National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Pernille Erland Jensen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; Arctic DTU Sisimiut - Ilinniarfeqarfik Sisimiut, Greenland
| | - Judith Y A Maréchal
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; Arctic DTU Sisimiut - Ilinniarfeqarfik Sisimiut, Greenland
| | - Mette Myrmel
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | | | | | | | - Jamie Bartram
- School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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Masciopinto C, Fadakar Alghalandis Y. An extended colloid filtration theory for modeling Escherichia coli transport in 3-D fracture networks. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 247:120748. [PMID: 37976626 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Microbial transport in fractured carbonate rock using enhanced solutions is a significant and neglected research topic in the literature. We propose an extended colloid filtration theory (CFT) combined with a particle-tracking following streamlines (PTFS) model for the rapid prediction of breakthrough curves (BTCs) and plumes of pathogens in three-dimensional (3-D) discrete fracture networks (DFNs). We adapted CFT in porous media to pathogen transport in fractures containing Terra Rossa (soil) deposits. As an example of the model capability, a simulation was used to predict the 3-D motion field and Escherichia coli count in groundwater originating from the Forcatella managed aquifer recharge (MAR) Facility (Brindisi, Italy) using a DFN composed of 3,900 fractures. In arid regions, MAR facilities are significant for sustaining basic human needs, such as freshwater supply for drinking and crop production. The Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) technique was applied to E. coli counts in the collected water samples to increase data representativeness. The pathogen transport coefficients were further supported by batch filtration tests carried out in the CNR/IRSA Laboratory (Bari, Italy). The mean E. coli attachment rate coefficient of 0.15 × 10-8 m2 d-1 (sticking efficiency = 1.1 × 10-8 m) resulted in a 2.1 log10 removal in 600 m of reclaimed water filtration. The simulation output visualized the E. coli 3-D pathways in groundwater and the positions of contaminated groundwater spring outflows on Forcatella Beach. The simulation results agreed with the mean MCMC output of E. coli concentrations in bathing water under unperturbed geochemical and environmental flow and transport conditions. However, results indicate that concentrations of pathogenic strains, parasites, and enteric viruses may enter the marine environment of MAR sites during flood periods.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Masciopinto
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque, via Francesco De Blasio, 5, 70132 Bari, Italia.
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Borchardt MA, Kieke BA, Spencer SK, Lambertini E, Burch TR, Loge FJ. Community intervention trial for estimating risk of acute gastrointestinal illness from groundwater-supplied non-disinfected drinking water. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2023; 21:1209-1227. [PMID: 37756190 PMCID: wh_2023_071 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2023.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
By community intervention in 14 non-disinfecting municipal water systems, we quantified sporadic acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) attributable to groundwater. Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection was installed on all supply wells of intervention communities. In control communities, residents continued to drink non-disinfected groundwater. Intervention and control communities switched treatments by moving UV disinfection units at the study midpoint (crossover design). Study participants (n = 1,659) completed weekly health diaries during four 12-week surveillance periods. Water supply wells were analyzed monthly for enteric pathogenic viruses. Using the crossover design, groundwater-borne AGI was not observed. However, virus types and quantity in supply wells changed through the study, suggesting that exposure was not constant. Alternatively, we compared AGI incidence between intervention and control communities within the same surveillance period. During Period 1, norovirus contaminated wells and AGI attributable risk from well water was 19% (95% CI, -4%, 36%) for children <5 years and 15% (95% CI, -9%, 33%) for adults. During Period 3, echovirus 11 contaminated wells and UV disinfection slightly reduced AGI in adults. Estimates of AGI attributable risks from drinking non-disinfected groundwater were highly variable, but appeared greatest during times when supply wells were contaminated with specific AGI-etiologic viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Borchardt
- National Farm Medicine Center, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI, USA; Current address: USDA-ARS, U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center, Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research Unit, Marshfield, WI, USA E-mail:
| | - Burney A Kieke
- Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Population Health, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI, USA
| | - Susan K Spencer
- National Farm Medicine Center, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI, USA; Current address: USDA-ARS, U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center, Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research Unit, Marshfield, WI, USA
| | - Elisabetta Lambertini
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Current address: Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Tucker R Burch
- U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, Marshfield, WI, USA
| | - Frank J Loge
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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Grassel M, Yim D, Shriver J, Redlin T. Increased Incidence of Pyogenic Liver Abscess in a Midwest System With Emphasis on Rural Impact. Cureus 2022; 14:e21477. [PMID: 35223257 PMCID: PMC8858610 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.21477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess if hepatic abscess incidence in a Midwest cohort was higher in rural areas compared to metropolitan areas in relation to water infrastructure. MATERIALS AND METHODS All cases of hepatic abscesses from Jan 1, 2016 through Dec 31, 2019 at Avera McKennan Hospital in Sioux Falls, South Dakota (SD), were retrospectively collected. Chart review was completed for each case for risk factor analysis. Microbiology cultures and patient demographic data were collected including age, gender, hometown, and ethnicity. Risk factors assessed included a history of abdominal surgery, gallbladder disease, sepsis, diverticulitis, cancer, and diabetes. The incidence of hepatic abscesses was calculated using the Poisson rate test and confidence interval equation. Averages of each risk factor were calculated. Finally, hometown was utilized to create a heatmap of disease burden and compared to the density of private wells. RESULTS Our data yielded 116 confirmed adult hepatic abscesses between 2016 and 2019. The corrected incidence per 100,000 hospitalized patients per year is 95.66. The Poisson exact probability P-value was <0.01. Rural areas had a higher per capita incidence of abscesses and higher density of private wells. CONCLUSIONS The incidence of hepatic abscesses is higher than national averages in this single-center study of Avera McKennan Hospital. Demographics, especially geographic location, play an important role in abscess rates. Rural location may be affecting the incidence of hepatic abscesses, explaining the much higher than expected incidence in this study. Infrastructure could be a contributing factor as much of the rural area is reliant on untreated groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Grassel
- Family Medicine, University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine, Sioux Falls, USA
| | - Douglas Yim
- Interventional Radiology, Johns Hopkins Health System, St. Petersburg, USA
| | - Jackson Shriver
- Interventional Radiology, University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine, Sioux Falls, USA
| | - Tanner Redlin
- Interventional Radiology, University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine, Sioux Falls, USA
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Olupot PW, Menya E, Jjagwe J, Wakatuntu J, Kavuma T, Wabwire A, Kavuma S, Mcmondo SO, Nabuuma B, Kalibbala HM. Development and appraisal of handwash-wastewater treatment system for water recycling as a resilient response to COVID-19. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2021; 9:106113. [PMID: 36569645 PMCID: PMC9764836 DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2021.106113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
In this work, results from characterization of handwashing wastewater from selected stations in Kampala City, Uganda, revealed that handwashing wastewater did not meet permissible international standards for wastewater discharge to the environment. The ratio of BOD5 to COD of ˂ 0.5 implied that handwashing wastewater was not amenable to biological treatment processes. Turbidity of ˃ 50 NTU pointed to the need for a roughing filter prior to slow sand filtration. Subsequently, a handwashing wastewater treatment system consisting of selected particle sizes of silica sand, zeolite, and granular activated carbon as filtration and/or adsorption media was developed and assessed for performance towards amelioration of the physicochemical and biological parameters of the handwashing wastewater. Treated water from the developed wastewater treatment system exhibited a turbidity of 5 NTU, true color of 10 Pt-Co, apparent color of 6 Pt-Co, and TSS of 9 mgL-1, translating to removal efficiencies of up to 98.5%, 98.1%, 99.7%, and 96.9%, respectively. The residual total coliforms and E. coli of 1395 and 1180 CFU(100 mL)-1 respectively, were totally eliminated upon disinfection with 0.5 mL NaOCl (3.5% wt/vol) per liter of treated wastewater. The treated water was thus suitable for recycling for handwashing purpose as opposed to letting handwashing wastewater merely go down the drain. This approach provides a resilient response to COVID-19, where communities faced with water scarcity can treat and recycle handwashing wastewater at the point of washing. It thus enables more people to have the opportunity to practice handwashing, abating the high risks of infection, which could otherwise arise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Wilberforce Olupot
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Emmanuel Menya
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Gulu University, P.O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Joseph Jjagwe
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Joel Wakatuntu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Tonny Kavuma
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Andrew Wabwire
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Steven Kavuma
- Luwero Industries Limited, P.O. Box 1651, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Betty Nabuuma
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Herbert Mpagi Kalibbala
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
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Gunnarsdottir MJ, Gardarsson SM, Schultz AC, Albrechtsen HJ, Hansen LT, Gerlach Bergkvist KS, Rossi PM, Klöve B, Myrmel M, Persson KM, Eriksson M, Bartram J. Status of risk-based approach and national framework for safe drinking water in small water supplies of the Nordic water sector. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 230:113627. [PMID: 32956900 PMCID: PMC7500910 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Reliable safe water supply is a pillar of society and a key to public health. The Nordic countries have an abundance of clean fresh water as a source for drinking water supplies. They have followed developments in safeguarding water, both the recommendations of the World Health Organization framework for safe drinking water and European legislation. Worldwide, including the Nordic countries, small water supplies are less compliant with water safety regulation. The forthcoming EU directive on drinking water require risk-based approaches and improved transparency on water quality. This research looks at the Nordic frameworks for safe water supply, with emphasis on risk-based approaches and smaller systems. We analyzed the legal frameworks for safe water, the structure of the water sector across the Nordic countries and explored how prepared these countries are to meet these requirements. Our findings show that, while legal requirements are mostly in place, delivery of information to the public needs to be improved. Most Nordic countries are in the process of implementing risk-based management in large and medium size water supplies, whereas small supplies are lagging. We conclude that a key to success is increased training and support for small supplies. We suggest wider adoption of the Nordic model of cooperation with benchmarking of safe water for all to transfer knowledge between the countries. This work provides insights into challenges and opportunities for the Nordic countries and provides insights relevant to countries worldwide in their effort towards realization of SDG Target 6.1.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Magnus Eriksson
- Åland Islands Environmental and Health Protection Authority, Åland Islands
| | - Jamie Bartram
- University of North Carolina, USA; School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, UK
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Berger P, Messner MJ, Crosby J, Vacs Renwick D, Heinrich A. On the use of total aerobic spore bacteria to make treatment decisions due to Cryptosporidium risk at public water system wells. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2018; 221:704-711. [PMID: 29567375 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Spore reduction can be used as a surrogate measure of Cryptosporidium natural filtration efficiency. Estimates of log10 (log) reduction were derived from spore measurements in paired surface and well water samples in Casper Wyoming and Kearney Nebraska. We found that these data were suitable for testing the hypothesis (H0) that the average reduction at each site was 2 log or less, using a one-sided Student's t-test. After establishing data quality objectives for the test (expressed as tolerable Type I and Type II error rates), we evaluated the test's performance as a function of the (a) true log reduction, (b) number of paired samples assayed and (c) variance of observed log reductions. We found that 36 paired spore samples are sufficient to achieve the objectives over a wide range of variance, including the variances observed in the two data sets. We also explored the feasibility of using smaller numbers of paired spore samples to supplement bioparticle counts for screening purposes in alluvial aquifers, to differentiate wells with large volume surface water induced recharge from wells with negligible surface water induced recharge. With key assumptions, we propose a normal statistical test of the same hypothesis (H0), but with different performance objectives. As few as six paired spore samples appear adequate as a screening metric to supplement bioparticle counts to differentiate wells in alluvial aquifers with large volume surface water induced recharge. For the case when all available information (including failure to reject H0 based on the limited paired spore data) leads to the conclusion that wells have large surface water induced recharge, we recommend further evaluation using additional paired biweekly spore samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Berger
- Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, United States.
| | - Michael J Messner
- Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, United States.
| | - Jake Crosby
- Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, United States.
| | - Deborah Vacs Renwick
- Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, United States.
| | - Austin Heinrich
- Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, United States.
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Kilungo A, Powers L, Arnold N, Whelan K, Paterson K, Young D. Evaluation of Well Designs to Improve Access to Safe and Clean Water in Rural Tanzania. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15010064. [PMID: 29300305 PMCID: PMC5800163 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15010064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2017] [Revised: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to examine three well designs: drilled wells (20–30 m deep), closed dug wells (>5 m deep), and hand-dug open wells (<5 m deep), to determine the water quality for improving access to safe and clean water in rural communities. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC), total coliforms (TC), Escherichia coli (E. coli) and turbidity, were used to assess the water quality of 97 wells. Additionally, the study looked at the microflora diversity of the water, focusing on potential pathogens using outgrowth, PCR, and genome sequencing for 10 wells. Concentrations of TC for the open dug wells (4 × 104 CFU/100 mL) were higher than the drilled (2 × 103 CFU/100 mL) and closed dug wells (3 × 103 CFU/100 mL). E. coli concentration for drilled and closed dug wells was <22 MPN (most probable number)/100 mL, but higher for open wells (>154 MPN/100 mL). The drilled well turbidity (11 NTU) was within the standard deviation of the closed well (28 NTU) compared to open dug wells (49 NTU). Drilled and closed wells had similar microbial diversity. There were no significant differences between drilled and closed dug wells. The covering and lining of hand-dug wells should be considered as an alternative to improve access to safe and clean water in rural communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aminata Kilungo
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, Health Promotion Sciences Department, The University of Arizona, 1295 N Martin Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
| | - Linda Powers
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, The University of Arizona, 1230 E. Speedway Blvd, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
| | - Nathan Arnold
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 801 Dow Building, Houghton, MI 49931, USA.
| | - Kelli Whelan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 801 Dow Building, Houghton, MI 49931, USA.
| | - Kurt Paterson
- Department of Engineering, James Madison University, 801 Carrier Dr., Harrisonburg, VA 22807, USA.
| | - Dale Young
- Maji Safi kwa Afya Bora Ifakara (MSABI), Kilosa Road 65, Morogoro 284, Tanzania.
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Gunnarsdottir MJ, Persson KM, Andradottir HO, Gardarsson SM. Status of small water supplies in the Nordic countries: Characteristics, water quality and challenges. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:1309-1317. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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