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Xing W, Zhang S, Wang Z, Jiang D, Han S, Luo Y. Self-awareness protects working memory in people under chronic stress: An ERP study. Front Psychol 2022; 13:1003719. [PMID: 36248489 PMCID: PMC9561943 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1003719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic stress impairs working memory (WM), but few studies have explored the protective factors of the impairment. We aimed to investigate the effect of self-awareness on WM processing in people under chronic stress. Participants under chronic stress completed an n-back task after a self-awareness priming paradigm during which electroencephalograms were recorded. The behavioral results showed that participants whose self-awareness was primed reacted faster and more accurately than the controls. Event-related potentials (ERPs) revealed the following (1) P2 was more positive in the self-awareness group than in the controls, indicating that self-awareness enhanced allocation of attention resources at the encoding stage. (2) N2 was attenuated in the self-awareness group compared with the controls, indicating that smaller attention control efforts were required to complete WM tasks adequately after self-awareness priming; and (3) enhanced late positive potential (LPP) was evoked in the self-awareness group compared with the controls, suggesting self-awareness enabled participants to focus attention resources on the information at the maintenance stage. Critically, mediational analyses showed that LPP mediated the relationship between self-awareness and WM response times. This result suggests that the fact that participants whose self-awareness was primed were able to achieve better behavioral performances may be attributed to their mobilization of sustained attention resources at the maintenance stage. In summary, self-awareness exerted a protective effect on WM in those under chronic stress, which may be due to the enhancements in the allocation and mobilization of attention. These results could be used to develop more specific coping strategies for people under chronic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Xing
- College of Economics and Management, Qilu Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Shu Zhang
- College of Teacher Education, Qilu Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Zheng Wang
- College of Teacher Education, Qilu Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Dan Jiang
- Zhuhai Sanzao Central Primary School, Zhuhai, China
| | - Shangfeng Han
- Department of Psychology and Center for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, School of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou Province, China
- *Correspondence: Shangfeng Han, ; Yuejia Luo,
| | - Yuejia Luo
- College of Teacher Education, Qilu Normal University, Jinan, China
- Center for Brain Disorders and Cognitive Sciences, Magnetic Resonance Imaging Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
- The State Key Lab of Cognitive and Learning, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- The Research Center of Brain Science and Visual Cognition, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
- *Correspondence: Shangfeng Han, ; Yuejia Luo,
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The self-reflection and insight scale: applying item response theory to craft an efficient short form. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-020-01299-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Silvia PJ, Sizemore AJ, Tipping CJ, Perry LB, King SF. Get Going! Self-focused Attention and Sensitivity to Action and Inaction Effort Primes. MOTIVATION SCIENCE 2018; 4:109-117. [PMID: 29988962 PMCID: PMC6034711 DOI: 10.1037/mot0000077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Implicit action primes and inaction primes can directly affect effort in some circumstances. The present research examined if people high in trait self-focused attention were more strongly affected by action and inaction primes. Past work has found that self-focus makes people more likely to encode implicit primes as self-relevant, thus increasing the effects of primes. As a result, we expected that people high in trait self-focus would be more strongly affected when primed with action and inaction concepts. A group of young adults completed a self-paced parity task in which most trials primed words related to action or inaction. Effort was measured as baseline-to-task change in the cardiac pre-ejection period (PEP), a measure of sympathetic autonomic influence on the heart. Trait self-focus significantly interacted with the priming manipulation. People high in self-focus were more sensitive to the action primes, shown in greater PEP reactivity, but not to the inaction primes. The findings extend the growing literature on how priming influences effort and support models of how self-focused attention shapes motivational processes.
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Silvia PJ, Mironovová Z, McHone AN, Sperry SH, Harper KL, Kwapil TR, Eddington KM. Do depressive symptoms "blunt" effort? An analysis of cardiac engagement and withdrawal for an increasingly difficult task. Biol Psychol 2016; 118:52-60. [PMID: 27174723 PMCID: PMC4956535 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.04.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Research on depression and effort has suggested "depressive blunting"-lower cardiovascular reactivity in response to challenges and stressors. Many studies, however, find null effects or higher reactivity. The present research draws upon motivational intensity theory, a broad model of effort that predicts cases in which depressive symptoms should increase or decrease effort. Because depressive symptoms can influence task-difficulty appraisals-people see tasks as subjectively harder-people high in depressive symptoms should engage higher effort at objectively easier levels of difficulty but also quit sooner. A sample of adults completed a mental effort challenge with four levels of difficulty, from very easy to difficult-but-feasible. Depressive symptoms were assessed with the CESD and DASS; effort-related cardiac activity was assessed via markers of contractility (e.g., the cardiac pre-ejection period [PEP]) obtained with impedance cardiography. The findings supported the theory's predictions. When the task was relatively easier, people high in depressive symptoms showed higher contractility (shorter PEP), consistent with greater effort. When the task was relatively harder, people high in depressive symptoms showed diminished contractility, consistent with quitting. The results suggest that past research has been observing a small part of a larger trajectory of trying and quitting, and they illustrate the value of a theoretically grounded analysis of depressive symptoms and effort-related cardiac activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Silvia
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States.
| | - Zuzana Mironovová
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States
| | - Ashley N McHone
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States
| | - Sarah H Sperry
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States
| | - Kelly L Harper
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States
| | - Thomas R Kwapil
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States
| | - Kari M Eddington
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, United States
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Silvia PJ, Nusbaum EC, Eddington KM, Beaty RE, Kwapil TR. Effort Deficits and Depression: The Influence of Anhedonic Depressive Symptoms on Cardiac Autonomic Activity During a Mental Challenge. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2014; 38:779-789. [PMID: 25431505 DOI: 10.1007/s11031-014-9443-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Motivational approaches to depression emphasize the role of dysfunctional motivational dynamics, particularly diminished reward and incentive processes associated with anhedonia. A study examined how anhedonic depressive symptoms, measured continuously across a wide range of severity, influenced the physiological mobilization of effort during a cognitive task. Using motivational intensity theory as a guide, we expected that the diminished incentive value associated with anhedonic depressive symptoms would reduce effort during a "do your best" challenge (also known as an unfixed or self-paced challenge), in which effort is a function of the value of achieving the task's goal. Using impedance cardiography, two cardiac autonomic responses were assessed: pre-ejection period (PEP), a measure of sympathetic activity and our primary measure of interest, and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), a measure of parasympathetic activity. As expected, PEP slowed from baseline to task as anhedonic depressive symptoms increased (as measured with the DASS Depression scale), indicating diminished effort-related sympathetic activity. No significant effects appeared for RSA. The findings support motivational intensity theory as a translational model of effort processes in depression and clarify some inconsistent effects of depressive symptoms on effort-related physiology found in past work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Silvia
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
| | - Emily C Nusbaum
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
| | - Kari M Eddington
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
| | - Roger E Beaty
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
| | - Thomas R Kwapil
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
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Silvia PJ, Moore LC, Nardello JL. Trying and Quitting: How Self-focused Attention Influences Effort During Difficult and Impossible Tasks. SELF AND IDENTITY 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2013.796086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Wright RA, Patrick BM, Thomas C, Barreto P. When fatigue promotes striving: Confirmation that success importance moderates resource depletion influence on effort-related cardiovascular response. Biol Psychol 2013; 93:316-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Revised: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Silvia PJ, Eddington KM, Beaty RE, Nusbaum EC, Kwapil TR. Gritty people try harder: grit and effort-related cardiac autonomic activity during an active coping challenge. Int J Psychophysiol 2013; 88:200-5. [PMID: 23603450 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Revised: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Grit, a recently proposed personality trait associated with persistence for long-range goals, predicts achievement in a wide range of important life outcomes. Using motivational intensity theory, the present research examined the physiological underpinnings of grit during an active coping task. Forty young adults completed the Short Grit Scale and worked on a self-paced mental effort task. Effort-related autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity was assessed using impedance cardiography, which yielded measures of sympathetic activity (pre-ejection period; PEP) and parasympathetic activity (respiratory sinus arrhythmia; RSA). Multilevel models revealed that people high on the Perseverance of Effort subscale showed autonomic coactivation: both PEP and RSA became stronger during the task, reflecting higher activity of both ANS divisions. The Consistency of Interest subscale, in contrast, predicted only weaker sympathetic activity (slower PEP). Taken together, the findings illuminate autonomic processes associated with how "gritty" people pursue goals, and they suggest that more attention should be paid to the facets' distinct effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Silvia
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402-6170, USA.
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Silvia PJ, Kelly CS, Zibaie A, Nardello JL, Moore LC. Trait self-focused attention increases sensitivity to nonconscious primes: evidence from effort-related cardiovascular reactivity. Int J Psychophysiol 2013; 88:143-8. [PMID: 23524197 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 03/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A broad range of primes presented outside of awareness - ranging from emotional faces to people's first names - can influence the physiological mobilization of effort during active coping tasks. Who responds more strongly to implicit cues? Based on models of self-awareness, the present research examined how individual differences in self-focused attention influence sensitivity to nonconscious primes. Adults completed a challenging cognitive task in which two kinds of primes were presented (people's first names and words related to the task's difficulty). Trait self-focus significantly interacted with both primes to predict effort, measured as systolic blood pressure (SBP) reactivity. People high in trait self-focus had significantly higher SBP reactivity when primed with words that made the task seem more important (their first names) and harder (high difficulty words). These findings thus expand the evidence for motivational intensity theory's analysis of implicit processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Silvia
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402-6170, USA.
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Silvia PJ, Phillips AG. Self-Awareness Without Awareness? Implicit Self-Focused Attention and Behavioral Self-Regulation. SELF AND IDENTITY 2012; 12:114-127. [PMID: 23226716 DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2011.639550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Objective self-awareness theory contends that focusing attention on the self initiates an automatic comparison of self to standards. To gain evidence for automatic self-standard comparison processes, two experiments manipulated attention to self with subliminal first-name priming. People completed a computer-based parity task after being instructed that the standard was to be fast or to be accurate. Subliminal first name priming increased behavioral adherence to the explicit standard. When told to be fast, self-focused people made more mistakes and had faster response times; when told to be accurate, self-focused people made fewer mistakes. A manipulation of conscious self-awareness (via a mirror) had the same self-regulatory effects. The findings suggest that comparing self to standards can occur automatically and that it is attention to self, not awareness of the self per se, that evokes self-evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Silvia
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
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Silvia PJ. Mirrors, masks, and motivation: implicit and explicit self-focused attention influence effort-related cardiovascular reactivity. Biol Psychol 2012; 90:192-201. [PMID: 22504295 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Revised: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/21/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Using motivational intensity theory as a framework, three experiments examined how implicit self-focus (manipulated with masked first-name priming) and explicit self-focus (manipulated with a large mirror) influence effort-related cardiovascular activity, particularly systolic blood pressure reactivity. Theories of self-focused attention suggest that both implicit and explicit self-focus bring about self-evaluation and thus make meeting a goal more important. For a "do your best" task of unfixed difficulty, implicit and explicit self-focus both increased effort (Experiment 1) compared to a control condition. For a task that varied in difficulty, implicit and explicit self-focus promoted more effort as the task became increasingly hard (Experiments 2 and 3). Taken together, the findings suggest that implicit and explicit self-processes share a similar motivational architecture. The discussion explores the value of integrating motivational intensity theory with self-awareness theory and considers the emerging interest in implicit aspects of effort regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Silvia
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 27402-6170, USA.
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Capa RL, Cleeremans A, Bustin GM, Hansenne M. Long-lasting effect of subliminal processes on cardiovascular responses and performance. Int J Psychophysiol 2011; 81:22-30. [PMID: 21515314 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Revised: 04/05/2011] [Accepted: 04/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Students were exposed to a priming task in which subliminal representations of the goal of studying were directly paired (priming-positive group) or not (priming group) to positive words. A control group without subliminal prime of the goal was added. Just after the priming task, students performed an easy or a difficult learning task based on their coursework. Participants in the priming-positive group performed better and had a stronger decrease of pulse transit time and pulse wave amplitude reactivity than participants of the two other groups, but only during the difficult condition. Results suggested that subliminal priming induces effortful behavior extending over twenty five minutes but only when the primes had been associated with visible positive words acting as a reward. These findings provide evidence that subliminal priming can have long-lasting effects on behaviors typical of daily life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémi L Capa
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of Liège, Belgium.
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