Redefining the golden hour for severe head injury in an urban setting: the effect of prehospital arrival times on patient outcomes

Epidemiology and outcomes of brain trauma in rural and urban populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To identify and describe differences in demographics, injury characteristics, and outcomes between rural and urban patients suffering brain injury.

DATA SOURCES

CINAHL, Emcare, MEDLINE, and Scopus.

REVIEW METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies comparing epidemiology and outcomes of rural and urban brain trauma was conducted in accordance with PRISMA and MOOSE guidelines.

RESULTS

36 studies with ~ 2.5-million patients were included. Incidence of brain injury was higher in males, regardless of location. Rates of transport-related brain injuries, particularly involving motorized vehicles other than cars, were significantly higher in rural populations (OR:3.63, 95% CI[1.58,8.35], p = 0.002), whereas urban residents had more fall-induced brain trauma (OR:0.73, 95% CI[0.66,0.81], p < 0.00001). Rural patients were 28% more likely to suffer severe injury, indicated by Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)≤8 (OR:1.28, 95% CI[1.04,1.58], p = 0.02). There was no difference in mortality (OR:1.09, 95% CI[0.73,1.61], p = 0.067), however, urban patients were twice as likely to be discharged with a good outcome (OR:0.52, 95% CI[0.41,0.67], p < 0.00001).

CONCLUSIONS

Rurality is associated with greater severity and poorer outcomes of traumatic brain injury. Transport accidents disproportionally affect those traveling on rural roads. Future research recommendations include addition of prehospital data, adequate follow-up, standardized measures, and sub-group analyses of high-risk groups, e.g. Indigenous populations.

Development of a Quality Indicator Set for the Optimal Acute Management of Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury in the Australian Context

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to develop a consensus-based set of indicators of high-quality acute moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (msTBI) clinical management that can be used to measure structure, process, and outcome factors that are likely to influence patient outcomes. This is the first stage of the PRECISION-TBI program, which is a prospective cohort study that aims to identify and promote optimal clinical management of msTBI in Australia.

METHODS

A preliminary set of 45 quality indicators was developed based on available evidence. An advisory committee of established experts in the field refined the initial indicator set in terms of content coverage, proportional representation, contamination, and supporting evidence. The refined indicator set was then distributed to a wider Delphi panel for assessment of each indicator in terms of validity, measurement feasibility, variability, and action feasibility. Inclusion in the final indicator set was contingent on prespecified inclusion scoring.

RESULTS

The indicator set was structured according to the care pathway of msTBI and included prehospital, emergency department, neurosurgical, intensive care, and rehabilitation indicators. Measurement domains included structure indicators, logistic indicators, and clinical management indicators. The Delphi panel consisted of 44 participants (84% physician, 12% nursing, and 4% primary research) with a median of 15 years of practice. Of the 47 indicators included in the second round of the Delphi, 32 indicators were approved by the Delphi group.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified a set of 32 quality indicators that can be used to structure data collection to drive quality improvement in the clinical management of msTBI. They will also be used to guide feedback to PRECISION-TBI's participating sites.

Temporal Delays in the Management of Traumatic Brain Injury: A Comparative Meta-Analysis of Global Literature

OBJECTIVE

A meta-analysis was conducted to compare: 1) time from traumatic brain injury (TBI) to the hospital, and 2) time within the hospital to intervention or surgery, by country-level income, World Health Organization region, and healthcare payment system.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was conducted and followed by a meta-analysis comparing duration of delays (prehospital and intrahospital) in TBI management. Means and standard deviations were pooled using a random effects model and subgroup analysis was performed using R software.

RESULTS

Our analysis comprised 95,554 TBI patients from 45 countries.

BY COUNTRY-LEVEL INCOME

From 23 low- and middle-income countries, a longer mean time from injury to surgery (862.53 minutes, confidence interval [CI]: 107.42-1617.63), prehospital (217.46 minutes, CI: -27.34-462.25), and intrahospital (166.36 minutes, 95% CI: 96.12-236.60) durations were found compared to 22 high-income countries.

BY WHO REGION

African Region had the greatest total (1062.3 minutes, CI: -1072.23-3196.62), prehospital (256.57 minutes [CI: -202.36-715.51]), and intrahospital durations (593.22 minutes, CI: -3546.45-4732.89).

BY HEALTHCARE PAYMENT SYSTEM

Multiple-Payer Health Systems had a greater prehospital duration (132.62 minutes, CI: 54.55-210.68) but greater intrahospital delays were found in Single-Payer Health Systems (309.37 minutes, CI: -21.95-640.69).

CONCLUSION

Our study concludes that TBI patients in low- and middle-income countries within African Region countries face prolonged delays in both prehospital and intrahospital management compared to high-income countries. Additionally, patients within Single-Payer Health System experienced prolonged intrahospital delays. An urgent need to address global disparities in neurotrauma care has been highlighted.

Effectiveness of road safety interventions: An evidence and gap map

Background

Road Traffic injuries (RTI) are among the top ten leading causes of death in the world resulting in 1.35 million deaths every year, about 93% of which occur in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Despite several global resolutions to reduce traffic injuries, they have continued to grow in many countries. Many high-income countries have successfully reduced RTI by using a public health approach and implementing evidence-based interventions. As many LMICs develop their highway infrastructure, adopting a similar scientific approach towards road safety is crucial. The evidence also needs to be evaluated to assess external validity because measures that have worked in high-income countries may not translate equally well to other contexts. An evidence gap map for RTI is the first step towards understanding what evidence is available, from where, and the key gaps in knowledge.

Objectives

The objective of this evidence gap map (EGM) is to identify existing evidence from all effectiveness studies and systematic reviews related to road safety interventions. In addition, the EGM identifies gaps in evidence where new primary studies and systematic reviews could add value. This will help direct future research and discussions based on systematic evidence towards the approaches and interventions which are most effective in the road safety sector. This could enable the generation of evidence for informing policy at global, regional or national levels.

Search Methods

The EGM includes systematic reviews and impact evaluations assessing the effect of interventions for RTI reported in academic databases, organization websites, and grey literature sources. The studies were searched up to December 2019.

Selection Criteria

The interventions were divided into five broad categories: (a) human factors (e.g., enforcement or road user education), (b) road design, infrastructure and traffic control, (c) legal and institutional framework, (d) post-crash pre-hospital care, and (e) vehicle factors (except car design for occupant protection) and protective devices. Included studies reported two primary outcomes: fatal crashes and non-fatal injury crashes; and four intermediate outcomes: change in use of seat belts, change in use of helmets, change in speed, and change in alcohol/drug use. Studies were excluded if they did not report injury or fatality as one of the outcomes.

Data Collection and Analysis

The EGM is presented in the form of a matrix with two primary dimensions: interventions (rows) and outcomes (columns). Additional dimensions are country income groups, region, quality level for systematic reviews, type of study design used (e.g., case-control), type of road user studied (e.g., pedestrian, cyclists), age groups, and road type. The EGM is available online where the matrix of interventions and outcomes can be filtered by one or more dimensions. The webpage includes a bibliography of the selected studies and titles and abstracts available for preview. Quality appraisal for systematic reviews was conducted using a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews, AMSTAR 2.

Main Results

The EGM identified 1859 studies of which 322 were systematic reviews, 7 were protocol studies and 1530 were impact evaluations. Some studies included more than one intervention, outcome, study method, or study region. The studies were distributed among intervention categories as: human factors (n = 771), road design, infrastructure and traffic control (n = 661), legal and institutional framework (n = 424), post-crash pre-hospital care (n = 118) and vehicle factors and protective devices (n = 111). Fatal crashes as outcomes were reported in 1414 records and non-fatal injury crashes in 1252 records. Among the four intermediate outcomes, speed was most commonly reported (n = 298) followed by alcohol (n = 206), use of seatbelts (n = 167), and use of helmets (n = 66). Ninety-six percent of the studies were reported from high-income countries (HIC), 4.5% from upper-middle-income countries, and only 1.4% from lower-middle and low-income countries. There were 25 systematic reviews of high quality, 4 of moderate quality, and 293 of low quality.

Authors' Conclusions

The EGM shows that the distribution of available road safety evidence is skewed across the world. A vast majority of the literature is from HICs. In contrast, only a small fraction of the literature reports on the many LMICs that are fast expanding their road infrastructure, experiencing rapid changes in traffic patterns, and witnessing growth in road injuries. This bias in literature explains why many interventions that are of high importance in the context of LMICs remain poorly studied. Besides, many interventions that have been tested only in HICs may not work equally effectively in LMICs. Another important finding was that a large majority of systematic reviews are of low quality. The scarcity of evidence on many important interventions and lack of good quality evidence-synthesis have significant implications for future road safety research and practice in LMICs. The EGM presented here will help identify priority areas for researchers, while directing practitioners and policy makers towards proven interventions.

Further recommendations of the International Paediatric Brain Injury Society (IPBIS) for the post-acute rehabilitation of children with acquired brain injury

BACKGROUND

Paediatric acquired brain injury is a life-long condition which impacts on all facets of the individual's lived experience. The existing evidence base continues to expand and new fields of enquiry are established as clinicians and researchers uncover the extent of these impacts.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE

To add to recommendations described in the International Paediatric Brain Injury Society's 2016 paper on post-acute care for children with acquired brain injury and highlight new areas of enquiry.

REVIEW OF INFORMATION

Recommendations were made based on the opinions of a group of experienced international clinicians and researchers who are current or past members of the board of directors of the International Paediatric Brain Injury Society. The importance of each recommendation was agreed upon by means of group consensus.

OUTCOMES

This update gives new consideration to areas of study including injuries which occur in pre-school children, young people in the military, medical referral, young offenders and the use of technology in rehabilitation.

Prehospital care and interfacility transfer of trauma patients before reaching the emergency of a level-1 trauma care center

Background

Management of trauma patients includes prevention, prehospital care, appropriate resuscitation at a hospital, definitive treatment, and rehabilitation. Timely and adequate care for a trauma patient is paramount, which can dramatically impact survival. This study was planned to assess the proportion of patients who failed to receive adequate prehospital care before reaching our institute.

Materials and Methods

A retrospective study was conducted in the trauma and emergency department of a level-1 trauma center in eastern India from February to April 2022. The demographic profile, vital parameters, injury, mode of transport, travel duration, referring hospital, and any interventions as per airway/breathing/circulation/hypothermia were collected.

Results

The records of a hundred-two patients who were brought to the trauma and emergency department in the study period were reviewed. Road traffic accident involving two wheelers was the leading cause of injury. Eighty-three percent of the patients were referred from other health centers, of which 49 were referred from district headquarters hospitals. Only three patients out of 14 had been provided with an oropharyngeal airway for whom endotracheal intubation was indicated. Only one among the 41 patients needing Philadelphia collar actually received. Sixteen patients were provided supplemental oxygen out of the 35 for whom it was indicated. Out of 68 patients in whom intravenous cannulation and fluid administration were indicated, only 35 patients had received it. Out of 31 patients with fractures, none were provided immobilization.

Conclusion

The care of the trauma patients with respect to airway, breathing, circulation, and fracture immobilization was found to be grossly inadequate, emphasizing the need of structured and protocol based prehospital trauma care.

Access to quality care after injury in Northern Malawi: results of a household survey

BACKGROUND

Most injury care research in low-income contexts such as Malawi is facility centric. Community-derived data is needed to better understand actual injury incidence, health system utilisation and barriers to seeking care following injury.

METHODS

We administered a household survey to 2200 households in Karonga, Malawi. The primary outcome was injury incidence, with non-fatal injuries classified as major or minor (> 30 or 1-29 disability days respectively). Those seeking medical treatment were asked about time delays to seeking, reaching and receiving care at a facility, where they sought care, and whether they attended a second facility. We performed analysis for associations between injury severity and whether the patient sought care, stayed overnight in a facility, attended a second facility, or received care within 1 or 2 h. The reason for those not seeking care was asked.

RESULTS

Most households (82.7%) completed the survey, with 29.2% reporting an injury. Overall, 611 non-fatal and four fatal injuries were reported from 531 households: an incidence of 6900 per 100,000. Major injuries accounted for 26.6%. Three quarters, 76.1% (465/611), sought medical attention. Almost all, 96.3% (448/465), seeking care attended a primary facility first. Only 29.7% (138/465), attended a second place of care. Only 32.0% (142/444), received care within one hour. A further 19.1% (85/444) received care within 2 h. Major injury was associated with being more likely to have; sought care (94.4% vs 69.8% p < 0.001), stayed overnight at a facility (22.9% vs 15.4% P = 0.047), attended a second place of care (50.3% vs 19.9%, P < 0.001). For those not seeking care the most important reason was the injury not being serious enough for 52.1% (74/142), followed by transport difficulties 13.4% (19/142) and financial costs 5.6% (8/142).

CONCLUSION

Injuries in Northern Malawi are substantial. Community-derived details are necessary to fully understand injury burden and barriers to seeking and reaching care.

Study of the Immediately Detection of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury by Feature Engineering on Electroencephalography

The electroencephalographic (EEG) diagnosis of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is not usually timely, and the detection is often performed several hours or days after the trauma, leading to a decrease in the accuracy of its detection. In this study, EEG signals are recorded immediately after mTBI by connecting a bipolar single lead to injured animals. And three types of EEG features, namely time domain, frequency domain, and nonlinear dynamics, are screened for optimal feature subset in mTBI detection. First, EEG signals of animals are recorded before and after establishing the animal model of mTBI. Second, signal preprocessing, feature extraction, and feature preprocessing are performed to obtain the full-feature dataset, and 1442 feature subsets are obtained by 15 feature reduction algorithms extracted from combinations of 47 features. Ultimately, the support vector machines and K-nearest neighbor algorithms are trained and tested respectively, and their performance is comprehensively compared to determine the optimal feature subset for mTBI detection. In the EEG dataset collected in this study, a total of eight feature subsets extracted from combinations of original 47 features and classification models with 100% accuracy are obtained. This study shows the perspective of immediately detecting mTBI based on a bipolar single-lead EEG.

Outcomes and associated factors of traumatic brain injury among adult patients treated in Amhara regional state comprehensive specialized hospitals

BACKGROUND

Globally, traumatic brain injury is the leading cause of death and disability which affects more than 69 million individuals a year.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess the outcome and associated factors of traumatic brain injury among adult patients treated in Amhara regional state comprehensive specialized hospitals.

METHOD

Institutional-based cross-sectional study design was conducted from January 1, 2018, to December 30, 2020. A simple random sampling technique was used and a checklist was used to extract data between March 15 and April 15, 2021. The data were entered into Epi-data version 4.2 and exported to SPSS version 25 for analysis after being checked for consistency. Associated variables with outcomes of traumatic brain injury were determined by a binary logistic regression model. The degree of association was interpreted by using AOR and a 95% confidence interval with a p-value less than or equal to 0.05 at 95% CI was considered statistically significant.

RESULT

In this study road traffic injury was the most frequent cause of traumatic brain injuries among adult patients, accounting for 181 (37.5%), followed by assault, accounting for 117 (24.2%) which affects adult age groups. One-third of the participant had a moderate Glasgow coma scale of 174(36%). Only 128(26.8%) patients arrived within one hour. One hundred sixty, 160 (33.1%) of patients had a mild traumatic brain injury, whereas, 149(36%) of patients had a severe traumatic brain injury. Regarding computerized tomography scans findings, the hematoma was the most common (n = 163, 33.7%). Ninety-one, 91(18.8%) of participants had cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea, and, 92(19%) were diagnosed with a positive battle sign. The overall prevalence of unfavorable outcomes after traumatic brain injury was found to be 35.2% (95%CI (30.8-39.1). Having additional Injury, hypoxia, time to hospital presentation after 24 h, severe Glasgow Coma Scale, moderate Glasgow Coma Scale, tachypnea, bradypnea, and cerebrospinal fluid Othorrhea, were factors associated with unfavorable outcomes.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

In this study, the overall unfavorable outcome was experienced by about four out of every 10 victims of traumatic brain injury. Time of arrival > 24 h, low Glasgow coma scale, additional injury, Cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea, abnormal respiration, and hypoxia were significant predictors of unfavorable outcomes. To reduce the adverse effects of traumatic brain injury in adults, it is therefore desirable to guarantee safe road traffic flow and improve health care services.

Using parallel geocoding to analyse the spatial characteristics of road traffic injury occurrences across Lagos, Nigeria

While efforts to understand and mitigate road traffic injury (RTI) occurrence have long been underway in high-income countries, similar projects in low/middle-income countries (LMICs) are frequently hindered by institutional and informational obstacles. Technological advances in geospatial analysis provide a pathway to overcome a subset of these barriers, and in doing so enable researchers to create actionable insights in the pursuit of mitigating RTI-associated negative health outcomes. This analysis develops a parallel geocoding workflow to improve investigation of low-fidelity datasets common in LMICs. Subsequently, this workflow is applied to and evaluated on an RTI dataset from Lagos State, Nigeria, minimising positional error in geocoding by incorporating outputs from four commercially available geocoders. The concordance between outputs from these geocoders is evaluated, and spatial visualisations are generated to provide insight into the distribution of RTI occurrence within the analysis region. This study highlights the implications of geospatial data analysis in LMICs facilitated by modern technologies on health resource allocation, and ultimately, patient outcomes.

Clinical factors associated with delayed emergency department visit in intracranial traumatic brain injury: from a multicenter injury surveillance registry

INTRODUCTION

Early diagnosis and intervention by visiting the emergency department (ED) are important for traumatic brain injury (TBI). We evaluate the factors associated with delayed ED visits in patients with intracranial TBI.

METHODS

A retrospective multicenter observational study using the ED-based injury in-depth surveillance database (EDIIS) was designed. Patients with intracranial TBI with an alert mentality at ED presentation from 2014 to 2019 were enrolled. Patients were categorized into four groups according to ED visit time after injury (<1 h, 1-3 h, 3-12 h, and >12 h). ED visits after 12 h were defined as delayed ED visits. The factors associated with delayed ED visits were identified using multivariable logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

Among 15,620 patients with TBI enrolled in the final analysis, 2,190 (14.0%) visited the ED 12 h after injury. Multivariable analysis identified the following factors as independent predictors for delayed ED visit such as unintentionally struck by or against an object or unintentional fall as a trauma mechanism, injury during ordinary activities, indoor injury, injury during nighttime, winter season, combined subdural hemorrhage and epidural hemorrhage.

CONCLUSION

In patients with intracranial TBI with an alert mentality, multiple factors related to patient demographics and injury characteristics were associated with the time interval from injury to ED visit.

Are GABAergic drugs beneficial in providing neuroprotection after traumatic brain injuries? A comprehensive literature review of preclinical studies

Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) caused by physical impact to the brain can adversely impact the welfare and well-being of the affected individuals. One of the leading causes of mortality and dysfunction in the world, TBI is a major public health problem facing the human community. Drugs that target GABAergic neurotransmission are commonly used for sedation in clinical TBI yet their potential to cause neuroprotection is unclear. In this paper, I have performed a rigorous literature review of the neuroprotective effects of drugs that increase GABAergic currents based on the results reported in preclinical literature. The drugs covered in this review include the following: propofol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, isoflurane, and other drugs that are agonists of GABAA receptors. A careful review of numerous preclinical studies reveals that these drugs fail to produce any neuroprotection after a primary impact to the brain. In numerous circumstances, they could be detrimental to neuroprotection by increasing the size of the contusional brain tissue and by severely interfering with behavioral and functional recovery. Therefore, anesthetic agents that work by enhancing the effect of neurotransmitter GABA should be administered with caution of TBI patients until a clear and concrete picture of their neuroprotective efficacy emerges in the clinical literature.

A Fiber-Optic Sensor-Embedded and Machine Learning Assisted Smart Helmet for Multi-Variable Blunt Force Impact Sensing in Real Time

Early on-site diagnosis of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) will provide the best guidance for clinical practice. However, existing methods and sensors cannot provide sufficiently detailed physical information related to the blunt force impact. In the present work, a smart helmet with a single embedded fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor is developed, which can monitor complex blunt force impact events in real time under both wired and wireless modes. The transient oscillatory signal "fingerprint" can specifically reflect the impact-caused physical deformation of the local helmet structure. By combination with machine learning algorithms, the unknown transient impact can be recognized quickly and accurately in terms of impact magnitude, direction, and latitude. Optimization of the training dataset was also validated, and the boosted ML models, such as the S-SVM+ and S-IBK+, are able to predict accurately with complex databases. Thus, the ML-FBG smart helmet system developed by this work may become a crucial intervention alternative during a traumatic brain injury event.

A Geographical Analysis of Access to Trauma Centers from US National Parks in 2018

INTRODUCTION

Millions of people visit US national parks annually to engage in recreational wilderness activities, which can occasionally result in traumatic injuries that require timely, high-level care. However, no study to date has specifically examined timely access to trauma centers from national parks. This study aimed to examine the accessibility of trauma care from national parks by calculating the travel time by ground and air from each park to its nearest trauma center. Using these calculations, the percentage of parks by census region with timely access to a trauma center was determined.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study analyzing travel times by ground and air transport between national parks and their closest adult advanced trauma center (ATC) in 2018. A list of parks was compiled from the National Parks Service (NPS) website, and the location of trauma centers from the 2018 National Emergency Department Inventory (NEDI)-USA database. Ground and air transport times were calculated using Google Maps and ArcGIS, with medians and interquartile ranges reported by US census region. Percentage of parks by region with timely trauma center access-defined as access within 60 minutes of travel time-were determined based on these calculated travel times.

RESULTS

In 2018, 83% of national parks had access to an adult ATC within 60 minutes of air travel, while only 26% had timely access by ground. Trauma center access varied by region, with median travel times highest in the West for both air and ground transport. At a national level, national parks were unequally distributed, with the West housing the most parks of all regions.

CONCLUSION

While most national parks had timely access to a trauma center by air travel, significant gaps in access remain for ground, the extent of which varies greatly by region. To improve the accessibility of trauma center expertise from national parks, the study highlights the potential that increased implementation of trauma telehealth in emergency departments (EDs) may have in bridging these gaps.

The epidemiology and outcomes of prolonged trauma care (EpiC) study: methodology of a prospective multicenter observational study in the Western Cape of South Africa

Background

Deaths due to injuries exceed 4.4 million annually, with over 90% occurring in low-and middle-income countries. A key contributor to high trauma mortality is prolonged trauma-to-treatment time. Earlier receipt of medical care following an injury is critical to better patient outcomes. Trauma epidemiological studies can identify gaps and opportunities to help strengthen emergency care systems globally, especially in lower income countries, and among military personnel wounded in combat. This paper describes the methodology of the “Epidemiology and Outcomes of Prolonged Trauma Care (EpiC)” study, which aims to investigate how the delivery of resuscitative interventions and their timeliness impacts the morbidity and mortality outcomes of patients with critical injuries in South Africa.

Methods

The EpiC study is a prospective, multicenter cohort study that will be implemented over a 6-year period in the Western Cape, South Africa. Data collected will link pre- and in-hospital care with mortuary reports through standardized clinical chart abstraction and will provide longitudinal documentation of the patient’s clinical course after injury. The study will enroll an anticipated sample of 14,400 injured adults. Survival and regression analysis will be used to assess the effects of critical early resuscitative interventions (airway, breathing, circulatory, and neurologic) and trauma-to-treatment time on the primary 7-day mortality outcome and secondary mortality (24-h, 30-day) and morbidity outcomes (need for operative interventions, secondary infections, and organ failure).

Discussion

This study is the first effort in the Western Cape of South Africa to build a standardized, high-quality, multicenter epidemiologic trauma dataset that links pre- and in-hospital care with mortuary data. In high-income countries and the U.S. military, the introduction of trauma databases and registries has led to interventions that significantly reduce post-injury death and disability. The EpiC study will describe epidemiology trends over time, and it will enable assessments of how trauma care and system processes directly impact trauma outcomes to ultimately improve the overall emergency care system.

Trial Registration: Not applicable as this study is not a clinical trial.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) Detection: Past, Present, and Future

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can produce temporary biochemical imbalance due to leaks through cell membranes or disruption of the axoplasmic flow due to the misalignment of intracellular neurofilaments. If untreated, TBI can lead to Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, or total disability. Mild TBI (mTBI) accounts for about about 90 percent of all TBI cases. The detection of TBI as soon as it happens is crucial for successful treatment management. Neuroimaging-based tests provide only a structural and functional mapping of the brain with poor temporal resolution. Such tests may not detect mTBI. On the other hand, the electroencephalogram (EEG) provides good spatial resolution and excellent temporal resolution of the brain activities beside its portability and low cost. The objective of this paper is to provide clinicians and scientists with a one-stop source of information to quickly learn about the different technologies used for TBI detection, their advantages and limitations. Our research led us to conclude that even though EEG-based TBI detection is potentially a powerful technology, it is currently not able to detect the presence of a mTBI with high confidence. The focus of the paper is to review existing approaches and provide the reason for the unsuccessful state of EEG-based detection of mTBI.

Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury in a Geographically Dispersed Population: A Relationship Between Distance to Definitive Neurosurgical Treatment and Outcome

BACKGROUND

There are limited data on the association between transport distance and outcomes in pediatric patients with severe traumatic brain injuries (sTBIs), despite children having to travel further to pediatric trauma centers (PTCs).

OBJECTIVE

To assess whether distance from a PTC is associated with outcomes in children who undergo cranial surgery after sTBI.

METHODS

Children with sTBI who underwent craniectomy/craniotomy at our PTC between 2010 and 2019 were identified retrospectively. Of these 92 patients, 83 sustained blunt injury and underwent surgery within 24 hours. The distance from injury location to PTC was based on injury zip code and calculated as Euclidean distance. Variables associated with transport, including distance, time, and rural-urban disparity, were analyzed for correlation with poor outcome.

RESULTS

Of the 83 patients identified, 81 had injury location information. Forty patients were injured within 30 miles and 41 were injured ≥30 miles from the PTC. Injury severity and pediatric trauma scores were not significantly different between groups. Sixty-eight children (82%) had a satisfactory outcome and 10 children (12%) died. There was a nonsignificant association between distance traveled and poor outcome, even when the cohort was stratified into those with subdural hematomas and those with nonabusive injuries.

CONCLUSIONS

Regardless of the distance from the PTC at which their injury occurred, most children in this cohort made a moderate to good recovery. Children injured at greater distances from the PTC did not have worse outcomes; however, studies with larger cohorts are needed to more definitively assess prehospital pediatric transport systems in this population.

Nationwide analysis of proximity of America College of Surgeons--verified and state-designated trauma centers to the nearest highway exit and associated prehospital motor vehicle collision fatalities

BACKGROUND

Motor vehicle collisions remain a leading cause of trauma-related deaths. We aim to investigate the relationship between the proximity of trauma centers to the nearest highway exit and prehospital motor vehicle collision fatalities at the county level nationwide.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study evaluating the association between the distance of trauma centers to the nearest highway exit and prehospital motor vehicle collision fatalities between the years 2014 and 2019. Prehospital motor vehicle collision fatalities were obtained from National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Mapping software was used to determine the distance of trauma center to the nearest highway exit and transport time. Linear regression analysis was performed.

RESULTS

A total of 2,019 American College of Surgeons-verified and/or state-designated trauma centers were included (211 Level 1, 356 Level 2, 491 Level 3, and 961 Level 4 trauma centers). Prehospital motor vehicle collision fatalities were positively correlated with the distance of trauma center to the nearest highway exit for counties with trauma centers located ≤5 miles from the nearest highway exit (r = 0.328; P < .001). In the 612 counties with a 10% increase in prehospital motor vehicle collision fatalities from 2014 to 2019, prehospital motor vehicle collision fatalities were also positively correlated with distance to the nearest highway exit (r = 0.302; P < .001). The counties with more dispersed distributions of trauma centers were significantly associated with motor vehicle collision fatalities (Spearman's rank coefficient = 0.456; 95% confidence interval, 0.163-0.675; P = .003).

CONCLUSION

Shorter distances between trauma centers and the nearest highway exit are associated with fewer prehospital motor vehicle collision fatalities for counties with trauma centers ≤5 miles of the nearest highway exit. Further enhancement of existing highway infrastructure and standardization of emergency medical services transport protocols are needed to address the burden of prehospital motor vehicle collision fatalities in the United States.

Head Injury Prevalence in a Population of Injured Patients Seeking Care in Ghana, West Africa

Background/Significance:

Much of the literature on head injury (HI) prevalence comes from high-income countries (HICs), despite the disproportionate burden of injuries in low to middle-income countries (LMICs). This study evaluated the HI prevalence in the Kintampo Injury Registry, a collaborative effort between Kintampo Health Research Centre (KHRC) in Ghana and the sidHARTe Program at Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. In our first aim, we characterize the HI prevalence in the registry. In aim 2, we examine if there are any sex (male/female) differences in head injury outcomes in these populations for points of potential intervention.

Methods

Secondary analysis of data from the Kintampo Injury Registry which had 7,148 registered patients collected during January 2013 to January 2015. The definition of a case was adopted to ensure consistency with the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, revision 10 (ICD-10). A 3-page questionnaire was used to collect data from injured patients to include in the registry. The questions were designed to be consistent with the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines on injury surveillance and were adapted from the questionnaire used in a pilot, multi-country injury study undertaken in other parts of Africa. The questionnaire collected information on the anatomic site of injury (e.g., head), mechanism of injury (e.g., road traffic injuries, interpersonal injuries (including domestic violence), falls, drowning, etc.), severity and circumstances of the injury, as well as precipitating factors, such as alcohol and drug use. The questionnaire consisted mainly of close-ended questions and was designed for efficient data entry. For the secondary data analyses for this manuscript, we only included those with “1st visit following injury” and excluded all transfers and follow-up visits (n = 834). We then dichotomized the remaining 6,314 patients to head injured and non-head injured patients based on responses to the variable “Nature of injury =Head Injury”. We used chi-square and Fisher's exact tests with p < 0.05 as cut-off for statistical significance. Logistic regression estimates were used for effect estimates.

Results

Of the 6,314 patients, there were 208 (3.3%) head-injured patients and 6,106 (96.7%) patients without head injury. Head-injured patients tended to be older (Mean age: 28.9 +/-13.7; vs. 26.1 +/- 15.8; p = 0.004). Seven in 10 head injured patients sustained their injuries via transport/road traffic accidents, and head-injured patients had 13 times the odds of mortality compared with those without head injuries (OR: 13.3; 95% CI: 8.05, 22.0; p < 0.0001) even though over half of them had mild or moderate injury severity scores (p < 0.001). Evaluation of sex differences amongst the head-injured showed that in age-adjusted logistic regression models, males had 1.4 times greater odds of being head injured (OR: 1.4; 95% CI: 1.04, 2.00; p = 0.03) and over twice the risk of mortality (OR: 2.7; 95% CI: 0.74, 10.00; p = 0.13) compared to females.

Conclusion

In these analyses, HI was associated with a higher risk of mortality, particularly amongst injured males; most of whom were injured in transport/road-traffic-related accidents. This study provides an impetus for shaping policy around head injury prevention in LMICs like Ghana.

Predictors of ICU admission and patient outcome for traumatic brain injury in a Tanzanian referral hospital: Implications for improving treatment guidelines

Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) are a critical global health challenge, with disproportionate negative impact in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). People who suffer severe TBI in LMICs are twice as likely to die than those in high-income countries, and survivors experience substantially poorer outcomes. In the hospital, patients with severe TBI are typically seen in intensive care units (ICU) to receive advanced monitoring and lifesaving treatment. However, the quality and outcomes of ICU care in LMICs are often unclear. We analyzed secondary data from a cohort of 605 adult patients who presented to the Emergency Department (ED) of a Tanzanian hospital with a moderate or severe TBI. We examined patient characteristics and performed two binary logistic regression models to assess predictors of ICU admission and patient outcome. Patients were often young (median age = 32, SD = 15), overwhelmingly male (88.9%), and experienced long delays from time of injury to presentation in the ED (median=12 h, SD = 168). A majority of patients (87.8%) underwent surgery and 55.6% ultimately had a "good recovery" with minimal disability, while 34.0% died. Patients were more likely to be seen in the ICU if they had worse baseline symptoms and were over age 60. TBI surgery conveyed a 37% risk reduction for poor TBI outcome. However, ICU patients had a 3.91 times higher risk of poor TBI outcome as compared to those not seen in the ICU, despite controlling for baseline symptoms. The findings point to the need for targeted interventions among young men, improvements in pre-hospital transportation and care, and continued efforts to increase the quality of surgical and ICU care in this setting. It is unlikely that poorer outcome among ICU patients was indicative of poorer care in the ICU; this finding was more likely due to lack of data on several factors that inform care decisions (e.g., comorbid conditions or injuries). Nevertheless, future efforts should seek to increase the capacity of ICUs in low-resource settings to monitor and treat TBI according to international guidelines, and should improve predictive modeling to identify risk for poor outcome.

Access to care following injury in Northern Malawi, a comparison of travel time estimates between Geographic Information System and community household reports

INTRODUCTION

Injuries disproportionately impact low- and middle-income countries like Malawi. The Lancet Commission on Global Surgery's indicators include the population proportion accessing laparotomy and open fracture care, key trauma interventions, within two hours. The "Golden Hour" for receiving facility-based resuscitation also guides injury care system strengthening. Firstly, we estimated the proportion of the local population able to reach primary, secondary and tertiary facility care within two and one hours using Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis. Secondly, we compared community household-reported with GIS-estimated travel time.

METHODS

Using information from a Health and Demographic Surveillance Site (Karonga, Malawi) on road network, facility location, and local staff-estimated travel speeds, we used a GIS-generated friction surface to calculate the shortest travel time from all households to each facility serving the population. We surveyed community households who reported travel time to their preferred, closest, government secondary and tertiary facilities. For recently injured community members, time to reach facility care was recorded. To assess the relationship between community household-reported travel time and GIS-estimated travel time, we used linear regression to generate a proportionality constant. To assess associations and agreement between injured patient-reported and GIS-estimated travel time, we used Kendall rank and Cohen's kappa tests.

RESULTS

Using GIS, we estimated 79.1% of households could reach any secondary facility, 20.5% the government secondary facility, and 0% the government tertiary facility, within two hours. Only 28.2% could reach any secondary facility within one hour, 0% for the government secondary facility. Community household-reported travel time exceeded GIS-estimated travel time. The proportionality constant was 1.25 (95%CI 1.21-1.30) for the closest facility, 1.28 (95%CI 1.23-1.34) for the preferred facility, 1.45 (95%CI 1.33-1.58) for the government secondary facility, and 2.12 (95%CI 1.84-2.41) for tertiary care. Comparing injured patient-reported with GIS-estimated travel time, the correlation coefficient was 0.25 (SE 0.047) and Cohen's kappa was 0.15 (95%CI 0.078-0.23), suggesting poor agreement.

DISCUSSION

Most households couldn't reach government secondary care within recognised thresholds indicating poor temporal access. Since GIS-estimated travel time was shorter than community-reported travel time, the true proportion may be lower still. GIS derived estimates of population emergency care access in similar contexts should be interpreted accordingly.

Maximising access to timely trauma care across population of Karachi and its districts: a geospatial approach to develop a trauma care network

OBJECTIVES

To develop and propose a cost-effective trauma care network for Karachi, Pakistan, by calculating maximum timely trauma care (TTC) coverage achieved with the addition of potential designated private and public level 1 and level 2 trauma centres (TCs).

SETTING

A lower middle-income country metropolis, Karachi is Pakistan's largest city with a population of 16 million and a total of 56 hospitals as per government registry data.

PARTICIPANTS

41 potential TCs selected using a two-level, contextually-relevant TC designation criteria adapted from various international guidelines.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Maximum TTC coverage achievable with the addition of potential TCs. Proposed trauma care network composition to achieve maximum TTC coverage.

RESULTS

Coverage with five public level 1 hospitals alone is 74.4%. Marginal benefit with stepwise addition of five potential private level 1 TCs, four public level 2 TCs and two private level 2 TCs is 12.2%, 7.1% and 3.1%, respectively. Maximum possible TTC coverage is 96.7%. Poorest coverage with the proposed 16 hospital network is noted in Malir district while 100% coverage is achieved in the centrally located South, Central and East districts.

CONCLUSION

Addition of private level 1 and private and public level 2 hospitals to the trauma care network is necessary. Implementation of the proposed trauma care network requires strong stewardship from the government and coordinated effort of multiple stakeholders is needed to ensure standard TC designation. The study exhibits an effective method to scientifically plan and develop a cost-effective trauma system which can be applied in other resource-limited geographical areas.

Does Every Minute Really Count? Road Time as an Indicator for the Economic Value of Emergency Medical Services

OBJECTIVES

This article builds on the literature regarding the association between emergency medical service (EMS) response times and patient outcomes (death and severe injury). Three issues are addressed in this article with respect to the empirical estimation of this relationship: the endogeneity of response time (systematically quicker response for higher degrees of urgency), the nonlinearity of this relationship, and the variation between such estimations for different patient outcomes.

METHODS

Binomial and multinomial logistic regression models are used to estimate the impact of response time on the probabilities of death and severe injury using data from French Fire and Rescue Services. These models are developed with response time as an explanatory variable and then with road time (dispatch to arrival) hypothesized as representing the exogenous variation within response time. Both models are also applied to data subsets based on response time intervals.

RESULTS

The results show that road time yields a higher estimate for the impact of response time on patient outcomes than (total) response time. The impact of road time on patient outcomes is also shown to be nonlinear. These results are of both statistical significance (model coefficients are significant at the 95% confidence level) and economical significance (when taking into account the number of annual interventions performed).

CONCLUSIONS

When using heterogeneous data on EMS interventions where endogeneity is a clear issue, road time is a more reliable indicator to estimate the impact of EMS response time on patient outcomes than (total) response time.

Pattern and Outcome of Traumatic Brain Injury, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: A Cross-sectional Hospital-based Study

Background

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the leading cause of death and disability in young adults in the world. This study assessed clinical characteristics and in-hospital outcomes among traumatic brain injury patients presenting to Addis Ababa Burn, Emergency, and Trauma hospital.

Methods

A cross-sectional hospital-based survey was conducted at AaBET hospital from January 01/2020 to April 30/2020. Data were collected using structured questionnaires from the trauma registry and patient chart. The collected data were analyzed using statistical software SPSS v 25.0.

Results

Among the 304 traumatic brain injury patients, 75% were males with a mean age of 30.4 + 15.7, and 59.2% came from the Oromia region. Road traffic injury was responsible for 45% of the cases, of which pedestrian struck accounts for 52.2% of the cases. Only 50 (16.4%) patients arrived below 02 hours. 201 (66.1%) patients had mild traumatic brain injury the rest had moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Skullbone fracture (linear, DSF, & BSF) was the most common (n=157, 63.1%) followed by intracerebral lesions (DAI, brain contusion, & ICH) (n=140, 56.5%). Forty-three (14.1%) patients were intubated. 45(14.8%) cases had a neurosurgical intervention. The mortality rate of severe, moderate, & mild TBI were 25%, 8.0% & 2.0% respectively with an overall mortality of 5.6%.

Conclusion

This study showed road traffic injury was the commonest cause of traumatic brain injury which affected young age groups. There was a delayed presentation to AaBET hospital Emergency. The mortality rate was lower than other Ethiopian hospital studies.

The impact of prehospital time intervals on mortality in moderately and severely injured patients

BACKGROUND

Modern trauma systems and emergency medical services aim to reduce prehospital time intervals to achieve optimal outcomes. However, current literature remains inconclusive on the relationship between time to definitive treatment and mortality. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between prehospital time and mortality.

METHODS

All moderately and severely injured trauma patients (i.e., patients with an Injury Severity Score of 9 or greater) who were transported from the scene of injury to a trauma center by ground ambulances of the participating emergency medical services between 2015 and 2017 were included. Exposures of interest were total prehospital time, on-scene time, and transport time. Outcomes were 24-hour and 30-day mortality. Generalized linear models including inverse probability weights for several potential confounders were constructed. A generalized additive model was constructed to enable visual inspection of the association.

RESULTS

We included 22,525 moderately and severely injured patients. Twenty-four-hour and 30-day mortality were 1.3% and 7.3%, respectively. On-scene time per minute was significantly associated with 24-hour (relative risk [RR], 1.029; 95% confidence interval, 1.018-1.040) and 30-day mortality (RR, 1.013; 1.008-1.017). We found that this association was also present in patients with severe injuries, traumatic brain injury, severe abdominal injury, and stab or gunshot wound. An on-scene time of 20 minutes or longer demonstrated a strong association with 24-hour (RR, 1.797; 1.406-2.296) and 30-day mortality (RR, 1.298; 1.180-1.428). Total prehospital (24-hour: RR, 0.998; 0.990-1.007; 30-day: RR, 1.000, 0.997-1.004) and transport (24-hour: RR, 0.996; 0.982-1.010; 30-day: RR, 0.995; 0.989-1.001) time were not associated with mortality.

CONCLUSION

A prolonged on-scene time is associated with mortality in moderately and severely injured patients, which suggests that a reduced on-scene time may be favorable for these patients. In addition, transport time was found not to be associated with mortality.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic and Epidemiologic; level III.

State-of-the-Art Review: Sex Hormone Therapy in Trauma-Hemorrhage

ABSTRACT

Trauma-hemorrhage is the leading cause of prehospital and early in-hospital deaths, while also significantly contributing to the later development of multisystem organ dysfunction/failure and sepsis. Common and advanced resuscitative methods would potentially demonstrate benefits in the prehospital setting; however, they face a variety of barriers to application and implementation. Thus, a dialogue around a novel adjunct has arisen, sex hormone therapy. Proposed candidates include estradiol and its derivatives, metoclopramide hydrochloride/prolactin, dehydroepiandrosterone, and flutamide; with each having demonstrated a range of salutary effects in several animal model studies. Several retrospective analyses have observed a gender-based dimorphism in mortality following trauma-hemorrhage, thus suggesting that estrogens contribute to this pattern. Trauma-hemorrhage animal models have shown estrogens offer protective effects to the cardiovascular, pulmonary, hepatic, gastrointestinal, and immune systems. Additionally, a series of survival studies utilizing 17α-ethinylestradiol-3-sulfate, a potent, water-soluble synthetic estrogen, have demonstrated a significant survival benefit and beneficial effects on cardiovascular function. This review presents the findings of retrospective clinical studies, preclinical animal studies, and discusses how and why 17α-ethinylestradiol-3-sulfate should be considered for investigation within a prospective clinical trial.

Association of traumatic brain injury severity and time to definitive care in three low-middle-income European countries

BACKGROUND

Low-middle-income countries experience among the highest rates of traumatic brain injury in the world. Much of this burden may be preventable with faster intervention, including reducing the time to definitive care. This study examines the relationship between traumatic brain injury severity and time to definitive care in major trauma hospitals in three low-middle-income countries.

METHODS

A prospective traumatic brain injury registry was implemented in six trauma hospitals in Armenia, Georgia and the Republic of Moldova for 6 months in 2019. Brain injury severity was measured using the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) at admission. Time to definitive care was the time from injury until arrival at the hospital. Cox proportionate hazards models predicted time to care by severity, controlling for age, sex, mechanism, mode of transportation, location of injury and country.

RESULTS

Among 1135 patients, 749 (66.0%) were paediatric and 386 (34.0%) were adults. Falls and road traffic were the most common mechanisms. A higher proportion of adult (23.6%) than paediatric (5.4%) patients had GCS scores indicating moderate (GCS 9-11) or severe injury (GCS 0-8) (p<0.001). Less severe injury was associated with shorter times to care, while more severe injury was associated with longer times to care (HR=1.05, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.09). Age interacted with time to care, with paediatric cases receiving faster care.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementation of standard triage and transport protocols may reduce mortality and improve outcomes from traumatic brain injury, and trauma systems should focus on the most severe injuries.

Relationship Between Prehospital Time and 24-h Mortality in Road Traffic-Injured Patients in Laos

Background

Road traffic injury has long been regarded as a “time-dependent disease.” However, shortening the prehospital time might not improve the outcome in developing countries given the current quality of in-hospital care. We aimed to examine the relationship between the prehospital time and 24-h mortality among road traffic victims in Laos.

Methods

A prospective observational study was conducted using the trauma registry data on traffic-injured patients who were transported by ambulance to a trauma center in the capital city of Laos from May 2018 to April 2019. The analysis focused on patients with non-mild conditions, whose outcomes could be affected by the prehospital time. To examine the relationship between a prehospital time of <60 min and 24-h mortality, a generalized estimating equation model was used incorporating the inverse probability weights utilizing the propensity score for the prehospital time.

Results

Of 701 patients, 73% were men, 91% were riding 2- or 3-wheel motor vehicles during the crash, and 68% had a prehospital time of <60 min. A total of 35 patients died within 24 h after the crash. Compared with those who survived, individuals who died tended to have head and torso injuries. The proportions of 24-h mortality were 4.7% and 5.4% in patients whose prehospital time was <60 min and ≥60 min, respectively. No significant relationship was found between the prehospital time and 24-h mortality.

Conclusion

A shorter prehospital time was not associated with the 24-h survival among road traffic victims in Laos.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00268-022-06445-9.

Orthopaedic and trauma care in low-resource settings: the burden and its challenges

BACKGROUND AND BURDEN

Trauma with its early and late consequences disproportionately effects those from poor countries. The availability of effective orthopaedic and trauma care varies significantly across the globe.

CHALLENGES

The balancing out of quality care is required to reach the health-related UN development goal set out in 2015. A multifactorial approach addressing local, national and international aspects is key to improving the discrepancy seen between high- and low-income countries.

Drug Delivery Challenges in Brain Disorders across the Blood-Brain Barrier: Novel Methods and Future Considerations for Improved Therapy

Due to the physiological and structural properties of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the delivery of drugs to the brain poses a unique challenge in patients with central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Several strategies have been investigated to circumvent the barrier for CNS therapeutics such as in epilepsy, stroke, brain cancer and traumatic brain injury. In this review, we summarize current and novel routes of drug interventions, discuss pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics at the neurovascular interface, and propose additional factors that may influence drug delivery. At present, both technological and mechanistic tools are devised to assist in overcoming the BBB for more efficient and improved drug bioavailability in the treatment of clinically devastating brain disorders.

Association between the time to definitive care and trauma patient outcomes: every minute in the golden hour matters

PURPOSE

This study examined the association between lapsed time and trauma patients, suggesting that a shorter time to definitive care leads to a better outcome.

METHODS

We used the Pan-Asian Trauma Outcome Study registry to analyze a retrospective cohort of 963 trauma patients who received surgical intervention or transarterial embolization within 2 h of injury in Asian countries between January 2016 and December 2020. Exposure measurement was recorded every 30 min from injury to definitive care. The 30 day mortality rate and functional outcome were studied using the Modified Rankin Scale ratings of 0-3 vs 4-6 for favorable vs poor functional outcomes, respectively. Subgroup analyses of different injury severities and patterns were performed.

RESULTS

The mean time from injury to definitive care was 1.28 ± 0.69 h, with cases categorized into the following subgroups: < 30, 30-60, 60-90, and 90-120 min. For all patients, a longer interval was positively associated with the 30 day mortality rate (p = 0.053) and poor functional outcome (p < 0.05). Subgroup analyses showed the same association in the major trauma (n = 321, p < 0.05) and torso injury groups (n = 388, p < 0.01) with the 30 day mortality rate and in the major trauma (p < 0.01), traumatic brain injury (n = 741, p < 0.05), and torso injury (p < 0.05) groups with the poor functional outcome.

CONCLUSION

Even within 2 h, a shorter time to definitive care is positively associated with patient survival and functional outcome, especially in the subgroups of major trauma and torso injury.

Impact of emergency physician-staffed ambulances on preoperative time course and survival among injured patients requiring emergency surgery or transarterial embolization: A retrospective cohort study at a community emergency department in Japan

Injured patients requiring definitive intervention, such as surgery or transarterial embolization (TAE), are an extremely time-sensitive population. The effect of an emergency physician (EP) patient care delivery system in this important trauma subset remains unclear. We aimed to clarify whether the preoperative time course and mortality among injured patients differ between ambulances staffed by EPs and those staffed by emergency life-saving technicians (ELST). This was a retrospective cohort study at a community emergency department (ED) in Japan. We included all injured patients requiring emergency surgery or TAE who were transported directly from the ED to the operating room from January 2002 to December 2019. The primary exposure was dispatch of an EP-staffed ambulance to the prehospital scene. The primary outcome measures were preoperative time course including prehospital length of stay (LOS), ED LOS, and total time to definitive intervention. The other outcome of interest was in-hospital mortality. One-to-one propensity score matching was performed to compare these outcomes between the groups. Of the 1,020 eligible patients, 353 (34.6%) were transported to the ED by an EP-staffed ambulance. In the propensity score-matched analysis with 295 pairs, the EP group showed a significant increase in median prehospital LOS (71.0 min vs. 41.0 min, P < 0.001) and total time to definitive intervention (189.0 min vs. 177.0 min, P = 0.002) in comparison with the ELST group. Conversely, ED LOS was significantly shorter in the EP group than in the ELST group (120.0 min vs. 131.0 min, P = 0.043). There was no significant difference in mortality between the two groups (8.8% vs.9.8%, P = 0.671). At a community hospital in Japan, EP-staffed ambulances were found to be associated with prolonged prehospital time, delay in definitive treatment, and did not improve survival among injured patients needing definitive hemostatic procedures compared with ELST-staffed ambulances.

Head injury care in a low- and middle-income country tertiary trauma center: epidemiology, systemic lacunae, and possible leads

BACKGROUND

Although head injury (HI) from low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) heavily contributes to the global disease burden, studies are disproportionately less from this part of the world. Knowing the different epidemiological characteristics from high-income nations can target appropriate prevention strategies. This study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the clinico-epidemiological data of HI patients, focusing on the existing challenges with possible solutions from a developing nation's perspective.

METHODS

This is a prospective, registry-based, observational study of HI in an Indian tertiary trauma-care center over 4 years. Various clinico-epidemiological parameters, risk factors, and imaging spectrum were analyzed in a multivariate model to identify the challenges faced by LMIC and discuss pragmatic solutions.

RESULTS

The study included a large-volume cohort of 14,888 patients. Notably, half of these patients belonged to mild HI, despite most were referred (90.3%) cases. Only one-third (30.8%) had severe HI. Less than a third reached us within 6 h of injury. Road traffic accidents (RTA) accounted for most injuries (61.1%), especially in the young (70.9%). Higher age, males, RTA, helmet non-usage, drunken driving, systemic injuries, and specific imaging features had an independent association with injury severity.

CONCLUSIONS

The study represents the much-needed, large-volume, epidemiological profile of HI from an LMIC, highlighting the suboptimal utilization of peripheral healthcare systems. Strengthening and integrating these facilities with the tertiary centers in a hub and enhanced spoke model, task sharing design, and efficient back-referrals promise effective neurotrauma care while avoiding overburden in the tertiary centers. Better implementation of road safety laws also has the potential to reduce the burden of HI.

Assessment of Trauma Care Capacity in Karachi, Pakistan: Toward an Integrated Trauma Care System

BACKGROUND

Pakistan is a lower-middle-income country with a high burden of injuries. Karachi, its most populated city, lacks a trauma care system due to which trauma patients do not receive the required care. We conducted an assessment of the existing facilities for trauma care in Karachi.

METHODS

Twenty-two tertiary and secondary hospitals from public and private sectors across Karachi were assessed. The Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care (GETC) tool was used to collect information about the availability of skills, knowledge, and equipment at these facilities.

RESULTS

Among tertiary hospitals (n = 7), private sector hospitals had a better median (IQR) score, 90.4 (81.8-93.1), as compared to the public sector hospitals, 44.1 (29.3-75.8). Among secondary hospitals (n = 15), private sector hospitals had a better median (IQR) score, 70.3 (67.8-77.7), as compared to the public sector hospitals, 39.7 (21.9-53.3).

DISCUSSION

This study identifies considerable deficiencies in trauma care in Karachi and provides objective data that can guide urgently needed reforms tailored to this city's needs. On a systems level, it delineates the need for a regulatory framework to define trauma care levels and designate selected hospitals across the city accordingly. Using these data, improvement in trauma care systems can be achieved through collaboration and partnership between public and private stakeholders.

ResQbot 2.0: An Improved Design of a Mobile Rescue Robot with an Inflatable Neck Securing Device for Safe Casualty Extraction

Despite the fact that a large number of research studies have been conducted in the field of search and rescue robotics, significantly little attention has been given to the development of rescue robots capable of performing physical rescue interventions, including loading and transporting victims to a safe zone—i.e., casualty extraction tasks. The aim of this study is to develop a mobile rescue robot that could assist first responders when saving casualties from a dangerous area by performing a casualty extraction procedure whilst ensuring that no additional injury is caused by the operation and no additional lives are put at risk. In this paper, we present a novel design of ResQbot 2.0—a mobile rescue robot designed for performing the casualty extraction task. This robot is a stretcher-type casualty extraction robot, which is a significantly improved version of the initial proof-of-concept prototype, ResQbot (retrospectively referred to as ResQbot 1.0), that has been developed in our previous work. The proposed designs and development of the mechanical system of ResQbot 2.0, as well as the method for safely loading a full-body casualty onto the robot’s ‘stretcher bed’, are described in detail based on the conducted literature review, evaluation of our previous work, and feedback provided by medical professionals. We perform simulation experiments in the Gazebo physics engine simulator to verify the proposed design and the casualty extraction procedure. The simulation results demonstrate the capability of ResQbot 2.0 to carry out safe casualty extractions successfully.

Association of transport time with adverse outcome in paediatric trauma

Background

It is unclear how the length of prehospital transport time affects outcome in paediatric trauma. This study evaluated the association of transport time from alarm to arrival at hospital with adverse outcome in paediatric trauma patients in Sweden.

Methods

This was a retrospective study based on prospectively collected data from the Swedish trauma registry between 2012 and 2019 of children less than 18 years with major trauma (New Injury Severity Score (NISS) greater than 15). The primary outcome was 30-day mortality, and secondary outcomes were emergency interventions (e.g., chest tube or laparotomy) and low functional outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale 2–3). Primary exposure was transport time from alarm to arrival at hospital. Co-variables in multivariable regressions were gender, age, ASA score before injury, injury intention, dominant injury type, NISS, Glasgow Coma Scale score, prehospital competence and hospital level.

Results

Among 597 patients, 30-day mortality was 9.8 per cent, emergency interventions were performed in 34.7 per cent and low functional outcome was registered in 15.9 per cent. Median transport time was 51 (i.q.r. 37–68) minutes. After adjustment for patient, injury and hospital characteristics, no association between longer transport time and 30-day mortality, frequency of emergency interventions or lower functional outcome could be found. Treatment at a university hospital was associated with a lower risk for 30-day mortality (odds ratio 0.23 (95 per cent c.i. 0.08 to 0.68), P = 0.008).

Conclusion

Longer transport time after major paediatric trauma was not associated with adverse outcome. Hence, it seems that longer transport distances should not be an obstacle against centralization of paediatric trauma care. Further studies should focus on the role of prehospital competence and other transport-associated parameters and their association with adverse outcome.

Travel time to emergency care not by geographic time, but by optimal time: A nationwide cross-sectional study for establishing optimal hospital access time to emergency medical care in South Korea

Increase in travel time, beyond a critical point, to emergency care may lead to a residential disparity in the outcome of patients with acute conditions. However, few studies have evaluated the evidence of travel time benchmarks in view of the association between travel time and outcome. Thus, this study aimed to establish the optimal hospital access time (OHAT) for emergency care in South Korea. We used nationwide healthcare claims data collected by the National Health Insurance System database of South Korea. Claims data of 445,548 patients who had visited emergency centers between January 1, 2006 and December 31, 2014 were analyzed. Travel time, by vehicle from the residence of the patient, to the emergency center was calculated. Thirteen emergency care-sensitive conditions (ECSCs) were selected by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The 30-day mortality after discharge was set as the outcome measure of emergency care. A change-point analysis was performed to identify the threshold where the mortality of ECSCs changed significantly. The differences in risk-adjusted mortality between patients living outside of OHAT and those living inside OHAT were evaluated. Five ECSCs showed a significant threshold where the mortality changed according to their OHAT. These were intracranial injury, acute myocardial infarction, other acute ischemic heart disease, fracture of the femur, and sepsis. The calculated OHAT were 71-80 min, 31-40 min, 70-80 min, 41-50 min, and 61-70 min, respectively. Those who lived outside the OHAT had higher risks of death, even after adjustment (adjusted OR: 1.04-7.21; 95% CI: 1.03-26.34). In conclusion, the OHAT for emergency care with no significant increase in mortality is in the 31-80 min range. Optimal travel time to hospital should be established by optimal time for outcomes, and not by geographic time, to resolve the disparities in geographical accessibility to emergency care.

The collateral fallout of COVID19 lockdown on patients with head injury from north-west India

BACKGROUND

The COVID19 lockdown has altered the dynamics of living. Its collateral fallout on head injury care has not been studied in detail, especially from low- and middle-income countries, possibly overwhelmed more than developed nations. Here, we analyze the effects of COVID19 restrictions on head injury patients in a high-volume Indian referral trauma center.

METHODS

From the prospective trauma registry, clinico-epidemiological and radiological parameters of patients managed during 190 days before and 190 days during COVID19 phases were studied. As an indicator of care, the inpatient mortality of patients with severe HI was also compared with appropriate statistical analyses.

RESULTS

Of the total 3372 patients, there were 83 head injury admissions per week before COVID19 restrictions, which decreased to 33 every week (60% drop) during the lock phases and stabilized at 46 per week during the unlock phases. COVID19 restrictions caused a significant increase in the proportion of patients arriving directly without resuscitation at peripheral centers and later than 6 h of injury. Though the most common mechanism was vehicular, a relative increase in the proportion of assaults was noted during COVID19. There was no change in the distribution of mild, moderate, and severe injuries. Despite a decrease in the percentage of patients with systemic illnesses, severe head injury mortality was significantly more during the lock phases than before COVID19 (59% vs. 47%, p = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

COVID19 restrictions have amplified the already delayed admission among patients of head injury from north-west India. The severe head injury mortality was significantly greater during lock phases than before COVID19, highlighting the collateral fallout of lockdown. Pandemic control measures in the future should not ignore the concerns of trauma emergency care.

Delayed Neurosurgical Intervention in Traumatic Brain Injury Patients Referred From Primary Hospitals Is Not Associated With an Unfavorable Outcome

Background: Secondary transports of patients suffering from traumatic brain injury (TBI) may result in a delayed management and neurosurgical intervention, which is potentially detrimental. The aim of this study was to study the effect of triaging and delayed transfers on outcome, specifically studying time to diagnostics and neurosurgical management.

Methods: This was a retrospective observational cohort study of TBI patients in need of neurosurgical care, 15 years and older, in the Stockholm Region, Sweden, from 2008 throughout 2014. Data were collected from pre-hospital and in-hospital charts. Known TBI outcome predictors, including the protein biomarker of brain injury S100B, were used to assess injury severity. Characteristics and outcomes of direct trauma center (TC) and those of secondary transfers were evaluated and compared. Functional outcome, using the Glasgow Outcome Scale, was assessed in survivors at 6–12 months after trauma. Regression models, including propensity score balanced models, were used for endpoint assessment.

Results: A total of n = 457 TBI patients were included; n = 320 (70%) patients were direct TC transfers, whereas n = 137 (30%) were secondary referrals. In all, n = 295 required neurosurgery for the first 24 h after trauma (about 75% of each subgroup). Direct TC transfers were more severely injured (median Glasgow Coma Scale 8 vs. 13) and more often suffered a high energy trauma (31 vs. 2.9%) than secondary referrals. Admission S100B was higher in the TC transfer group, though S100B levels 12–36 h after trauma were similar between cohorts. Direct or indirect TC transfer could be predicted using propensity scoring. The secondary referrals had a shorter distance to the primary hospital, but had later radiology and surgery than the TC group (all p < 0.001). In adjusted multivariable analyses with and without propensity matching, direct or secondary transfers were not found to be significantly related to outcome. Time from trauma to surgery did not affect outcome.

Conclusions: TBI patients secondary transported to a TC had surgical intervention performed hours later, though this did not affect outcome, presumably demonstrating that accurate pre-hospital triaging was performed. This indicates that for selected patients, a wait-and-see approach with delayed neurosurgical intervention is not necessarily detrimental, but warrants further research.

Transport Time and Mortality in Critically Ill Patients with Severe Traumatic Brain Injury

PURPOSE

Severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in critically ill patients. Pre-hospital care and transportation time may impact their outcomes.

METHODS

Using the British Columbia Trauma Registry, we included 2,860 adult (≥18 years) patients with severe TBI (abbreviated injury scale head score ≥4), who were admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU) in a centre with neurosurgical services from January 1, 2000 to March 31, 2013. We evaluated the impact of transportation time (time of injury to time of arrival at a neurosurgical trauma centre) on in-hospital mortality and discharge disposition, adjusting for age, sex, year of injury, injury severity score (ISS), revised trauma score at the scene, location of injury, socio-economic status and direct versus indirect transfer.

RESULTS

Patients had a median age of 43 years (interquartile range [IQR] 26-59) and 676 (23.6%) were female. They had a median ISS of 33 (IQR 26-43). Median transportation time was 80 minutes (IQR 40-315). ICU and hospital length of stay were 6 days (IQR 2-12) and 20 days (IQR 7-42), respectively. Six hundred and ninety-six (24.3%) patients died in hospital. After adjustment, there was no significant impact of transportation time on in-hospital mortality (odds ratio 0.98, 95% confidence interval 0.95-1.01). There was also no significant effect on discharge disposition.

CONCLUSIONS

No association was found between pre-hospital transportation time and in-hospital mortality in critically ill patients with severe TBI.

A scoping review of worldwide studies evaluating the effects of prehospital time on trauma outcomes

BACKGROUND

Annually, over 1 billion people sustain traumatic injuries, resulting in over 900,000 deaths in Africa and 6 million deaths globally. Timely response, intervention, and transportation in the prehospital setting reduce morbidity and mortality of trauma victims. Our objective was to describe the existing literature evaluating trauma morbidity and mortality outcomes as a function of prehospital care time to identify gaps in literature and inform future investigation.

MAIN BODY

We performed a scoping review of published literature in MEDLINE. Results were limited to English language publications from 2009 to 2020. Included articles reported trauma outcomes and prehospital time. We excluded case reports, reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, comments, editorials, letters, and conference proceedings. In total, 808 articles were identified for title and abstract review. Of those, 96 articles met all inclusion criteria and were fully reviewed. Higher quality studies used data derived from trauma registries. There was a paucity of literature from studies in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), with only 3 (3%) of articles explicitly including African populations. Mortality was an outcome measure in 93% of articles, predominantly defined as "in-hospital mortality" as opposed to mortality within a specified time frame. Prehospital time was most commonly assessed as crude time from EMS dispatch to arrival at a tertiary trauma center. Few studies evaluated physiologic morbidity outcomes such as multi-organ failure.

CONCLUSION

The existing literature disproportionately represents high-income settings and most commonly assessed in-hospital mortality as a function of crude prehospital time. Future studies should focus on how specific prehospital intervals impact morbidity outcomes (e.g., organ failure) and mortality at earlier time points (e.g., 3 or 7 days) to better reflect the effect of early prehospital resuscitation and transport. Trauma registries may be a tool to facilitate such research and may promote higher quality investigations in Africa and LMICs.

Association between prehospital time and outcome of trauma patients in 4 Asian countries: A cross-national, multicenter cohort study

BACKGROUND

Whether rapid transportation can benefit patients with trauma remains controversial. We determined the association between prehospital time and outcome to explore the concept of the "golden hour" for injured patients.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of trauma patients transported from the scene to hospitals by emergency medical service (EMS) from January 1, 2016, to November 30, 2018, using data from the Pan-Asia Trauma Outcomes Study (PATOS) database. Prehospital time intervals were categorized into response time (RT), scene to hospital time (SH), and total prehospital time (TPT). The outcomes were 30-day mortality and functional status at hospital discharge. Multivariable logistic regression was used to investigate the association of prehospital time and outcomes to adjust for factors including age, sex, mechanism and type of injury, Injury Severity Score (ISS), Revised Trauma Score (RTS), and prehospital interventions. Overall, 24,365 patients from 4 countries (645 patients from Japan, 16,476 patients from Korea, 5,358 patients from Malaysia, and 1,886 patients from Taiwan) were included in the analysis. Among included patients, the median age was 45 years (lower quartile [Q1]-upper quartile [Q3]: 25-62), and 15,498 (63.6%) patients were male. Median (Q1-Q3) RT, SH, and TPT were 20 (Q1-Q3: 12-39), 21 (Q1-Q3: 16-29), and 47 (Q1-Q3: 32-60) minutes, respectively. In all, 280 patients (1.1%) died within 30 days after injury. Prehospital time intervals were not associated with 30-day mortality. The adjusted odds ratios (aORs) per 10 minutes of RT, SH, and TPT were 0.99 (95% CI 0.92-1.06, p = 0.740), 1.08 (95% CI 1.00-1.17, p = 0.065), and 1.03 (95% CI 0.98-1.09, p = 0.236), respectively. However, long prehospital time was detrimental to functional survival. The aORs of RT, SH, and TPT per 10-minute delay were 1.06 (95% CI 1.04-1.08, p < 0.001), 1.05 (95% CI 1.01-1.08, p = 0.007), and 1.06 (95% CI 1.04-1.08, p < 0.001), respectively. The key limitation of our study is the missing data inherent to the retrospective design. Another major limitation is the aggregate nature of the data from different countries and unaccounted confounders such as in-hospital management.

CONCLUSIONS

Longer prehospital time was not associated with an increased risk of 30-day mortality, but it may be associated with increased risk of poor functional outcomes in injured patients. This finding supports the concept of the "golden hour" for trauma patients during prehospital care in the countries studied.

Prehospital Intervals and In-Hospital Trauma Mortality: A Retrospective Study from a Level I Trauma Center

BACKGROUND

The increase in mortality and total prehospital time (TPT) seen in Qatar appear to be realistic. However, existing reports on the influence of TPT on mortality in trauma patients are conflicting. This study aimed to explore the impact of prehospital time on the in-hospital outcomes.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of data on patients transferred alive by Emergency Medical Services (EMS) and admitted to Hamad Trauma Center (HTC) of Hamad General Hospital (HGH; Doha, Qatar) from June 2017 through May 2018 was conducted. This study was centered on the National Trauma Registry database. Patients were categorized based on the trauma triage activation and prehospital intervals, and comparative analysis was performed.

RESULTS

A total of 1,455 patients were included, of which nearly one-quarter of patients required urgent and life-saving care at a trauma center (T1 activations). The overall TPT was 70 minutes and the on-scene time (OST) was 24 minutes. When compared to T2 activations, T1 patients were more likely to have been involved in road traffic injuries (RTIs); experienced head and chest injuries; presented with higher Injury Severity Score (ISS: median = 22); and had prolonged OST (27 minutes) and reduced TPT (65 minutes; P = .001). Prolonged OST was found to be associated with higher mortality in T1 patients, whereas TPT was not associated.

CONCLUSIONS

In-hospital mortality was independent of TPT but associated with longer OST in severely injured patients. The survival benefit may extend beyond the golden hour and may depend on the injury characteristics, prehospital, and in-hospital settings.

Association of Prehospital Time to In-Hospital Trauma Mortality in a Physician-Staffed Emergency Medicine System

Importance

The association between total prehospital time and mortality in physician-staffed trauma systems remains uncertain.

Objective

To describe the association of total prehospital time and in-hospital mortality in prehospital, physician-staffed trauma systems in France, with the hypothesis that total prehospital time is associated with increased mortality.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study was conducted from January 2009 to December 2016. Data for this study were derived from 2 distinct regional trauma registries in France (1 urban and 1 rural) that both have a physician-staffed emergency medical service. Consecutive adult trauma patients admitted to either of the regional trauma referral centers during the study period were included. Data analysis took place from March 2018 to September 2018.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The association between death and prehospital time was assessed with a multivariable model adjusted with confounders. Total prehospital time was the primary exposure variable, recorded as the time from the arrival of the physician-led prehospital care team on scene to the arrival at the hospital. The main outcome of interest was all-cause in-hospital mortality.

Results

A total of 10 216 patients were included (mean [SD] age, 41 [18] years; 7937 men [78.3%]) affected by predominantly nonpenetrating injuries (9265 [91.5%]), with a mean (SD) Injury Severity Score of 17 (14) points. Of the patients, 6737 (66.5%) had at least 1 body region with an Abbreviated Injury Scale score of 3 or more. A total of 1259 patients (12.4%) presented in shock (with systolic pressure <90 mm Hg) and 2724 (26.9%) with severe head injury (Abbreviated Injury Scale score ≥3 points). On unadjusted analysis, increasing prehospital times (in 30-minute categories) were associated with a markedly and constant increase in the risk of in-hospital death. The odds of death increased by 9% for each 10-minute increase in prehospital time (odds ratio, 1.09 [95% CI, 1.07-1.11]) and after adjustment by 4% (odds ratio, 1.04 [95% CI, 1.01-1.07]).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this study, an increase in total prehospital time was associated with increasing in-hospital all-cause mortality in trauma patients at a physician-staffed emergency medical system, after adjustment for case complexity. Prehospital time is a management objective in analogy to physiological targets. These findings plead for a further streamlining of prehospital trauma care and the need to define the optimal intervention-to-time ratio.

Prehospital Conditions and Outcomes After Craniotomy for Traumatic Brain Injury Performed Within 72 Hours in Central Cameroon: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the most common neurosurgical condition globally. In Cameroon, there are 572 cases of TBI per 100,000 people, but <40% of Cameroonians live within 4 hours of a neurosurgical facility. We sought to understand the clinical outcomes at a neurosurgical center in Central Cameroon.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted at the largest neurosurgical center of Cameroon, the Yaounde Central Hospital. Data included 100 consecutive patients undergoing an intervention 72 hours after their injury from February 1, 2015 to February 1, 2019. Patients with missing data or undergoing surgery >72 hours after injury were excluded. Analyses of covariance were performed, and a P value >0.05 was considered significant. A Kaplan-Meier survival curve was computed.

RESULTS

The patients had a mean age of 31.3 ± 17.4 years, with a male predominance of 91.0%, and the principal mechanism of injury was road traffic accidents (68.0%). Only 11% arrived via ambulance, and 36.0% were admitted <3 hours after the traumatic event. The postoperative mortality was 15.0%, mean survival was 25.0 postoperative days (95% confidence interval, 23.42-26.52), and the mean Glasgow Outcome Scale score at 28 days was 3.9 ± 1.4.

CONCLUSIONS

Most patients with TBI undergoing neurosurgery 72 hours after injury in Cameroon arrive at the hospital late and have a high mortality risk during the first postoperative week. Investments in prehospital care should be made to improve surgical outcomes.

Simulation-based training is associated with lower risk-adjusted mortality in ACS pediatric TQIP centers

BACKGROUND

Although use of simulation-based team training for pediatric trauma resuscitation has increased, its impact on patient outcomes has not yet been shown. The purpose of this study was to determine the association between simulation use and patient outcomes.

METHODS

Trauma centers that participate in the American College of Surgeons (ACS) Pediatric Trauma Quality Improvement Program (TQIP) were surveyed to determine frequency of simulation use in 2014 and 2015. Center-specific clinical data for 2016 and 2017 were abstracted from the ACS TQIP registry (n = 57,916 patients) and linked to survey responses. Center-specific risk-adjusted mortality was estimated using multivariable hierarchical logistic regression and compared across four levels of simulation-based training use: no training, low-volume training, high-volume training, and survey nonresponders (unknown training use).

RESULTS

Survey response rate was 75% (94/125 centers) with 78% of the responding centers (73/94) reporting simulation use. The average risk-adjusted odds of mortality was lower in centers with a high volume of training compared with centers not using simulation (odds ratio, 0.58; 95% confidence interval, 0.37-0.92). The times required for resuscitation processes, evaluations, and critical procedures (endotracheal intubation, head computed tomography, craniotomy, and surgery for hemorrhage control) were not different between centers based on levels of simulation use.

CONCLUSION

Risk-adjusted mortality is lower in TQIP-Pediatric centers using simulation-based training, but this improvement in mortality may not be mediated by a reduction in time to critical procedures. Further investigation into alternative mediators of improved mortality associated with simulation use is warranted, including assessment of resuscitation quality, improved communication, enhanced teamwork skills, and decreased errors.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic/care management, Level III.

Computed tomography scans prior to transfer to a pediatric trauma center: Transfer time effects, neurosurgical interventions, and practice variability

BACKGROUND

Many nontrauma centers perform computed tomography (CT) on injured children prior to transfer to a pediatric trauma center (PTC), but the institutional variability and clinical impact of this practice is unclear. This study evaluated the association of pretransfer CT with transfer delays, the likelihood of emergent neurosurgical intervention among patients who underwent pretransfer head CT, and the effects of transfer distance on prevalence and regional variability of pretransfer CT.

METHODS

All injured children transferred from outlying nontrauma centers to a single freestanding PTC from 2009 to 2017 were included. Patients were categorized by undergoing pretransfer CT head alone, CT of multiple/other areas, or no CT. Transfer time (referring hospital arrival to PTC arrival) was compared between CT groups, using multivariable modeling to adjust for covariates. Neurosurgical interventions were compared between patients with normal and abnormal Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores. The prevalence of pretransfer CT among referring centers was compared, with stratification by transfer distance.

RESULTS

Of 2,947 transfer patients, 1,225 (42%) underwent pretransfer CT (29%, head CT alone; 13%, other/multiple CT). Transfer times were significantly longer for patients who underwent pretransfer head CT or multiple CT (287 or 298 minutes vs. 260 minutes, p < 0.0001) after adjustment for baseline characteristics, injury severity, and transfer distance. Among patients with normal pretransfer GCS who received a pretransfer head CT, the likelihood of urgent neurosurgical intervention was 1.3%. Prevalence rates of pretransfer CT by referring center varied from 15% to 94%; prevalence increased with increasing transfer distance but demonstrated wide variability among centers of similar distance.

CONCLUSION

Pretransfer CT, whether of the head alone or multiple areas, is associated with delays in transfer to definitive care. Among patients with pretransfer GCS 15, the risk of urgent neurosurgical intervention is very low. Wide variability in pretransfer CT use between referring centers suggests opportunity for development of standardized protocols.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Economic/decision, level III.

The ticking clock: does actively making an enhanced care team aware of the passage of time improve pre-hospital scene time following traumatic incidents?

Introduction

Pre-hospital enhanced care teams like Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (HEMS) are often dispatched to major trauma patients, including patients with traumatic brain injuries and those with major haemorrhage. For these patients, minimizing the time to definitive care is vital. The aim of this study was to determine whether increased awareness of elapsed on scene time produces a relevant time performance improvement for major trauma patients attended by HEMS, and weather introducing such a timer was feasible and acceptable to clinicians.

Methods

We performed a prospective cohort study of all single casualty traumatic incidents attended by Air Ambulance Kent Surrey Sussex (AAKSS) between 15 October 2016 and 23 May 2017 to test if introduction of a prompting scene timer within the service resulted in a reduction in pre-hospital scene times.

Results

The majority of the patients attended were male (74%) and sustained blunt trauma (92%). Overall, median scene time was 25.5 [IQR16.3] minutes before introduction of the scene timer and 23.0 [11.0] minutes after introduction, p = 0.13). Scene times for patients with a GCS < 8 and for patients requiring prehospital anaesthesia were significantly lower after introduction of the timer (28 [IQR 14] vs 25 [1], p = 0.017 and 34 [IQR 13] vs 28 [IQR11] minutes, p = 0.007 respectively). The majority of clinicians felt the timer made them more aware of passing time (91%) but that this had not made a difference to scene time (62%) or their practice (57%).

Conclusion

Audible scene timers may have the potential to reduce pre-hospital scene time for certain single casualty trauma patients treated by a HEMS team, particularly for those patients needing pre-hospital anaesthesia. Regular use of on-scene timers may improve outcomes by reducing time to definitive care for certain subgroups of trauma patients.