Rosmarinic acid attenuates 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced atopic dermatitis in NC/Nga mice

Insights from Traditional Chinese Medicine for Restoring Skin Barrier Functions

The skin barrier is essential for maintaining the body's internal homeostasis, protecting against harmful external substances, and regulating water and electrolyte balance. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) offers notable advantages in restoring skin barrier function due to its diverse components, targets, and pathways. Recent studies have demonstrated that active ingredients in TCM can safely and effectively repair damaged skin barriers, reinstating their proper functions. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of the mechanisms underlying skin barrier damage and explores how the bioactive constituents of TCM contribute to skin barrier repair, thereby offering a theoretical framework to inform clinical practices.

Phenolic acids from medicinal and edible homologous plants: a potential anti-inflammatory agent for inflammatory diseases

Inflammation has been shown to trigger a wide range of chronic diseases, particularly inflammatory diseases. As a result, the focus of research has been on anti-inflammatory drugs and foods. In recent years, the field of medicinal and edible homology (MEH) has developed rapidly in both medical and food sciences, with 95% of MEH being associated with plants. Phenolic acids are a crucial group of natural bioactive substances found in medicinal and edible homologous plants (MEHPs). Their anti-inflammatory activity is significant as they play a vital role in treating several inflammatory diseases. These compounds possess enormous potential for developing anti-inflammatory drugs and functional foods. However, their development is far from satisfactory due to their diverse structure and intricate anti-inflammatory mechanisms. In this review, we summarize the various types, structures, and distribution of MEHP phenolic acids that have been identified as of 2023. We also analyze their anti-inflammatory activity and molecular mechanisms in inflammatory diseases through NF-κB, MAPK, NLRP3, Nrf2, TLRs, and IL-17 pathways. Additionally, we investigate their impact on regulating the composition of the gut microbiota and immune responses. This analysis lays the groundwork for further exploration of the anti-inflammatory structure-activity relationship of MEHP phenolic acids, aiming to inspire structural optimization and deepen our understanding of their mechanism, and provides valuable insights for future research and development in this field.

Effects of rosmarinic acid on immune response and intestinal microbiota in ovalbumin-induced intestinal allergy mice

BACKGROUND

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is an active polyphenol that is widely found in various edible herbs. This study explored the potential anti-allergic activities and the underlying mechanisms of RA in ovalbumin (OVA)-induced intestinal allergic mice.

RESULTS

Forty female BALB/c mice were randomly divided into five groups: control group, model group (OVA sensitized/challenged), RA-Low group (OVA sensitized/challenged, 30 mg kg-1 RA intervention), RA-Middle group (OVA sensitized/challenged, 90 mg kg-1 RA intervention) and RA-High group (OVA sensitized/challenged, 270 mg kg-1 RA intervention). RA effectively attenuated allergic reactions, including alleviating allergic symptoms and regulating the hypothermia of mice in the model group. Moreover, the anaphylactic mediator (OVA-specific IgE, histamine and mMCP-1) levels of OVA allergic mice were markedly decreased after RA intervention. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that RA significantly inhibited Th2 cytokine expression, while Th1 and Treg cytokines were markedly increased. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis indicated that RA effectively regulated the richness and diversity of the intestinal microbiota in OVA allergic mice. At the phylum level, the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes and the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio were altered by RA intervention. At the genus level, RA was found to regulate the disturbances in the relative abundance of Muribaculaceae, Lactobacillus and Prevotella.

CONCLUSION

RA exhibited potential anti-allergic activity in OVA allergic mice by regulating hypersensitive immune responses and the intestinal microbiota structure. These results provide important evidence that RA can be developed into a novel functional food-derived ingredient against food allergy. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Analysing a Group of Homologous BAHD Enzymes Provides Insights into the Evolutionary Transition of Rosmarinic Acid Synthases from Hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA:Shikimate/Quinate Hydroxycinnamoyl Transferases

The interplay of various enzymes and compounds gives rise to the intricate secondary metabolic networks observed today. However, the current understanding of their formation and expansion remains limited. BAHD acyltransferases play important roles in the biosynthesis of numerous significant secondary metabolites. In plants, they are widely distributed and exhibit a diverse range of activities. Among them, rosmarinic acid synthase (RAS) and hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA:shikimate/quinate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (HCT) have gained significant recognition and have been extensively investigated as prominent members of the BAHD acyltransferase family. Here, we conducted a comprehensive study on a unique group of RAS homologous enzymes in Mentha longifolia that display both catalytic activities and molecular features similar to HCT and Lamiaceae RAS. Subsequent phylogenetic and comparative genome analyses revealed their derivation from expansion events within the HCT gene family, indicating their potential as collateral branches along the evolutionary trajectory, leading to Lamiaceae RAS while still retaining certain ancestral vestiges. This discovery provides more detailed insights into the evolution from HCT to RAS. Our collective findings indicate that gene duplication is the driving force behind the observed evolutionary pattern in plant-specialized enzymes, which probably originated from ancestral enzyme promiscuity and were subsequently shaped by principles of biological adaptation.

Spinal cord dorsal horn sensory gate in preclinical models of chemotherapy-induced painful neuropathy and contact dermatitis chronic itch becomes less leaky with Kcc2 gene expression-enhancing treatments

Low intraneuronal chloride in spinal cord dorsal horn (SCDH) pain relay neurons is of critical relevance for physiological transmission of primary sensory afferents because low intraneuronal chloride dictates GABA-ergic and glycin-ergic neurotransmission to be inhibitory. If neuronal chloride rises to unphysiological levels, the primary sensory gate in the spinal cord dorsal horn becomes corrupted, with resulting behavioral hallmarks of hypersensitivity and allodynia, for example in pathological pain. Low chloride in spinal cord dorsal horn neurons relies on the robust gene expression of Kcc2 and sustained transporter function of the KCC2 chloride-extruding electroneutral transporter. Based on a recent report where we characterized the GSK3-inhibitory small molecule, kenpaullone, as a Kcc2 gene expression-enhancer that potently repaired diminished Kcc2 expression and KCC2 transporter function in SCDH pain relay neurons, we extend our recent findings by reporting (i) effective pain control in a preclinical model of taxol-induced painful peripheral neuropathy that was accomplished by topical application of a TRPV4/TRPA1 dual-inhibitory compound (compound 16-8), and was associated with the repair of diminished Kcc2 gene expression in the SCDH; and (ii) potent functioning of kenpaullone as an antipruritic in a DNFB contact dermatitis preclinical model. These observations suggest that effective peripheral treatment of chemotherapy-induced painful peripheral neuropathy impacts the pain-transmitting neural circuit in the SCDH in a beneficial manner by enhancing Kcc2 gene expression, and that chronic pruritus might be relayed in the primary sensory gate of the spinal cord, following similar principles as pathological pain, specifically relating to the critical functioning of Kcc2 gene expression and the KCC2 transporter function.

Rosmarinic Acid Suppresses Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Progression in Apolipoprotein E-deficient Mice

An abdominal aortic aneurysm is a life-threatening cardiovascular disorder caused by dissection and rupture. No effective medicine is currently available for the > 90% of patients whose aneurysms are below the surgical threshold. The present study investigated the impact of rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid C, or salvianolic acid B on experimental abdominal aortic aneurysms. Abdominal aortic aneurysms were induced in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice via infusion of angiotensin II for 4 wks. Rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid C, salvianolic acid B, or doxycycline as a positive control was provided daily through intraperitoneal injection. Administration of rosmarinic acid was found to decrease the thickness of the aortic wall, as determined by histopathological assay. Rosmarinic acid also exhibited protection against elastin fragmentation in aortic media and down-regulated cell apoptosis and proliferation in the aortic adventitia. Infiltration of macrophages, T lymphocytes, and neutrophils in aortic aneurysms was found, especially at the aortic adventitia. Rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid C, or salvianolic acid B inhibited the infiltration on macrophages specifically, but these compounds did not influence T lymphocytes and neutrophils. Expression of matrix metalloproteinase 9 and macrophage migration inhibitory factor significantly increased in aortic aneurysms. Rosmarinic acid and salvianolic acid C decreased the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in media, and rosmarinic acid also tended to reduce migration inhibitory factor expression. Further then, partial least squares-discriminate analysis was used to classify metabolic changes among different treatments. Rosmarinic acid affected most of the metabolites in the biosynthesis of the citrate cycle, fatty acid pathway significantly. Our present study on mice demonstrated that rosmarinic acid inhibited multiple pathological processes, which were the key features important in abdominal aortic aneurysm formation. Further study on rosmarinic acid, the novel candidate for aneurysmal therapy, should be undertaken to determine its potential for clinical use.

A Review of Moisturizing Additives for Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis, the most common form of eczema, is a chronic, relapsing inflammatory skin condition that occurs with dry skin, persistent itching, and scaly lesions. This debilitating condition significantly compromises the patient’s quality of life due to the intractable itching and other associated factors such as disfigurement, sleeping disturbances, and social stigmatization from the visible lesions. The treatment mainstay of atopic dermatitis involves applying topical glucocorticosteroids and calcineurin inhibitors, combined with regular use of moisturizers. However, conventional treatments possess a certain degree of adverse effects, which raised concerns among the patients resulting in non-adherence to treatment. Hence, the modern use of moisturizers to improve barrier repair and function is of great value. One of the approaches includes incorporating bioactive ingredients with clinically proven therapeutic benefits into dermocosmetics emollient. The current evidence suggests that these dermocosmetics emollients aid in the improvement of the skin barrier and alleviate inflammation, pruritus and xerosis. We carried out a critical and comprehensive narrative review of the literature. Studies and trials focusing on moisturizers that include phytochemicals, natural moisturizing factors, essential fatty acids, endocannabinoids, and antioxidants were identified by searching electronic databases (PubMed and MEDLINE). We introduce the current knowledge on the roles of moisturizers in alleviating symptoms of atopic dermatitis. We then further summarize the science and rationale of the active ingredients in dermocosmetics and medical device emollients for treating atopic dermatitis. Finally, we highlight the limitations of the current evidence and future perspectives of cosmeceutical research on atopic dermatitis.

A Comprehensive Review of Rosmarinic Acid: From Phytochemistry to Pharmacology and Its New Insight

Polyphenolic acids are the widely occurring natural products in almost each herbal plant, among which rosmarinic acid (RA, C18H16O8) is well-known, and is present in over 160 species belonging to many families, especially the Lamiaceae. Aside from this herbal ingredient, dozens of its natural derivatives have also been isolated and characterized from many natural plants. In recent years, with the increasing focus on the natural products as alternative treatments, a large number of pharmacological studies have been carried out to demonstrate the various biological activities of RA such as anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, anti-diabetes, anti-virus, anti-tumor, neuroprotection, hepatoprotection, etc. In addition, investigations concerning its biosynthesis, extraction, analysis, clinical applications, and pharmacokinetics have also been performed. Although many achievements have been made in various research aspects, there still exist some problems or issues to be answered, especially its toxicity and bioavailability. Thus, we hope that in the case of natural products, the present review can not only provide a comprehensive understanding on RA covering its miscellaneous research fields, but also highlight some of the present issues and future perspectives worth investigating later, in order to help us utilize this polyphenolic acid more efficiently, widely, and safely.

Phenethyl ester of rosmarinic acid attenuates autoimmune responses during type 1 diabetes development in mice

AIMS

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a polyphenol that occurs in plants of the Lamiaceae family. Phenethyl ester of RA (PERA), a novel RA derivative, has been developed and evaluated in vivo in an animal model of type 1 diabetes (T1D).

METHODS

T1D was induced in male C57BL/6 mice using multiple low doses of streptozotocin (STZ) administered intraperitoneally for 5 consecutive days. Intraperitoneal administration of PERA (2.5 mg/kg bw) began from the first STZ injection and continued for 20 days.

KEY FINDINGS

PERA-treated mice exhibited lower incidence of T1D (monitored up to 38 days from the disease induction), and fluorescent histochemical analysis showed that their pancreatic islets expressed more insulin. PERA treatment significantly down-regulated the proportions of CD11b+ and CD11c+ myeloid cells in the immune cell infiltrates in the pancreatic islets early during T1D pathogenesis (on day 9 after T1D induction), while on day 15, PERA significantly reduced the proportions of CD11c+, CD8+, Th1 and Th17 cells. Simultaneously, it was found that the cells from the pancreatic infiltrates of PERA-treated mice produced significantly less reactive oxygen species than cells from the control group.

SIGNIFICANCE

These findings suggest that PERA efficiently prevented T1D development in mice. Interestingly, PERA attenuated the inflammatory process in the islets through temporally specific interference with the innate and adaptive immune response and therefore shows great promise for further clinical evaluation as a novel T1D therapeutic.

Antidepressant-like effect of rosmarinic acid during LPS-induced neuroinflammatory model: The potential role of cannabinoid receptors/PPAR-γ signaling pathway

Rosmarinic acid (RA), an ester of caffeic acid and 3, 4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid, has anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities. Herein, this study investigated in silico the drug-likeness and the potential molecular targets to RA. Moreover, it tested the antidepressant-like potential of RA in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced depression model. RA (MW = 360.31 g/mol) meets the criteria of both Lipinski's rule of five and the Ghose filter. It also attends to relevant pharmacokinetic parameters. Target prediction analysis identified RA's potential targets and biological activities, including the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) and the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 . In vivo, RA's acute, repetitive, and therapeutic administration showed antidepressant-like effect since it significantly reduced the immobility time in the tail suspension test and increased grooming time in the splash test. Further, the pretreatment with antagonists of CB1 , CB2 , and PPAR-γ receptors significantly blocked the antidepressant-like effect of RA. Altogether, our findings suggest that cannabinoid receptors/PPAR-γ signaling pathways are involved with the antidepressant-like effect of RA. Moreover, this molecule meets important physicochemical and pharmacokinetic parameters that favor its bioavailability. RA constitutes a promising, innovative, and safe molecule for the pharmacotherapy of major depressive disorder.

Rosmarinic acid protects mice from imiquimod induced psoriasis-like skin lesions by inhibiting the IL-23/Th17 axis via regulating Jak2/Stat3 signaling pathway

IL-23/Th17 (IL-17) axis plays a critical role in psoriasis. Rosmarinic acid (RA) was proved the inhibitory effect of T cell infiltration in the skin. However, whether and how RA has beneficial effects on psoriasis did not really know yet. So lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced abnormal proliferation Hacat cell line and Imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis-like mouse dermatitis were used to assess the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of RA by Psoriasis Area Severity Index (PASI) score, histopathology, flow cytometry, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blotting. The results showed that RA inhibited LPS-induced aberrant expression of Hacat cell line, and significantly alleviated IMQ-induced skin inflammation. Although RA had no obviously effect on the ratio of epidermal Langerhans cell (LC) and LC migration from the skin to the skin draining lymph nodes, RA inhibited the expression of IL-23 in skin lesions, as well as reduced the differentiation of Th17 cells and producing of IL-17A by down regulating the transcriptor factor RORγt and JAK2/Stat3 signal pathway, comparing to IMQ treated group. The findings suggest that RA inhibits psoriasis-like skin inflammation in vivo and in vitro by reducing the expression of IL-23, inhibiting Th17 dominated inflammation and down regulating the Jak2/Stat3 signal pathway.

Hydroxycinnamic Acids and Derivatives Formulations for Skin Damages and Disorders: A Review

Alterations of skin homeostasis are widely diffused in our everyday life both due to accidental injuries, such as wounds and burns, and physiological conditions, such as late-stage diabetes, dermatitis, or psoriasis. These events are locally characterized by an intense inflammatory response, a high generation of harmful free radicals, or an impairment in the immune response regulation, which can profoundly change the skin tissue' repair process, vulnerability, and functionality. Moreover, diabetes diffusion, antibiotic resistance, and abuse of aggressive soaps and disinfectants following the COVID-19 emergency could be causes for the future spreading of skin disorders. In the last years, hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives have been investigated and applied in several research fields for their anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-bacterial activities. First, in this study, we give an overview of these natural molecules' current source and applications. Afterwards, we review their potential role as valid alternatives to the current therapies, supporting the management and rebalancing of skin disorders and diseases at different levels. Also, we will introduce the recent advances in the design of biomaterials loaded with these phenolic compounds, specifically suitable for skin disorders treatments. Lastly, we will suggest future perspectives for introducing hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives in treating skin disorders.

Biotechnologically Produced Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Extract Rich in Rosmarinic Acid Resolves Psoriasis-Related Inflammation Through Janus Kinase/Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription Signaling

Psoriasis is a common skin pathology, characterized by dysregulation of epidermal keratinocyte function attended by persistent inflammation, suggesting that molecules with anti-inflammatory potential may be effective for its management. Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a natural bioactive molecule known to have an anti-inflammatory potential. Here we examined the effect of biotechnologically produced cell suspension extract of Lavandula angustifolia Mill (LV) high in RA content as treatment for psoriasis-associated inflammation in human keratinocytes. Regulatory genes from the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling pathways were upregulated upon stimulation with a combination of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-17A and IL-22. We also observed that both LV extract and RA could inhibit JAK2, leading to reduced STAT1 phosphorylation. Further, we demonstrated that LV extract inhibited phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K) and protein kinase B (AKT), which could be implicated in reduced hyperproliferation in keratinocytes. Collectively, these findings indicate that the biotechnologically produced LV extract resolved psoriasis-like inflammation in human keratinocytes by interfering the JAK2/STAT1 signaling pathway and its effectiveness is due to its high content of RA (10%). Hence, both LV extract and pure RA possess the potential to be incorporated in formulations for topical application as therapeutic approach against psoriasis.

Preparation and In Vivo Evaluation of Rosmarinic Acid-Loaded Transethosomes After Percutaneous Application on a Psoriasis Animal Model

The topical use of rosmarinic acid (RA) in skin inflammatory pathologies is restricted due to its poor water solubility, poor permeability, and chemical instability. In this study, RA-loaded transethosomes-in-Carbopol® formulations have been developed to evaluate its anti-inflammatory activity on imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in mice. In vitro release profiles demonstrated sustained behavior due to the retentive action of gel and the entrapment of RA into the vesicles. However, the low viscosity of the combined formulation increased the drug release rate. Animal evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity demonstrated that transethosomes-in-gel containing dexamethasone (Dex-TE-Gel), as positive control, showed effect in all the pro-inflammatory parameters evaluated, evidencing that these drug-loaded nanocarriers have been effectively reached the site of action. In addition, transethosomes-in-gel containing RA (RA-TE-Gel) formulations produced a great reduction in the punch edema (P < 0.001) and in TNF-α and IL-6 (P < 0.05). However, non-significant differences were obtained for IL-1β, IL17, and MPO. Despite the protecting effect of Carbopol® and transethosomes on oxidation index and antioxidant activity of RA over the 7 days of treatment, however, a degradation process of this antioxidant to caffeic acid may be the cause of these in vivo results. We have also checked that the pH existing into the intercellular space of damaged cells (pH 6.8) may be affecting. Therefore, our results suggest that RA-TE-Gel could act as an effective RA formulation for skin delivery; further studies will help to understand the loss of activity at the cellular level.

The Suppressive Effect of Leucine-Rich Glioma Inactivated 3 (LGI3) Peptide on Impaired Skin Barrier Function in a Murine Model Atopic Dermatitis

This study aimed to restore the skin barrier function from atopic dermatitis (AD) via treatment with leucine-rich glioma inactivated 3 (LGI3) peptide. Male NC/Nga mice (7 weeks, 20 g) were randomly allocated into three groups (control, AD, and LGI3 group). After induction of AD skin lesions with Dermatophagoides farinae ointment, mice were treated with LGI3. The clinical score of AD was the highest and the dorsal skin thickness was the thickest in the AD group. In contrast, LGI3 treatment improved the clinical score and the dorsal skin thickness compared to the AD model. LGI3 treatment suppressed histopathological thickness of the epithelial cell layer of the dorsal skin. LGI3 treatment could indirectly reduce mast cell infiltration through restoring the barrier function of the skin. Additionally, the filaggrin expression was increased in immunohistochemical evaluation. In conclusion, the ameliorating effect and maintaining skin barrier homeostasis in the AD murine model treated with LGI3 could be attributed to complete re-epithelialization of keratinocytes. Hence, LGI3 might be considered as a new potential therapeutic target for restoring skin barrier function in AD.

A Review of the Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Rosmarinic Acid on Inflammatory Diseases

Inflammatory diseases are caused by abnormal immune responses and are characterized by an imbalance of inflammatory mediators and cells. In recent years, the anti-inflammatory activity of natural products has attracted wide attention. Rosmarinic acid (RosA) is a water-soluble phenolic compound that is an ester of caffeic acid and 3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl lactic acid. It is discovered in many plants, like those of the Boraginaceae and Lamiaceae families. RosA has a wide range of pharmacological effects, including anti-oxidative, anti-apoptotic, anti-tumorigenic, and anti-inflammatory effects. The anti-inflammatory effects of RosA have been revealed through in vitro and in vivo studies of various inflammatory diseases like arthritis, colitis, and atopic dermatitis. This article mainly describes the preclinical research of RosA on inflammatory diseases and depicts a small amount of clinical research data. The purpose of this review is to discuss the anti-inflammatory effects of RosA in inflammatory diseases and its underlying mechanism.

Therapeutic Potential of Rosmarinic Acid: A Comprehensive Review

Naturally occurring food-derived active ingredients have received huge attention for their chemopreventive and chemotherapy capabilities in several diseases. Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a caffeic acid ester and a naturally-occurring phenolic compound in a number of plants belonging to the Lamiaceae family, such as Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary) from which it was formerly isolated. RA intervenes in carcinogenesis through different ways, including in tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and inflammation. On the other hand, it also exerts powerful antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and even antidepressant, anti-aging effects. The present review aims to provide an overview on anticancer activities of RA and to deliberate its therapeutic potential against a wide variety of diseases. Given the current evidence, RA may be considered as part of the daily diet in the treatment of several diseases, with pre-determined doses avoiding cytotoxicity.

Anticancer potential of rosmarinic acid and its improved production through biotechnological interventions and functional genomics

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a highly valued natural phenolic compound that is very commonly found in plants of the families Lamiaceae and Boraginaceae, including Coleus blumei, Heliotropium foertherianum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Perilla frutescens, and Salvia officinalis. RA is also found in other members of higher plant families and in some fern and horned liverwort species. The biosynthesis of RA is catalyzed by the enzymes phenylalanine ammonia lyase and cytochrome P450-dependent hydroxylase using the amino acids tyrosine and phenylalanine. Chemically, RA can be produced via methods involving the esterification of 3,4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid and caffeic acid. Some of the derivatives of RA include melitric acid, salvianolic acid, lithospermic acid, and yunnaneic acid. In plants, RA is known to have growth-promoting and defensive roles. Studies have elucidated the varied pharmacological potential of RA and its derived molecules, including anticancer, antiangiogenic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. The demand for RA is therefore, very high in the pharmaceutical industry, but this demand cannot be met by plants alone because RA content in plant organs is very low. Further, many plants that synthesize RA are under threat and near extinction owing to biodiversity loss caused by unscientific harvesting, over-collection, environmental changes, and other inherent features. Moreover, the chemical synthesis of RA is complicated and expensive. Alternative approaches using biotechnological methodologies could overcome these problems. This review provides the state of the art information on the chemistry, sources, and biosynthetic pathways of RA, as well as its anticancer properties against different cancer types. Biotechnological methods are also discussed for producing RA using plant cell, tissue, and organ cultures and hairy-root cultures using flasks and bioreactors. The recent developments and applications of the functional genomics approach and heterologous production of RA in microbes are also highlighted. This chapter will be of benefit to readers aiming to design studies on RA and its applicability as an anticancer agent.

Anti-inflammatory effects of Perillae Herba ethanolic extract against TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated human keratinocyte HaCaT cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Perillae Herba is a perennial plant that is widely distributed throughout Asia. The leaves of Perillae Herba have been widely used to treat various diseases, such as cold due to wind-cold, headache, cough, abdominal fullness, distention, and fish and crab poisoning.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To assess the anti-inflammatory activity of Perillae Herba leaf ethanolic extract (PHE) in human keratinocytes, we measured the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α/interferon (IFN)-γ-induced mRNA expression and production of proinflammatory chemokines such as thymus and activation-regulated chemokines; regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted; interleukin (IL)-6; and IL-8 in HaCaT cells. We evaluated the ability of PHE to decrease the expression of proinflammatory marker proteins, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), STAT-1, and NK-κB, using western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry.

RESULTS

PHE inhibited activation of p38, ERK, and JNK and suppressed the phosphorylation of STAT-1 and NK-κB in TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated HaCaT cells. PHE also suppressed chemokine mRNA and protein levels in TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated HaCaT cells. PHE appears to regulate chemokine formation by inhibiting activation of MAPK, as well as the STAT-1 and NK-κB pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

PHE suppresses the expression and production of TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated proinflammatory chemokines by blocking NF-κB, STAT-1, and MAPK activation.

Protective effects of rosmarinic acid against hydrogen peroxide‑induced cellular senescence and the inflammatory response in normal human dermal fibroblasts

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a reactive oxygen species (ROS) that induces numerous cellular events, including cellular senescence and inflammatory responses. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the protective effect of Rosmarinic acid (RA) in H2O2‑induced oxidative stress in normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDFs). Cytotoxicity assays were performed using a water‑soluble tetrazolium salt, and senescence‑associated β‑galactosidase activity was determined to investigate the proportion of senescent cells. Antioxidant capacities were evaluated via H2O2‑scavenging activity, reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction, NRF2 luciferase reporter gene activity and intracellular ROS scavenging assays. Cytokine‑coded gene expression analysis and nuclear factor‑κB luciferase activity were determined to verify the anti‑inflammatory effect of RA. As a result, the present study demonstrated that rosmarinic acid inhibited H2O2‑induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in normal human dermal fibroblasts. Initially, the doses of RA that exerted minimal cytotoxic effects in NHDFs were determined using a cytotoxicity assay. Subsequently, pretreatment with the appropriate doses of RA significantly reversed the H2O2‑induced decrease in NHDF cell viability and decreased cellular senescence of NHDFs. In addition, RA inhibited H2O2‑induced ROS production in NHDFs, as determined by a ROS scavenging assay. The protective effects of RA were mediated by the inhibition of nuclear factor erythroid‑derived 2‑like 2, a transcription factor that functions as a key regulator of redox sensitivity. Furthermore, RA suppressed H2O2‑induced inflammation in NHDFs and significantly rescued H2O2‑induced downregulation of sirtuin 1. RA also inhibited nuclear factor (NF)‑κB transcriptional activity and the expression of NF‑κB target genes, including tumor necrosis factor‑α and interleukin‑6, in H2O2‑exposed NHDFs. Taken together, these data indicate that RA inhibits H2O2‑induced cellular damage in NHDFs.

Hydroxycinnamic Acids and Their Derivatives: Cosmeceutical Significance, Challenges and Future Perspectives, a Review

Bioactive compounds from natural sources, due to their widely-recognized benefits, have been exploited as cosmeceutical ingredients. Among them, phenolic acids emerge with a very interesting potential. In this context, this review analyzes hydroxycinnamic acids and their derivatives as multifunctional ingredients for topical application, as well as the limitations associated with their use in cosmetic formulations. Hydroxycinnamic acids and their derivatives display antioxidant, anti-collagenase, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anti-tyrosinase activities, as well as ultraviolet (UV) protective effects, suggesting that they can be exploited as anti-aging and anti-inflammatory agents, preservatives and hyperpigmentation-correcting ingredients. Due to their poor stability, easy degradation and oxidation, microencapsulation techniques have been employed for topical application, preventing them from degradation and enabling a sustained release. Based on the above findings, hydroxycinnamic acids present high cosmetic potential, but studies addressing the validation of their benefits in cosmetic formulations are still scarce. Furthermore, studies dealing with skin permeation are scarcely available and need to be conducted in order to predict the topical bioavailability of these compounds after application.

Bee venom acupuncture alleviates trimellitic anhydride-induced atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions in mice

BACKGROUND

Bee venom acupuncture (BVA), a novel type of acupuncture therapy in which purified bee venom is injected into the specific acupuncture point on the diseased part of the body, is used primarily for relieving pain and other musculoskeletal symptoms. In the present study, therapeutic potential of BVA to improve atopic dermatitis, a representative allergic dysfunction, was evaluated in the mouse model of trimellitic anhydride (TMA)-induced skin impairment.

METHODS

Mice were treated with 5% TMA on the dorsal flank for sensitization and subsequently treated with 2% TMA on the dorsum of both ears for an additional 12 days after a 3-day interval. From the 7(th) day of 2% TMA treatment, bilateral subcutaneous injection of BV (BV, 0.3 mg/kg) was performed daily at BL40 acupuncture points (located behind the knee) 1 h before 2% TMA treatment for 5 days.

RESULTS

BVA treatment markedly inhibited the expression levels of both T helper cell type 1 (Th1) and Th2 cytokines in ear skin and lymph nodes of TMA-treated mice. Clinical features of AD-like symptoms such as ear skin symptom severity and thickness, inflammation, and lymph node weight were significantly alleviated by BV treatment. BV treatment also inhibited the proliferation and infiltration of T cells, the production of Th1 and Th2 cytokines, and the synthesis of interleukin (IL)-4 and immunoglobulin E (IgE)-typical allergic Th2 responses in blood. The inhibitory effect of BVA was more pronounced at BL40 acupoint than non-acupuncture point located at the base of the tail.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that BV injection at specific acupuncture points effectively alleviates AD-like skin lesions by inhibiting inflammatory and allergic responses in a TMA-induced contact hypersensitivity mouse model.

Inhibition of MDM2 expression by rosmarinic acid in TSLP-stimulated mast cell

Rosmarinic acid (RA) has an anti-inflammatory property while thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) has an important role in mast cell-mediated inflammatory responses. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the regulatory effect of RA in TSLP-stimulated human mast cell line, HMC-1 cells, and short ragweed pollen-induced allergic conjunctivitis mouse model. As a result, we found that RA significantly decreased the TSLP-induced mast cell proliferation and murine double minute (MDM) 2 expression. RA significantly decreased the levels of interleukin (IL)-13 and phosphorylated the signal transducer and activation of transcription 6 in the TSLP-stimulated HMC-1 cells. RA induced the increment of p53 levels, caspase-3 activation, and poly-ADP-ribose polymerase cleavage and the reduction of the procaspase-3 and Bcl2. RA significantly reduced the production of tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 on the TSLP-stimulated HMC-1 cells. In addition, RA significantly reduced the levels of IgE, IL-4, and TSLP in the short ragweed pollen-induced allergic conjunctivitis mouse model. In conclusion, the results of the study suggest that RA has a significant anti-inflammatory effect on TSLP-induced inflammatory reactions. These effects of RA are likely to be mediated through inhibiting the MDM2 increased by TSLP.

Herbal Medicines Prevent the Development of Atopic Dermatitis by Multiple Mechanisms

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is among the most common skin disorders in humans. Although a variety of regimens are available for the treatment of AD, preventive approaches are limited. Recent studies have demonstrated that certain naturally-occurring herbal medicines are effective in preventing the development of AD via divergent mechanisms, such as inhibiting cytokine and chemokine expression, IgE production, inflammatory cell infiltration, histamine release, and/or enhancement of epidermal permeability barrier function. Yet, they exhibit few adverse effects. Since herbal medicines are widely available, inexpensive and generally safe, they could represent an ideal approach for preventing the development of AD, in both highly developed and developing countries.

Production and applications of rosmarinic acid and structurally related compounds

Rosmarinic acid (α-o-caffeoyl-3,4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid; RA) is a naturally occurring hydroxylated compound commonly found in species of the subfamily Nepetoideae of the Lamiaceae and Boraginaceae, such as Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Perilla frutescens. RA is biosynthesized from the amino acids L-phenylalanine and L-tyrosine by eight enzymes that include phenylalanine ammonia lyase and cinnamic acid 4-hydroxylase. RA can also be chemically produced by the esterification of caffeic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid. RA and its numerous derivatives containing one or two RA with other aromatic moieties are well known and include lithospermic acid, yunnaneic acid, salvianolic acid, and melitric acid. Recently, RA and its derivatives have attracted interest for their biological activities, which include anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-angiogenic, anti-tumor, and anti-microbial functions. Clinically, RA attenuates T cell receptor-mediated signaling, attenuates allergic diseases like allergic rhinitis and asthma, and 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced atopic dermatitis-like symptoms, protects from neurotoxicity, and slows the development of Alzheimer's disease. These attributes have increased the demand for the biotechnological production and application of RA and its derivatives. The present review discusses the function and application of RA and its derivatives including the molecular mechanisms underlying clinical efficacy.

Rosmarinic acid exerts an antiosteoporotic effect in the RANKL-induced mouse model of bone loss by promotion of osteoblastic differentiation and inhibition of osteoclastic differentiation

SCOPE

Bone homeostasis is ensured by the balance between bone formation and resorption. Thus, control of the recruitment, proliferation, and differentiation of bone cells is essential to maintain bone mass. The aim of this study was to elucidate the effects of rosmarinic acid as a potential therapeutic agent on bone metabolism using bone cells and a mouse model.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Rosmarinic acid increased alkaline phosphatase activity and induced mineralization in osteoblasts. Addition of rosmarinic acid to cultures of calvarial osteoblastic cells prepared from T-cell factor/β-catenin TOP-GAL mutant mice strongly induced the expression of LacZ and promoted stabilization of β-catenin in the cytoplasm of ST2 cells, suggesting that rosmarinic acid affects the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. Moreover, rosmarinic acid inhibited not only osteoclast formation in cocultures of mouse bone marrow cells and osteoblasts, but also receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclastic differentiation in bone marrow-derived macrophages. RANKL-induced p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and the expression of nuclear factor of activated T cell, c-Jun, and c-Fos were inhibited by rosmarinic acid in bone marrow macrophages. Finally, we confirmed that rosmarinic acid improved bone mass in a soluble RANKL-induced bone loss mouse model.

CONCLUSION

Rosmarinic acid has dual regulatory effects on bone metabolism and may control the bone functions by controlling osteoblastic and osteoclastic differentiation.

Omega-3 fatty acid-derived mediator, Resolvin E1, ameliorates 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced atopic dermatitis in NC/Nga mice

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common inflammatory skin disease for which few effective treatments are available. Resolvin E1 (RvE1; 5S,12R,18R-trihydroxy-6Z,8E,10E,14Z,16E-eicosapentaenoic acid) is an endogenous lipid mediator derived from omega-3 fatty eicosapentaenoic acid, which is a potent inhibitor of inflammation. AD-like skin lesion was induced by repetitive skin contact with DNFB in NC/Nga mice and the effects of RvE1 were evaluated on the basis of histopathological findings of skin, ear swelling and cytokine production of CD4(+) T cells. Intraperitoneal injection of RvE1 for one week after DNFB challenge significantly lowered ear swelling and improved back skin lesions. In addition, RvE1 significantly suppressed production of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and interleukin-4 (IL-4) by activated CD4(+) T cells and serum IgE level. Furthermore, RvE1 reduced DNFB-induced infiltration of eosinophils, mast cells, CD4(+) T cells, and CD8(+) T cells in skin lesions. Therefore, RvE1 may suppress the development of AD-like skin lesions in DNFB-treated NC/Nga mice by reducing IL-4 and IFN-γ of activated CD4(+) T cells and serum IgE levels and infiltration of immune cells to skin lesion.

Anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive and anti-angiogenic activities of a phospholipid mixture purified from porcine lung tissues

This work aimed to assess anti-inflammatory and related properties of a phospholipid mixture purified from porcine lung tissues, named KT&G101, which is being developed as a novel topical remedy for atopic dermatitis. KT&G101 consists of pure phospholipids, mainly phosphatidylcholine (PC) and other phospholipids such as phosphatidylinositol (PI) and phosphatidylserine (PS). Its predominant PC species is 1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC). KT&G101 exhibited an anti-angiogenic activity in the chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. Oral administration of KT&G101 at the dosages of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight gave rise to an inhibition of 15.4%, 25.3% and 30.1% in the vascular permeability assay, respectively. In the carrageenan-induced inflammation in the air pouches, KT&G101 significantly diminished the volume of exudates in the pouches, the number of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and nitrite content in exudates. In the acetic acid-induced writhing response, oral administration of KT&G101 at the dosages of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight showed the reduction of 21.6%, 51.6% and 60.8% in the pain response of mice, respectively. It was also able to diminish the nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. KT&G101 displayed a significant suppression on the induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in the stimulated RAW264.7 cells. However, the free radical scavenging activity of KT&G101 was detected to be very weak in the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. Taken together, KT&G101 possesses anti-inflammatory and related antinociceptive and anti-angiogenic activities, which indirectly supports its use as an anti-atopic therapy.