Ginsenoside-Rd exhibits anti-inflammatory activities through elevation of antioxidant enzyme activities and inhibition of JNK and ERK activation in vivo

Ginsenoside Rd Induces Differentiation of Myeloid Leukemia Cells via Regulating ERK/GSK-3β Signaling Pathway

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the role of ginsenoside Rd (GRd) in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cell differentiation.

METHODS

AML cells were treated with GRd (25, 50, 100 and 200 µg/mL), retinoic acid (RA, 0.1g/L) and PD98059 (20 mg/mL) for 72 h, cell survival was detected by methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide and colony formation assays, and cell cycle was detected by flow cytometry. Cell morphology and differentiation were observed by Wright-Giemsa staining, peroxidase chemical staining and cellular immunochemistry assay, respectively. The protein expression levels of GATA binding protein 1 (GATA-1), purine rich Box-1 (PU.1), phosphorylated-extracellular signal-related kinase (p-ERK), ERK, phosphorylated-glycogen synthase kinase-3β (p-GSK3β), GSK3β and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) were detected by Western blot. Thirty-six mice were randomly divided into 3 groups using a random number table: model control group (non-treated), GRd group [treated with 200 mg/(kg·d) GRd] and homoharringtonine (HTT) group [treated with 1 mg/(kg·d) HTT]. A tumor-bearing nude mouse model was established, and tumor weight and volume were recorded. Changes of subcutaneous tumor tissue were observed after hematoxylin and eosin staining. WT1 and GATA-1 expressions were detected by immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

The cell survival was inhibited by GRd in a dose-dependent manner and GRd caused G0/G1 cell arrest (p<0.05). GRd treatment induced leukemia cell differentiation, showing increased expressions of peroxidase and specific proteins concerning erythrogenic or granulocytic differentiation (p<0.05). GRd treatment elicited upregulation of p-ERK, p-GSK-3β and STAT1 expressions in cells, and reversed the effects of PD98059 on inhibiting the expressions of peroxidase, GATA-1 and PU.1 (P<0.05). After GRd treatment, tumor weight and volume of mice were decreased, and tumor cells underwent massive apoptosis and necrosis (P<0.05). WT1 level was decreased, and GATA-1 level was significantly increased in subcutaneous tumor tissues (P<0.05 or P<0.01).

CONCLUSION

GRd might induce the differentiation of AML cells via regulating the ERK/GSK-3β signaling pathway.

Ginsenoside Rd inhibits migration and invasion of tongue cancer cells through H19/miR-675-5p/CDH1 axis

Objective

Tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) is an oral cancer, with high malignancy and frequent early migration and invasion. Only a few drugs can treat tongue cancer. Ginsenoside Rd is a ginseng extract with anti-cancer effects. Many noncoding RNAs are abnormally expressed in tongue cancer, thus influencing its occurrence and development. H19 and miR-675-5p can promote cancer cell growth. This study aimed to analyze the regulation effect of ginsenoside Rd on H19 and miR-675-5p in tongue cancer.

Methodology

We used CCK8 and flow cytometry to study the growth and apoptosis. Transwell assay was used to assess invasion; wound-healing assay to assess migration; and colony formation assays to test the ability of cells to form colonies. H19, miR-675-5p, and CDH1 expressions were analyzed by qPCR. E-cadherin expression was detected using western blot. CRISPR/cas9 system was used for CDH1 knockout.

Results

Ginsenoside Rd inhibited the growth and increased the apoptosis of SCC9 cells. Ginsenoside Rd also inhibited the migration and invasion of SCC9 cells. H19 and miR-675-5p were highly expressed, while CDH1 and E-cadherin expressions were low. H19 and miR-675-5p promoted SCC9 metastasis. In contrast, CDH1 and E-cadherin inhibited the metastasis of SCC9 cells. Bioinformatics analysis showed that miR-675-5p was associated with CDH1. H19 and miR-675-5p expressions decreased after ginsenoside Rd treatment, while CDH1 and E-cadherin expressions increased.

Conclusions

Ginsenoside Rd inhibits tongue cancer cell migration and invasion via the H19/miR-675-5p/CDH1 axis.

Biotransformation, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacological Activities of Ginsenoside Rd Against Multiple Diseases

Panax ginseng C.A. Mey. has a history of more than 4000 years and is widely used in Asian countries. Modern pharmacological studies have proved that ginsenosides and their compounds have a variety of significant biological activities on specific diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, certain types of cancer, gastrointestinal disease, and metabolic diseases, in which most of the interest has focused on ginsenoside Rd. The evidentiary basis showed that ginsenoside Rd ameliorates ischemic stroke, nerve injury, cancer, and other diseases involved in apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, and autophagy. In this review, we summarized available reports on the molecular biological mechanisms of ginsenoside Rd in neurological diseases, cancer, metabolic diseases, and other diseases. We also discussed the main biotransformation pathways of ginsenoside Rd obtained by fermentation.

Nuanxinkang protects against ischemia/reperfusion-induced heart failure through regulating IKKβ/IκBα/NF-κB-mediated macrophage polarization

BACKGROUND

Heart failure (HF) is a leading cause of death worldwide. Nuanxinkang (NXK) is an effective Chinese herbal formula used in treating HF, but its underlying potential mechanisms have not been fully elucidated.

PURPOSE

To explore the protective activities of NXK in ischemia/reperfusion (IR)-induced HF through modulating the ratio of proinflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) macrophage populations and leading to the alleviation of inflammation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vivo, mice were subjected to myocardial IR to generate HF mouse models. Mice in the NXK group were treated with NXK for 28 days. Cardiac function was detected by echocardiography. Major lesions on mouse hearts were determined by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, Masson staining, and TUNEL staining. Inflammatory cytokines were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and qPCR examination. Flow cytometric analyses and qPCR examination were utilized for monitoring the temporal dynamics of macrophage infiltration following IR. In vitro, two polarized models were established by stimulating RAW264.7 cells with 200 ng/ml lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or 20 ng/ml interleukin-4 (IL-4). The RAW264.7 cells with nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) overexpression was generated by transient transfection of NF-κB plasmids, and NXK intervention was conducted on this cell model to further clarify the involvement of NF-κB signaling in the NXK-mediated HF process.

RESULTS

In the present study, NXK was found to significantly contribute the cardiac function and ameliorate cardiac fibrosis and apoptosis after myocardial IR injury in vivo, which may be partially due to a decrease in inflammation. We therefore hypothesized that NXK reduced inflammatory damage by modulating subtypes of macrophages. And the results demonstrated that the percentage of proinflammatory macrophages infiltrated in the post-IR period was reduced with NXK treatment, and thereby blunting the wave of proinflammatory response and shifting the peak of the anti-inflammatory macrophage-mediated wound healing process towards an earlier time point. The further investigation showed that macrophage polarization was mediated by NXK through inhibiting the phosphorylation and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Besides, the phosphorylated IKKβ and IκBα, upstream mediators of the NF-κB pathway, also decreased by NXK. Moreover, the overexpression of NF-κB partially reversed the NXK-induced favorable activities; and successfully compensated the suppressive effect on inflammation and the phosphorylation of NF-κB.

CONCLUSION

In conclude, our results demonstrated that NXK induced the cardioprotective effects against IR injury through a regulatory axis of IKKβ/IκBα/NF-κB-mediated macrophage polarization. The information gained from this study provide a possible natural strategy for anti-inflammatory treatment of HF.

Insights into Recent Studies on Biotransformation and Pharmacological Activities of Ginsenoside Rd

It is well known that ginsenosides—major bioactive constituents of Panax ginseng—are attracting more attention due to their beneficial pharmacological activities. Ginsenoside Rd, belonging to protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenosides, exhibits diverse and powerful pharmacological activities. In recent decades, nearly 300 studies on the pharmacological activities of Rd—as a potential treatment for a variety of diseases—have been published. However, no specific, comprehensive reviews have been documented to date. The present review not only summarizes the in vitro and in vivo studies on the health benefits of Rd, including anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, ischemic stroke, immunoregulation, and other pharmacological effects, it also delves into the inclusion of potential molecular mechanisms, providing an overview of future prospects for the use of Rd in the treatment of chronic metabolic diseases and neurodegenerative disorders. Although biotransformation, pharmacokinetics, and clinical studies of Rd have also been reviewed, clinical trial data of Rd are limited; the only data available are for its treatment of acute ischemic stroke. Therefore, clinical evidence of Rd should be considered in future studies.

A novel strategy to reveal clinical advantages and molecular mechanism of aidi injection in the treatment of pancreatic cancer based on network meta-analysis and network pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Pancreatic cancer is a common malignancy worldwide due to its poor prognosis and high mortality rate. It is clinically proven that the combination of chemotherapeutic drugs and Traditional Chinese Medicine injections (TCMIs) significantly improves the therapeutic effect.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the efficacy and clinical benefits of TCMIs in combination with chemotherapy in the treatment of pancreatic cancer and to explore the mechanism of clinical advantage of Aidi injection.

METHODS

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were searched in databases by NMA before December 29, 2020. WinBUGS 1.4, Stata 14.0, and R 4.0.4 software were used for calculations. All results were expressed as odds ratios and 95% credible intervals. Through the network pharmacology method, the chemical components and their targets, as well as the disease targets were further analyzed. And then, biological experiments were integrated to verify the results of network pharmacology analysis. (PROSPERO ID: CRD42021283559).

RESULTS

A total of 33 RCTs with 8 TCMIs and 2011 patients were included. The results of NMA showed that Aidi injection can significantly improve the clinical efficacy (OR = 0.34, 95%CI: 0.16-0.74), and the clinical advantage was that it can significantly alleviate the leukopenia and thrombocytopenia caused by chemotherapy (OR = 5.65, 95%CI: 1.18-28.13). A total of 23 chemical compounds and 280 potential targets for Aidi injection were obtained from the online databases. Among them, there were 22 compounds, 50 targets and 211 signaling pathways closely related to leukopenia. Five genes were predicted to be core targets of ADI in alleviating leukopenia, and 2 of them (TP53 and VEGFA) were confirmed by biological experiments as regulatory targets of ADI in the treatment of PC.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, TCMIs in combination with chemotherapy, can improve clinical efficacy and safety in the treatment of pancreatic cancer. However, the overall evidence base is low, and large samples with multi-center RCTs are still needed to support further research findings. Aidi injection can alleviate leukopenia mainly by intervening in oxidative stress, regulating cell proliferation and apoptosis, and regulating the inflammatory response. The combined application of NMA, network pharmacology, and biological experiments provides a reference for clinical evaluation and mechanism of action exploration of other drugs.

Exploration of the Function of Ginsenoside RD Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Lung Injury: A Study of Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation

OBJECTIVE

Ginsenoside Rd (GSRd) displays a variety of pharmacological effects. However, the underlying role in acute lung injury (ALI) is not clear. In this study, the protective effect of GSRd on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI is investigated to explore the potential mechanisms.

METHODS

GSRd-target-ALI-related gene set was constructed. And bioinformatics tools were used to discover the potential mechanism. We observed the survival of subjects for 72 h. In addition, male BALB/c mice were intraperitoneal injected with GSRd (25 and 50 mg/kg) after received one intratracheal instillation of LPS. Inflammatory changes, oxidative stress, and phosphorylation were assessed to study the biological effects.

RESULTS

A total of 245 interaction genes were collected. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were enriched in immune-inflammatory system. Among them, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway was the highest-ranked pathway of inflammatory response. In vivo study, it was found that GSRd improved survival in endotoxemic mice and inhibited the major characteristic of ALI. And the p-PI3K and p-Akt expression was significantly decreased by GSRd treatment.

CONCLUSION

GSRd could protect mice against LPS-induced ALI effectively by inhibiting the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway.

Ginsenoside Rd: A promising natural neuroprotective agent

BACKGROUND

Neurological diseases seriously affect human health, which are arousing wider attention, and it is a great challenge to discover neuroprotective drugs with minimal side-effects and better efficacies. Natural agents derived from herbs or plants have become unparalleled resources for the discovery of novel drug candidates. Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, a well-known herbal medicine in China, occupies a very important position in traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) with a long history of clinical application. Ginsenoside Rd is the active compound in P. ginseng known to have broad-spectrum pharmacological effects to reduce neurological damage that can lead to neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, depression, cognitive impairment, and cerebral ischemia.

PURPOSE

To review and discuss the effects and mechanisms of ginsenoside Rd in the treatment of neurological diseases.

STUDY DESIGN & METHODS

The related information was compiled by the major scientific databases, such as Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Elsevier, ScienceDirect, PubMed, SpringerLink, Web of Science, and GeenMedical. Using 'Ginsenoside Rd', 'Ginsenosides', 'Anti-inflammation', 'Antioxidant', 'Apoptosis' and 'Neuroprotection' as keywords, the correlated literature was extracted and conducted from the databases mentioned above.

RESULTS

Through summarizing the existing research progress, we found that the general effects of ginsenoside Rd are anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptosis, inhibition of Ca²⁺ influx and protection of mitochondria, and through these pathways, the compound can inhibit excitatory toxicity, regulate nerve growth factor, and promote nerve regeneration.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenoside Rd is a promising natural neuroprotective agent. This review would contribute to the future development of ginsenoside Rd as a novel clinical candidate drug for treating neurological diseases.

Ginsenosides Rd monomer inhibits proinflammatory cytokines production and alleviates DSS-colitis by NF-κB and P38MAPK pathways in mice

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is dramatically increasing worldwide, cannot be thoroughly cured, and reduces patients' quality of life. Excessive activation of macrophages and over-production of cytokines play an important role in the pathogenesis of UC. Therefore, for its treatment, inhibiting macrophages' hyperactivation would be effective to develop new treatment approaches. Ginsenosides, extracted from ginseng, show an anti-inflammatory effect on the immunologic process. Our study used ginsenosides Rd monomer (GRd) to intervene in DSS-induced colitis mouse models and tested the immunological effect of macrophages.

METHOD

We observed body weights, weights of colons, colonic lengths, and inflammatory scores, as well as histological changes of DSS/DSS-GRd mice. We also isolated intestinal and peritoneal macrophages, performed qRT-PCR and ELISA to detect cytokines production by macrophages, and screened possible involved pathways by Western blotting.

RESULTS

Administering 20 mg/Kg GRd to DSS mice for 7-14 days reduced colonic inflammation. Moreover, both in vivo and in vitro, levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-12/23p40, and IL-17A were all inhibited by GRd at 14 days in intestinal macrophages, and 20 μmol/L GRd at 12 h in peritoneal macrophages, respectively, but longer time made no more benefit. Western blotting showed GRd could decrease expression of pJNK, p-p38, pIκBα, and P65 in nuclear.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that GRd could down-regulate cytokines production in macrophages and alleviate DSS-colitis in mice, which may be related to NF-κB and P38MAPK pathways. These results suggest that GRd has an anti-inflammatory effect on experimental colitis and may have potential efficacy in the treatment of UC alone or in combination.

Optimization of the extraction process of high levels of chlorogenic acid and ginsenosides from short-term hydroponic-cultured ginseng and evaluation of the extract for the prevention of atopic dermatitis

Background

Short-term hydroponic-cultured ginseng (sHCG), which is 1-year-old ginseng seedlings cultivated for 4 weeks in a hydroponic system, is a functional food item with several biological effects. However, the optimal extraction conditions for sHCG, and the bioactivity of its extracts, have not been evaluated.

Methods

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) and ginsenoside contents were evaluated in sHCG, white ginseng (WG), and red ginseng (RG) using high-performance liquid chromatography. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the extraction conditions (temperature and ethanol concentration) to maximize the yield of dry matter, CGA, and four ginsenosides (Re, Rg₁, Rb₁, and Rd) from sHCG. The optimal extraction conditions were applied to pilot-scale production of sHCG extracts. The expression levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α/interferon (IFN)-γ-induced thymic and activation-regulated chemokines (TARC/CCL17) were measured after treatment with sHCG, WG, and RG extracts, and the effects of their bioactive compounds (CGA and four ginsenosides) on human skin keratinocytes (HaCaTs) were evaluated.

Results

CGA and four ginsenosides, which are bioactive compounds of sHCG, significantly inhibited TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 expression. The optimal sHCG extraction conditions predicted by the RSM models were 80 °C and 60% ethanol (v/v). The sHCG extracts produced at the pilot scale under optimal conditions greatly alleviated TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 production compared with WG and RG extracts.

Conclusions

Pesticide-free sHCG extracts, which contain high levels of CGA and the ginsenosides Re, Rg₁, Rb₁, and Rd as bioactive compounds, may have therapeutic potential for atopic diseases.

Biotransformation of ginsenoside Rc to Rd by endophytic bacterium Bacillus sp. G9y isolated from Panax quinquefolius

To isolate endophytic bacterium with the ability to specifically convert ginsenoside Rc from Panax quinquefolius. An endophytic bacterium G9y was isolated from Panax quinquefolius and indentified as Bacillus sp. based on 16s rDNA gene sequence. Ginsenoside Rc was effectively converted to Rd by G9y, which was confirmed by thin-layer chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. The biotransformation conditions were further optimized as follows: inoculum amount 5%, converting temperature 45 °C, medium beef extract peptone broth at pH of 7, and the time of Rc addition was 4 h after bacterium G9y growth, under which ginsenoside Rc was completely converted to Rd by bacterium G9y within 25 h after inoculation. A strain of G9y with the ability to convert ginsenoside Rc into Rd was screened from endophytic bacteria isolated from P. quinquefolius. The results provide a new microbial resource for preparing ginsenoside Rd via biotransformation, and explore a pathway for Rc utilization, which has great potential application value.

Cardioprotective Effects of Natural Products via the Nrf2 Signaling Pathway

Due to its poor regenerative capacity, the heart is specifically vulnerable to xenobiotic- induced cardiotoxicity, myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion injury and other pathologies. Nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is considered as an essential factor in protecting cardiomyocytes against oxidative stress resulting from free radicals and reactive oxygen species. It also serves as a key regulator of antioxidant enzyme expression via the antioxidant response element, a cis-regulatory element, which is found in the promoter region of several genes encoding detoxification enzymes and cytoprotective proteins. It has been reported that a variety of natural products are capable of activating Nrf2 expression, and in this way, increase the antioxidant potential of cardiomyocytes. In the present review, we consider the cardioprotective activities of natural products and their possible therapeutic potential.

The Antioxidant Rosmarinic Acid Ameliorates Oxidative Lung Damage in Experimental Allergic Asthma via Modulation of NADPH Oxidases and Antioxidant Enzymes

Oxidative stress can induce lung damage and aggravate airway inflammation in asthma. Previously, we reported that rosmarinic acid (RA) exerted strong anti-inflammatory effects in a mouse allergic asthma model. Therefore, we hypothesized that RA might also have antioxidative effects in a superimposed asthma mouse model with oxidative lung damage challenged with ovalbumin (Ova) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). We evaluated the antioxidative and anti-asthmatic activity of RA and explored its possible mechanisms of action. Mice sensitized to Ova and challenged with Ova and H2O2 were treated with RA 1 h after challenge. RA treatment greatly diminished the number of inflammatory cells; decreased IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 production; increased IFN-γ secretion; significantly downregulated ROS production; and markedly upregulated the activities of SOD, GPx, and CAT. Furthermore, RA treatment resulted in a significant increase in the expression of Cu/Zn SOD and a notable reduction in NOX-2 and NOX-4 expression in lung tissues. These findings suggest that RA may effectively alleviate oxidative lung damage and airway inflammation in asthma.

Ginsenoside Rd therapy improves histological and functional recovery in a rat model of inflammatory bowel disease

Ginsenoside Rd (GRd) is a biologically active component of ginseng that stimulates the proliferation of endogenous stem cells. The objective of our research was to evaluate the utility of GRd in gastrointestinal mucosal regeneration in a rat model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and to clarify whether GRd exerts its pharmacological effects by modulating endogenous intestinal stem cells. The IBD rat model was established via subcutaneous injection of indomethacin, and 10, 20, or 40 mg/kg GRd or an equal volume of physiological saline was then administered orally to rats in different groups every day for seven consecutive days. We observed that GRd treatment, especially 20 mg/kg GRd, significantly reduced indomethacin-induced damage compared with that in the control group. By measuring the mRNA and protein levels of the intestinal stem cell markers Bmi and Msi-1 and the intestinal epithelial cell marker CDX-2 as well as by double-labelling these markers with 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU), we inferred that GRd could stimulate the proliferation and differentiation of endogenous intestinal stem cells in IBD model rats, leading to improved recovery of intestinal function.

Two new triterpenoid saponins derived from the leaves of Panax ginseng and their antiinflammatory activity

BACKGROUND

The leaves and roots of Panax ginseng are rich in ginsenosides. However, the chemical compositions of the leaves and roots of P. ginseng differ, resulting in different medicinal functions. In recent years, the aerial parts of members of the Panax genus have received great attention from natural product chemists as producers of bioactive ginsenosides. The aim of this study was the isolation and structural elucidation of novel, minor ginsenosides in the leaves of P. ginseng and evaluation of their antiinflammatory activity in vitro.

METHODS

Various chromatographic techniques were applied to obtain pure individual compounds, and their structures were determined by nuclear magnetic resonance and high-resolution mass spectrometry, as well as chemical methods. The antiinflammatory effect of the new compounds was evaluated on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Two novel, minor triterpenoid saponins, ginsenoside LS1 (1) and 5,6-didehydroginsenoside Rg3 (2), were isolated from the leaves of P. ginseng. The isolated compounds 1 and 2 were assayed for their inhibitory effect on nitric oxide production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells, and Compound 2 showed a significant inhibitory effect with IC50 of 37.38 μM compared with that of NG-monomethyl-L-arginine (IC50 = 90.76 μM). Moreover, Compound 2 significantly decreased secretion of cytokines such as prostaglandin E2 and tumor necrosis factor-α. In addition, Compound 2 significantly suppressed protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2. These results suggested that Compound 2 could be used as a valuable candidate for medicinal use or functional food, and the mechanism is warranted for further exploration.

Ginsenoside Rd inhibits IL-1β-induced inflammation and degradation of intervertebral disc chondrocytes by increasing IL1RAP ubiquitination

Many compounds of ginsenosides show anti-inflammatory properties. However, their anti-inflammatory effects in intervertebral chondrocytes in the presence of inflammatory factors have never been shown. Increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines are generally associated with the degradation and death of chondrocytes; therefore, finding an effective and nontoxic substance that attenuates the inflammation is worthwhile. In this study, chondrocytes were isolated from the nucleus pulposus tissues, and the cells were treated with ginsenoside compounds and IL-1β, alone and in combination. Cell viability and death rate were assessed by CCK-8 and flow cytometry methods, respectively. PCR, western blot, and immunoprecipitation assays were performed to determine the mRNA and protein expression, and the interactions between proteins, respectively. Monomeric component of ginsenoside Rd had no toxicity at the tested range of concentrations. Furthermore, Rd suppressed the inflammatory response of chondrocytes to interleukin (IL)-1β by suppressing the increase in IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-6, COX-2, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression, and retarding IL-1β-induced degradation of chondrocytes by improving cell proliferation characteristics and expression of aggrecan and COL2A1. These protective effects of Rd were associated with ubiquitination of IL-1 receptor accessory protein (IL1RAP), blocking the stimulation of IL-1β to NF-κB. Bioinformatics analysis showed that NEDD4, CBL, CBLB, CBLC, and ITCH most likely target IL1RAP. Rd increased intracellular ITCH level and the amount of ITCH attaching to IL1RAP. Thus, IL1RAP ubiquitination promoted by Rd is likely to occur by up-regulation of ITCH. In summary, Rd inhibited IL-1β-induced inflammation and degradation of intervertebral disc chondrocytes by increasing IL1RAP ubiquitination.

Ginseng Berry Prevents Alcohol-Induced Liver Damage by Improving the Anti-Inflammatory System Damage in Mice and Quality Control of Active Compounds

The ginseng berry contains a variety of biologically active compounds and has a higher ginsenoside content than its roots. This study focused on the hepatoprotective activity of ginseng berry extract prepared by enzyme treatment (EGB) compared to the non-enzyme-treated ginseng berry extract (GB) and quality control of EGB. The feeding effect of EGB on alcohol-induced liver damage (AILD) was investigated by measuring the serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) compared with those of EtOH-fed mice. Furthermore, cytokine levels in the culture supernatants of EGB- or GB-treated RAW 264.7 cells were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The developed method was applied to the simultaneous quantification of four major ginsenosides in EGB using UPLC-QTOF/MS. Treatment with EGB at a dose of 0.5 or 1 mg/mouse significantly suppressed the AST and ALT levels in mice with AILD. Enzyme-treated ginseng berry was also found to suppress the production of inflammatory mediators like nitric oxide (NO), tumor-necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages, showing higher activity than that of GB. The amount of ginsenoside Re, F5, F3, and Rd in the EGB obtained using UPLC-QTOF/MS was 45.9, 3.3, 4.0, and 6.2 mg/g, respectively. These results suggest that EGB has a potential effect on AILD, and its hepatoprotective effect provides beneficial insights into developing new candidates for the prevention and cure of AILD. Also, this study demonstrated the utility of UPLC-QTOF/MS-based major compounds for quality control (QC) of EGB.

Neuroprotective Effects of Red Ginseng Saponins in Scopolamine-Treated Rats and Activity Screening Based on Pharmacokinetics

Ginseng has been used to alleviate age-related dementia and memory deterioration for thousands of years. This study investigated the protective effect of red ginseng saponins against scopolamine-induced cerebral injury. Meanwhile, pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in normal and scopolamine-treated rats were compared. After scopolamine injection, glutathione, catalase and superoxide dismutase levels were significantly decreased when compared with control group. Compared with SA group, pretreatment of rats with red ginseng saponins could increase glutathione, catalase and superoxide dismutase level. Treatment with red ginseng saponins significantly decreased malondialdehyde level. In the pharmacokinetic analysis, a pattern recognition analysis method was used to investigate the pharmacokinetics of the absorbed compounds in blood. The pharmacokinetic parameters of Rg1, Rg2, Rh3, Rg5 and Rk1 in model group had higher area under the curve (AUC), mean residence time (MRT) and peak plasma concentration (Cmax) values; area under the curve (AUC) values and peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of model group was significantly different from that of normal group (p < 0.05). The Cmax value of Rk3, Rh1, Rh2 and Rh4 in model group was higher than normal group, but their AUC values were not significantly different. There was no significantly difference in time at Cmax (Tmax), AUC and Cmax values of Rb1, Rb2 Re, Rc, Rd and Rf between the model and normal group. 16 ginsenosides were grouped into three separate clusters according to principal component analysis (PCA) score plot based on pharmacokinetic data. The results suggested red ginseng saponins have significant protective effect against scopolamine-induced memory deficit and scopolamine-induced rats could lead to the changes of pharmacokinetic behaviors of ginsenosides.

Protective effects of ginsenoside Rg3 on TNF-α-induced human nucleus pulposus cells through inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway

This work aims to evaluate the effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on the apoptosis, proliferation, extracellular matrix (ECM) metabolism and oxidative stress-induced damage of human nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs) induced by TNF-α. The human NPCs were divided into Control, TNF-α, TNF-α + low Rg3, TNF-α + medium Rg3 and TNF-α + high Rg3 groups. Annexin V-FITC/PI, CCK-8 and flow cytometry were used to detect the apoptosis, proliferation, and cell cycle of NPCs, respectively. The expressions of ECM-related molecules were determined by qRT-PCR, ELISA and Western blotting. NF-κB p65 pathway and apoptosis-related proteins were evaluated by Western blotting, and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was detected by DCFH-DA assay. Compared with Control group, NPCs in the TNF-α group had elevated proportion of apoptotic cells with up-regulation of Bax and Caspase-3 and down-regulation of Bcl-2. Besides, TNF-α inhibited proliferation and arrested cell cycle at G1 of NPCs. Moreover, human NPCs induced by TNF-α presented the increase in the expressions of ECM degrading genes (MMP3 and ADAMTS5), the content of ROS and malondialdehyde (MDA), and the expression of NF-κB/p65 in nucleus, but showed the decrease in the expression of ECM synthesis genes (Aggrecan and COL2A1) and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX). However, NPCs treated by both TNF-α and Rg3 demonstrated a certain degree of reversal in the above indexes, which became increasingly evident with the up-regulation of Rg3 concentration. Ginsenoside Rg3 may exert the effect of attenuating TNF-α-induced NPCs impairment via blocking the NF-κB signaling pathway.

The inhibitory effects of ginsenoside Rd on the human glioma U251 cells and its underlying mechanisms

OBJECTIVE

The current study was designed to investigate the inhibitory effects of ginsenoside Rd (Gs-Rd) on human glioma U251 cells in vitro and its possible underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

The groups included blank control group, low concentration Gs-Rd treatment group (20 μM), mid concentration Gs-Rd treatment group (40 μM), and high concentration Gs-Rd treatment group (80 μM). The proliferative activity of human glioma U251 cells was detected by the MTT assay. Flow cytometry was performed to measure cell apoptosis of human glioma U251 cells. In addition, the ELISA assay was used to measure the telomerase activities in different groups on 24 hours, 48 hours, and 72 hours. Furthermore, real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot analysis were performed to measure the expression of Bcl-2, human telomerase catalytic subunit (hTERT), and caspase-3 in different groups on 48 hours at both messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels.

RESULTS

The proliferation of U251 cells was inhibited by Gs-Rd with different concentrations in the dose- and time-dependent manners. In addition, Gs-Rd promoted U251 cell apoptosis rate in a dose-dependent manner. Gs-Rd with different concentrations (20 μM, 40 μM, and 80 μM) significantly enhanced the expression of teleomerase on 24 hours and 48 hours. In addition, Gs-Rd with different concentrations significantly increased caspase-3 and decreased Bcl-2 and hTERT expressions at both mRNA and protein levels.

CONCLUSION

The Gs-Rd can remarkably inhibit the proliferation and promote cell apoptosis of human glioma U251 cells. The possible underlying mechanisms could be related to inhibiting telomerase activity, downregulating expression of Bcl-2 and hTERT, and upregulating expression of caspase-3 of human glioma U251 cells.

Bioconversion, health benefits, and application of ginseng and red ginseng in dairy products

Ginseng and red ginseng are popular as functional foods in Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, and China. They possess various pharmacologic effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, and anti-viral activities. Ginsenosides are a class of pharmacologically active components in ginseng and red ginseng. Major ginsenosides are converted to minor ginsenosides, which have better bioavailability and cellular uptake, by microorganisms and enzymes. Studies have shown that ginseng and red ginseng can affect the physicochemical and sensory properties, ginsenosides content, and functional properties of dairy products. In addition, lactic acid bacteria in dairy products can convert into minor ginsenosides and ginseng and red ginseng improve functionality of products. This review will discuss the characteristics of ginseng and red ginseng, and their bioconversion, functionality, and application in dairy products.

Fermentation of red ginseng extract by the probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum KCCM 11613P: ginsenoside conversion and antioxidant effects

Background

Ginsenosides, which are bioactive components in ginseng, can be converted to smaller compounds for improvement of their pharmacological activities. The conversion methods include heating; acid, alkali, and enzymatic treatment; and microbial conversion. The aim of this study was to determine the bioconversion of ginsenosides in fermented red ginseng extract (FRGE).

Methods

Red ginseng extract (RGE) was fermented using Lactobacillus plantarum KCCM 11613P. This study investigated the ginsenosides and their antioxidant capacity in FRGE using diverse methods.

Results

Properties of RGE were changed upon fermentation. Fermentation reduced the pH value, but increased the titratable acidity and viable cell counts of lactic acid bacteria. L. plantarum KCCM 11613P converted ginsenosides Rb₂ and Rb₃ to ginsenoside Rd in RGE. Fermentation also enhanced the antioxidant effects of RGE. FRGE reduced 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity and reducing power; however, it improved the inhibition of β-carotene and linoleic acid oxidation and the lipid peroxidation. This suggested that the fermentation of RGE is effective for producing ginsenoside Rd as precursor of ginsenoside compound K and inhibition of lipid oxidation.

Conclusion

This study showed that RGE fermented by L. plantarum KCCM 11613P may contribute to the development of functional food materials.

Combination of ginsenoside Rb1 and Rd protects the retina against bright light-induced degeneration

Photoreceptor degeneration is a central pathology of various retinal degenerative diseases which currently lack effective therapies. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities are noted for Panax notoginsenoside saponins (PNS) and related saponin compound(s). However, the photoreceptor protective potentials of PNS or related saponin compound(s) remain unknown. The current study revealed that PNS protected against photoreceptor loss in bright light-exposed BALB/c mice. Combination of ginsenoside Rb1 and Rd, two major saponin compounds of PNS, recapitulated the retinal protection of PNS and attenuated retinal oxidative stress and inflammatory changes. Rb1 or Rd partially alleviated all-trans-Retinal-induced oxidative stress in ARPE19 cells. Rb1 or Rd suppressed lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced proinflammatory gene expression in ARPE19 and RAW264.7 cells. Rb1 or Rd also modulated the expression of proinflammatory microRNA, miR-155 and its direct target, anti-inflammatory SHIP1, in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The retinal expression of miR-155 and SHIP1 was altered preceding extensive retinal damage, which was maintained at normal level by Rb1 and Rd combination. This work shows for the first time that altered expression of miR-155 and SHIP1 are involved in photoreceptor degeneration. Most importantly, novel retinal protective activities of combination of Rb1 and Rd justify further evaluation for the treatment of related retinal degenerative disorders.

Ginsenoside improves physicochemical properties and bioavailability of curcumin-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier

The aim of this study was to develop a ginsenoside-modified nanostructured lipid carrier (G-NLC) dispersion containing curcumin. The NLC was prepared by melt emulsification with slight modification process. Different G-NLC dispersion systems were prepared using lipid carrier matrix composed of ginsenoside, phosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylcholine, and hydrogenated bean oil. TEM image of the nanoparticles in the NLC dispersion showed core/shell structure, and there was corona-like layer surrounding the particles in the G-NLC. The mean particle size of G-NLC dispersion was in the range of about 300-500 nm and stayed submicron size up to 12 months. The in vitro release of curcumin was faster in pH 1.2 compared to pH 6.8 and it showed linear release pattern after lag time of 1 h. When the G-NLC dispersion was orally administered to rats, C_max of the free curcumin was 15.2 and 32.3 ng/mL at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg, respectively, while it was below quantification limit when curcumin was administered as of dispersion in distilled water. Based on these results, it is certain that ginsenoside modulated the NLC dispersion, leading to enduring shelf-life of the dispersion system and enhanced bioavailability. These results strongly suggest that ginsenoside holds a promising potential as a pharmaceutical excipient in the pharmaceutical industries to increase the utility of various bioactives.

Functional role of ginseng-derived compounds in cancer

Ginseng is a natural product best known for its curative properties in diverse physiological processes such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, hypertension, and maintenance of hemostasis in the immune system. In previous decades, there have been some promising studies into the pharmacology and chemistry of ginseng components and the relationship between their structure and function. The emerging use of modified ginseng and development of new compounds from ginseng for clinical studies have been topics of study for many researchers. The present review deals with the anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and chemopreventive effects, and recent advances in microRNA technology related to red ginseng. The review also summarizes the current knowledge on the effect of ginsenosides in the treatment of cancer.

Melanogenesis inhibition activity of floralginsenoside A from Panax ginseng berry

Background

Panax ginseng is a traditional herb used for medicinal purposes in eastern Asia. P. ginseng contains various ginsenosides with pharmacological effects. In this study, floralginsenoside A (FGA), ginsenoside Rd (GRD), and ginsenoside Re (GRE) were purified from P. ginseng berry.

Methods

Chemical structures of FGA, GRD, and GRE were determined based on spectroscopic methods, including fast atom bombardment mass spectroscopy, ID-nuclear magnetic resonance, and infrared spectroscopy. Inhibitory activities of these compounds on melanogenesis were studied by measuring the expression of protein and melanin content in the melan-a cell line. This inhibitory activity was confirmed by observing pigmentation and tyrosinase activities of zebrafish.

Results

GRD, GRE, and FGA were not cytotoxic at concentrations less than 20μM, 80μM, and 160μM in melan-a cells, respectively. GRD, GRE, and FGA inhibited melanin biosynthesis in melan-a cells by 15.2%, 22.9%, and 23.9% at 20μM, 80μM, and 160μM, respectively. FGA was observed to display the most potent inhibitory effect. In addition, FGA decreased microphthalmia-associated transcription factor protein expression in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, FGA induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation level in melan-a cells. In addition, melanin pigment content and tyrosinase activity in zebrafish treated with FGA at160μM were reduced.

Conclusion

FGA showed the most potent inhibition of melanogenesis in both in vitro and in vivo studies. This study suggests that FGA purified from P. ginseng may be an effective melanogenesis inhibitor.

Microbial conversion of ginsenoside Rd from Rb1 by the fungus mutant Aspergillus niger strain TH-10a

Ginsenoside Rd, one of the ginsenosides with significant pharmaceutical activities, is getting more and more attractions on its biotransformation. In this study, a novel fungus mutant, the Aspergillus niger strain TH-10a, which can efficiently convert ginsenoside Rd from Rb1, was obtained through screening survival library of LiCl and ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. The transformation product ginsenoside Rd, generated by removing the outer glucose residue from the position C20 of ginsenoside Rb1, was identified through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Factors for the microbial culture and biotransformation were investigated in terms of the carbon sources, the nitrogen sources, pH values, and temperatures. This showed that maximum mycelia growth could be obtained at 28°C and pH 6.0 with cellobiose and tryptone as the carbon source and the nitrogen source, respectively. The highest transformation rate (∼86%) has been achieved at 32°C and pH 5.0 with the feeding time of substrate 48 hr. Also, Aspergillus niger strain TH-10a could tolerate even 40 mg/mL ginseng root extract as substrate with 60% bioconversion rate after 72 hr of treatment at the optimal condition. Our results highlight a novel ginsenoside Rd transformation fungus and illuminate its potentially practical application in the pharmaceutical industries.

Remarkable impact of steam temperature on ginsenosides transformation from fresh ginseng to red ginseng

Background

Temperature is an essential condition in red ginseng processing. The pharmacological activities of red ginseng under different steam temperatures are significantly different.

Methods

In this study, an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry was developed to distinguish the red ginseng products that were steamed at high and low temperatures. Multivariate statistical analyses such as principal component analysis and supervised orthogonal partial least squared discrimination analysis were used to determine the influential components of the different samples.

Results

The results showed that different steamed red ginseng samples can be identified, and the characteristic components were 20-gluco-ginsenoside Rf, ginsenoside Re, ginsenoside Rg1, and malonyl-ginsenoside Rb1 in red ginseng steamed at low temperature. Meanwhile, the characteristic components in red ginseng steamed at high temperature were 20R-ginsenoside Rs3 and ginsenoside Rs4. Polar ginsenosides were abundant in red ginseng steamed at low temperature, whereas higher levels of less polar ginsenosides were detected in red ginseng steamed at high temperature.

Conclusion

This study makes the first time that differences between red ginseng steamed under different temperatures and their ginsenosides transformation have been observed systematically at the chemistry level. The results suggested that the identified chemical markers can be used to illustrate the transformation of ginsenosides in red ginseng processing.

Identification of NF-κB inhibitors following Shenfu injection and bioactivity-integrated UPLC/Q-TOF-MS and screening for related anti-inflammatory targets in vitro and in silico

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Shenfu injection (SFI) is a commercial medicinal product approved by the China Food and Drug Administration that is widely used in the treatment of stroke and coronary heart disease. However, the material basis and the mechanism of SFI are not fully understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

With network pharmacology analysis, our research committed to identify the anti-inflammatory ingredients and mechanism of SFI by combining high-throughput screening.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We developed a bioactivity-based UPLC/Q-TOF-MS method followed by network pharmacology and identified the anti-inflammatory active ingredients of SFI from two different perspectives of network computing and high throughput screening. Then we verified the anti-inflammatory effect of SFI in vitro with endothelial cells. After detecting the cell viability, the expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6), inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase (IKK), phosphorylated IKK, phosphorylated NF-κB and phosphorylated IκB-α from the supernatant were determined.

RESULTS

SFI could significantly suppress inflammatory responses, and the mechanism may be via an NF-κB-dependent pathway. The results of high throughput screening (HTS) revealed that protopanaxadiol glycosides (ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc and Rd), protopanaxatriol glycosides (ginsenosides Rg1, Rg2, Re, Rf and F1), diester-type alkaloids (fuziline and neoline) and aconine derivatives (mesaconine and benzoyl-mesaconine) have anti-NF-κB activity. The three compounds (including benzoyl-mesaconine, fuziline and neoline) are the first reported SFI compounds to have NF-κB inhibitor activity.

CONCLUSIONS

SFI may play a critical role in counteracting inflammation through the NF-κB signaling pathway. The active ingredients are protopanaxadiol glycosides, protopanaxatriol glycosides, diester-type alkaloids and aconine derivatives.

Iron-induced oxidative stress activates AKT and ERK1/2 and decreases Dyrk1B and PRMT1 in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells

Iron is essential for proper neuronal functioning; however, excessive accumulation of brain iron is reported in Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Huntington's diseases and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. This indicates that dysregulated iron homeostasis is involved in the pathogenesis of these diseases. To determinate the effect of iron on oxidative stress and on cell survival pathways, such as AKT, ERK1/2 and DyrK1B, neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells were exposed to different concentration of FeCl2 (iron). We found that iron induced cell death in SH-SY5Y cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Detection of iNOS and 3-nitrotyrosine confirms the presence of increased nitrogen species. Furthermore, we found a decrease of catalase and protein arginine methyl-transferase 1 (PRMT1). Interestingly, iron increased the activity of ERK and AKT and reduced DyrK1B. Moreover, after FeCl2 treatment, the transcription factors c-Jun and pSmad1/5 were activated. These results indicate that the presence of high levels of iron increase the vulnerability of neurons to oxidative stress.

Neuroprotective Effect of Ginsenoside Rd in Spinal Cord Injury Rats

In this study, the neuroprotective effects of ginsenoside Rd (GS Rd) were evaluated in a rat model of spinal cord injury (SCI). Rats in SCI groups received a T8 laminectomy and a spinal contusion injury. GS Rd 12.5, 25 and 50 mg/kg were administered intraperitoneally 1 hr before the surgery and once daily for 14 days. Dexamethasone 1 mg/kg was administered as a positive control. Locomotor function was evaluated using the BBB score system. H&E staining and Nissl staining were performed to observe the histological changes in the spinal cord. The levels of MDA and GSH and the activity of SOD were assessed to reflect the oxidative stress state. The production of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-1 was assessed using ELISA kits to examine the inflammatory responses in the spinal cord. TUNEL staining was used to detect the cell apoptosis in the spinal cord. Western blot analysis was used to examine the expression of apoptosis-associated proteins and MAPK proteins. The results demonstrated that GS Rd 25 and 50 mg/kg significantly improved the locomotor function of rats after SCI, reduced tissue injury and increased neuron survival in the spinal cord. Mechanically, GS Rd decreased MDA level, increased GSH level and SOD activity, reduced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and prevented cell apoptosis. The effects were equivalent to those of dexamethasone. In addition, GS Rd effectively inhibited the activation of MAPK signalling pathway induced by SCI, which might be involved in the protective effects of GS Rd against SCI. In conclusion, GS Rd attenuates SCI-induced secondary injury through reversing the redox-state imbalance, inhibiting the inflammatory response and apoptosis in the spinal cord tissue.

A Distinctive Pattern of Beauveria bassiana-biotransformed Ginsenoside Products Triggers Mitochondria/FasL-mediated Apoptosis in Colon Cancer Cells

Ginseng is one of the most commonly used adaptogens. Transformation into the minor ginsenosides produces compounds with more effective action. Beauveria bassiana, a teleomorph of Cordyceps bassiana, is a highly efficient producer of mammalian steroids and produces large amounts of sugar-utilizing enzymes. However, the fermentation of steroid glycosides in ginseng with B. bassiana has never been studied. Thus, we evaluated the bioconversion of the major ginsenosides in white ginseng by B. bassiana. Interestingly, B. bassiana increased the total amount of protopanaxadiols and hydrolyzed Rb1 into minor ginsenosides, exhibiting high levels of Rd and Rg3, as well as moderate levels of Rb2 and Rc analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with evaporative light-scattering detection. The β-glucosidase activity was highly increased, which led to the selective elimination of sugar moiety at the 20-C position of Rb1 to Rd, followed by Rg3. Rb2 and Rc accumulated because of the minimal activities of α-L-arabinopyranosidase and α-L-arabinofuranosidase, respectively. The fermentation product exerted dose-dependent cytotoxicity in HCT-15 cells, which are resistant to ginseng. The product, but not white ginseng, exhibited apoptotic effects via the Fas ligand and caspase 8/9. This study demonstrates for the first time that the B. bassiana-fermented metabolites have potent apoptotic activity in colon cancer cells, linking to a therapeutic use.

Recent advances in ginseng as cancer therapeutics: a functional and mechanistic overview

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Ginseng, a key ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine, shows great promise as a new treatment option. As listed by the U.S. National Institutes of Health as a complementary and alternative medicine, its anti-cancer functions are being increasingly recognized. This review covers the mechanisms of action of ginsenosides and their metabolites, which can modulate signaling pathways associated with inflammation, oxidative stress, angiogenesis, metastasis, and stem/progenitor-like properties of cancer cells. The emerging use of structurally modified ginsenosides and recent clinical studies on the use of ginseng either alone or in combination with other herbs or Western medicines which are exploited as novel therapeutic strategies will also be explored.

Deciphering the therapeutic mechanisms of Xiao-Ke-An in treatment of type 2 diabetes in mice by a Fangjiomics approach

AIM

Xiao-Ke-An (XKA) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D), and the effective ingredients and their targets as well as the mechanisms of XKA remain to be elucidated. In this study we investigated the therapeutic mechanisms of XKA in the treatment of T2D in mice using a Fangjiomics approach.

METHODS

KKAy mice feeding on a high-fat diet were used as models of T2D, and were orally treated with XKA (0.75 or 1.5 g · kg(-1) · d(-1)) for 32 d. Microarray mRNA expression data were obtained from the livers of the mice. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by reverse rate analysis and ANOVA analysis. The compounds in XKA were identified by LC-MS analysis or collected from TCM databases. The relationships between the compounds and targets were established by combining the DEGs with information derived from mining literature or herb target databases. Relevant pathways were identified through a Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis using WebGestalt.

RESULTS

The compound-target-pathway network based on compounds identified by LC-MS analysis (NCA) included 20 constituent compounds, 46 targets and 36 T2D-related pathways, whereas the compound-target-pathway network based on compounds collected from databases (NCD) consisted of 40 compounds, 68 targets and 21 pathways. In the treatment of T2D, XKA might act mainly by improving carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, as well as ameliorating insulin resistance, inflammation and diabetic vascular complications.

CONCLUSION

The network-based approach reveals complex therapeutic mechanisms of XKA in the treatment of T2D in mice that involve numerous compounds, targets, and signaling pathways.

Efficacy and Safety of Panax notoginseng Saponin Therapy for Acute Intracerebral Hemorrhage, Meta-Analysis, and Mini Review of Potential Mechanisms of Action

Intracranial/intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a leading cause of death and disability in people with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke. No proven drug is available for ICH. Panax notoginseng (total saponin extraction, PNS) is one of the most valuable herb medicines for stroke and cerebralvascular disorders in China. We searched for randomized controlled clinical trials (RCTs) involving PNS injection to treat cerebral hemorrhage for meta-analysis from various databases including the Chinese Stroke Trials Register, the trials register of the Cochrane Complementary Medicine Field, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, Chinese BioMedical disk, and China Doctorate/Master Dissertations Databases. The quality of the eligible trials was assessed by Jadad’s scale. Twenty (20) of the 24 identified randomized controlled trials matched the inclusive criteria including 984 ICH patients with PNS injection and 907 ICH patients with current treatment (CT). Compared to the CT groups, PNS-treated patients showed better outcomes in the effectiveness rate (ER), neurological deficit score, intracranial hematoma volume, intracerebral edema volume, Barthel index, the number of patients died, and incidence of adverse events. Conclusion: PNS injection is superior to CT for acute ICH. A review of the literature shows that PNS may exert multiple protective mechanisms against ICH-induced brain damage including hemostasis, anti-coagulation, anti-thromboembolism, cerebral vasodilation, invigorated blood dynamics, anti-inflammation, antioxidation, and anti-hyperglycemic effects. Since vitamin C and other brain cell activators (BCA) that are not considered common practice were also used as parts of the CT in several trials, potential PNS and BCA interactions could exist that may have made the effect of PNS therapy less or more impressive than by PNS therapy alone. Future PNS trials with and without the inclusion of such controversial BCAs as part of the CT could clarify the situation. As PNS has a long clinical track record in Asia, it could potentially become a therapy option to treat ICH in the US and Europe. Further clinical trials with better experimental design could determine the long-term effects of PNS treatment for TBI and stroke.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng supplementation on dry eye syndrome in glaucoma patients - A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

Many patients with glaucoma have difficulty using antiglaucoma eye drops because of dry eye symptom. In this prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, we evaluated the effect of Korean Red Ginseng on dry eye syndrome in patients with glaucoma treated with antiglaucoma eye drops.

METHODS

Forty-nine participants were allocated to the Korean Red Ginseng (3 g/day; n = 24) or placebo (n = 25) groups for 8 weeks. Tear film stability, fluorescein corneal staining, conjunctival hyperemia, tear production, grade of meibomian gland dysfunction, and dry eye questionnaire (Ocular Surface Disease Index) were evaluated at baseline and on completion of the treatment.

RESULTS

Almost all patients displayed dry eye symptoms and signs at baseline. After the 8-week intervention, Korean Red Ginseng supplementation significantly improved the tear film stability and total Ocular Surface Disease Index score, as compared to placebo (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Korean Red Ginseng supplementation may provide an additional treatment option for dry eye and patients with glaucoma using antiglaucoma eye drops.