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Darrieutort-Laffite C, Beach ZM, Weiss SN, Eekhoff JE, Soslowsky LJ. Knockdown of biglycan reveals an important role in maintenance of structural and mechanical properties during tendon aging. J Orthop Res 2023; 41:2287-2294. [PMID: 36822659 PMCID: PMC10444902 DOI: 10.1002/jor.25536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Biglycan, a small leucine-rich proteoglycan (SLRP), is involved in collagen fibrillogenesis and also acts as a signaling molecule. Although decorin has been considered as the primary SLRP in developing and maintaining tendon structure and mechanics, more recent work using inducible knockdown models suggests that biglycan is involved in tendon homeostasis. The purpose of the study was to determine the role of biglycan in tendon homeostasis to maintain mechanical and structural integrity in aged mice. Aged (485 days old) female Bgn+/+ control (wild type [WT], n = 16) and 16 bitransgenic conditional Bgnflox/flox mice (I-Bgn-/- , n = 16) with a tamoxifen-inducible Cre (driven by ROSA) were utilized. After biglycan knockdown, the transgenic model demonstrated effective knockdown of the target gene without any compensation from other SLRPs or type I collagen. Patellar tendon cellularity was not modified after biglycan knockdown. However, biglycan knockdown had an impact on collagen fibrillogenesis with a higher percentage of small diameter fibrils (25-45 nm) and a lower percentage of medium size fibrils (150-165 nm) in I-Bgn-/- tendons. Biglycan knockdown also induced a reduction in the midsubstance modulus and maximum stress compared to WT. Stress relaxation was reduced at 4% strain in I-Bgn-/- tendons but no changes were observed in dynamic modulus and tan delta. As in mature tendons (120 days old), this study showed significant effects of biglycan knockdown on mechanical and structural properties of aged tendons only 30 days after knockdown. These data suggest that biglycan has a major role in maintaining homeostasis in aged tendon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christelle Darrieutort-Laffite
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Service de Rhumatologie, CHU Nantes, 1 place Alexis Ricordeau, 44000 Nantes, France
| | - Zakary M. Beach
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Stephanie N. Weiss
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jeremy E. Eekhoff
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Louis J. Soslowsky
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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2
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Courseault J, Kingry C, Morrison V, Edstrom C, Morrell K, Jaubert L, Elia V, Bix G. Folate-dependent hypermobility syndrome: A proposed mechanism and diagnosis. Heliyon 2023; 9:e15387. [PMID: 37095957 PMCID: PMC10122021 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypermobility involves excessive flexibility and systemic manifestations of connective tissue fragility. We propose a folate-dependent hypermobility syndrome model based on clinical observations, and through a review of existing literature, we raise the possibility that hypermobility presentation may be dependent on folate status. In our model, decreased methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) activity disrupts the regulation of the ECM-specific proteinase matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), leading to high levels of MMP-2 and elevated MMP-2-mediated cleavage of the proteoglycan decorin. Cleavage of decorin leads ultimately to extracellular matrix (ECM) disorganization and increased fibrosis. This review aims to describe relationships between folate metabolism and key proteins in the ECM that can further explain the signs and symptoms associated with hypermobility, along with possible treatment with 5-methyltetrahydrofolate supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Courseault
- Tulane University School of Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, The Fascia Institute and Treatment Center 7030 Canal Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
- Corresponding
| | - Catherine Kingry
- Tulane University School of Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, The Fascia Institute and Treatment Center 7030 Canal Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
| | - Vivianne Morrison
- Tulane University School of Medicine, Departments of Neurosurgery and Neurology, Clinical Neuroscience Research Center, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Christiania Edstrom
- Tulane University School of Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, The Fascia Institute and Treatment Center 7030 Canal Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
| | - Kelli Morrell
- Tulane University School of Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, The Fascia Institute and Treatment Center 7030 Canal Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
| | - Lisa Jaubert
- Tulane University School of Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, The Fascia Institute and Treatment Center 7030 Canal Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
| | - Victoria Elia
- Tulane University School of Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, The Fascia Institute and Treatment Center 7030 Canal Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
| | - Gregory Bix
- Tulane University School of Medicine, Departments of Neurosurgery and Neurology, Clinical Neuroscience Research Center, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
- Corresponding
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3
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Boote C, Ma Q, Goh KL. Age-dependent mechanical properties of tail tendons in wild-type and mimecan gene-knockout mice - A preliminary study. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2023; 139:105672. [PMID: 36657194 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2023.105672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Mimecan, or osteoglycin, belongs to the family of small leucine-rich proteoglycans. In connective tissues mimecan is implicated in the development and maintenance of normal collagen fibrillar organization. Since collagen fibrils are responsible for tissue reinforcement, the absence of mimecan could lead to abnormal tissue mechanical properties. Here, we carried out a preliminary investigation of possible changes in the mechanical properties of tendons in mice lacking a functional mimecan gene, as a function of age. Tail tendons were dissected from mimecan gene knockout (KO) and wild type (WT) mice at ages 1, 4 and 8 months and mechanical properties evaluated using a microtensile testing equipment. Mimecan gene knockout resulted in changes in tendon elasticity- and fracture-related properties. While tendons of WT mice exhibited enhanced mechanical properties with increasing age, this trend was notably attenuated in mimecan KO tendons, with the exception of fracture strain. When genotype and age were considered as cross factors, the diminution in the mechanical properties of mimecan KO tendons was significant for yield strength, modulus and fracture strength. This effect appeared to affect the mice at 4 month old. These preliminary results suggest that mimecan may have a role in regulating age-dependent mechanical function in mouse tail tendon.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Boote
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK; Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Newcastle Research and Innovation Institute (NewRIIS), Singapore
| | - Q Ma
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - K L Goh
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK; Newcastle Research and Innovation Institute (NewRIIS), Singapore; Faculty of Science, Agriculture and Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK.
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4
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Citro V, Clerici M, Boccaccini AR, Della Porta G, Maffulli N, Forsyth NR. Tendon tissue engineering: An overview of biologics to promote tendon healing and repair. J Tissue Eng 2023; 14:20417314231196275. [PMID: 37719308 PMCID: PMC10501083 DOI: 10.1177/20417314231196275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Tendons are dense connective tissues with a hierarchical polarized structure that respond to and adapt to the transmission of muscle contraction forces to the skeleton, enabling motion and maintaining posture. Tendon injuries, also known as tendinopathies, are becoming more common as populations age and participation in sports/leisure activities increases. The tendon has a poor ability to self-heal and regenerate given its intrinsic, constrained vascular supply and exposure to frequent, severe loading. There is a lack of understanding of the underlying pathophysiology, and it is not surprising that disorder-targeted medicines have only been partially effective at best. Recent tissue engineering approaches have emerged as a potential tool to drive tendon regeneration and healing. In this review, we investigated the physiochemical factors involved in tendon ontogeny and discussed their potential application in vitro to reproduce functional and self-renewing tendon tissue. We sought to understand whether stem cells are capable of forming tendons, how they can be directed towards the tenogenic lineage, and how their growth is regulated and monitored during the entire differentiation path. Finally, we showed recent developments in tendon tissue engineering, specifically the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which can differentiate into tendon cells, as well as the potential role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in tendon regeneration and their potential for use in accelerating the healing response after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Citro
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, UK
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomaterials University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Cauerstrasse 6, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Marta Clerici
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, UK
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, Baronissi, Salerno, Italy
| | - Aldo R. Boccaccini
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Biomaterials University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Cauerstrasse 6, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Giovanna Della Porta
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, Baronissi, Salerno, Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre BIONAM, University of Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo I, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy
| | - Nicola Maffulli
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, UK
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, via S. Allende, Baronissi, Salerno, Italy
- Department of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery, University Hospital ‘San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi D’Aragona’, Salerno, Italy
| | - Nicholas R. Forsyth
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, UK
- Vice Principals’ Office, University of Aberdeen, Kings College, Aberdeen, UK
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5
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Beach ZM, Bonilla KA, Dekhne MS, Sun M, Adams TH, Adams SM, Weiss SN, Rodriguez AB, Shetye SS, Birk DE, Soslowsky LJ. Biglycan has a major role in maintenance of mature tendon mechanics. J Orthop Res 2022; 40:2546-2556. [PMID: 35171523 PMCID: PMC9378794 DOI: 10.1002/jor.25299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Decorin and biglycan are two small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRPs) that regulate collagen fibrillogenesis and extracellular matrix assembly in tendon. The objective of this study was to determine the individual roles of these molecules in maintaining the structural and mechanical properties of tendon during homeostasis in mature mice. We hypothesized that knockdown of decorin in mature tendons would result in detrimental changes to tendon structure and mechanics while knockdown of biglycan would have a minor effect on these parameters. To achieve this objective, we created tamoxifen-inducible mouse knockdown models targeting decorin or biglycan inactivation. This enables the evaluation of the roles of these SLRPs in mature tendon without the abnormal tendon development caused by conventional knockout models. Contrary to our hypothesis, knockdown of decorin resulted in minor alterations to tendon structure and no changes to mechanics while knockdown of biglycan resulted in broad changes to tendon structure and mechanics. Specifically, knockdown of biglycan resulted in reduced insertion modulus, maximum stress, dynamic modulus, stress relaxation, and increased collagen fiber realignment during loading. Knockdown of decorin and biglycan produced similar changes to tendon microstructure by increasing the collagen fibril diameter relative to wild-type controls. Biglycan knockdown also decreased the cell nuclear aspect ratio, indicating a more spindle-like nuclear shape. Overall, the extensive changes to tendon structure and mechanics after knockdown of biglycan, but not decorin, provides evidence that biglycan plays a major role in the maintenance of tendon structure and mechanics in mature mice during homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zakary M. Beach
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Stemmler Hall, 36th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, United States
| | - Kelsey A. Bonilla
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Stemmler Hall, 36th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, United States
| | - Mihir S. Dekhne
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Stemmler Hall, 36th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, United States
| | - Mei Sun
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, United States
| | - Thomas H. Adams
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, United States
| | - Sheila M. Adams
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, United States
| | - Stephanie N. Weiss
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Stemmler Hall, 36th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, United States
| | - Ashley B. Rodriguez
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Stemmler Hall, 36th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, United States
| | - Snehal S. Shetye
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Stemmler Hall, 36th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, United States
| | - David E. Birk
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, United States
| | - Louis J. Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Stemmler Hall, 36th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, United States
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Freedman BR, Adu-Berchie K, Barnum C, Fryhofer GW, Salka NS, Shetye S, Soslowsky LJ. Nonsurgical treatment reduces tendon inflammation and elevates tendon markers in early healing. J Orthop Res 2022; 40:2308-2319. [PMID: 34935170 PMCID: PMC9209559 DOI: 10.1002/jor.25251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Operative treatment is assumed to provide superior outcomes to nonoperative (conservative) treatment following Achilles tendon rupture, however, this remains controversial. This study explores the effect of surgical repair on Achilles tendon healing. Rat Achilles tendons (n = 101) were bluntly transected and were randomized into groups receiving repair or non-repair treatments. By 1 week after injury, repaired tendons had inferior mechanical properties, which continued to 3- and 6-week post-injury, evidenced by decreased dynamic modulus and failure stress. Transcriptomics analysis revealed >7000 differentially expressed genes between repaired and non-repaired tendons after 1-week post-injury. While repaired tendons showed enriched inflammatory gene signatures, non-repaired tendons showed increased tenogenic, myogenic, and mechanosensitive gene signatures, with >200-fold enrichment in Tnmd expression. Analysis of gastrocnemius muscle revealed elevated MMP activity in tendons receiving repair treatment, despite no differences in muscle fiber morphology. Transcriptional regulation analysis highlighted that the highest expressed transcription factors in repaired tendons were associated with inflammation (Nfκb, SpI1, RelA, and Stat1), whereas non-repaired tendons expressed markers associated with tissue development and mechano-activation (Smarca1, Bnc2, Znf521, Fbn1, and Gli3). Taken together, these data highlight distinct differences in healing mechanism occurring immediately following injury and provide insights for new therapies to further augment tendons receiving repaired and non-repaired treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin R Freedman
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kwasi Adu-Berchie
- John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Carrie Barnum
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - George W Fryhofer
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nabeel S Salka
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Snehal Shetye
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Louis J Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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7
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Freedman BR, Kuttler A, Beckmann N, Nam S, Kent D, Schuleit M, Ramazani F, Accart N, Rock A, Li J, Kurz M, Fisch A, Ullrich T, Hast MW, Tinguely Y, Weber E, Mooney DJ. Enhanced tendon healing by a tough hydrogel with an adhesive side and high drug-loading capacity. Nat Biomed Eng 2022; 6:1167-1179. [PMID: 34980903 PMCID: PMC9250555 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-021-00810-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogels that provide mechanical support and sustainably release therapeutics have been used to treat tendon injuries. However, most hydrogels are insufficiently tough, release drugs in bursts, and require cell infiltration or suturing to integrate with surrounding tissue. Here we report that a hydrogel serving as a high-capacity drug depot and combining a dissipative tough matrix on one side and a chitosan adhesive surface on the other side supports tendon gliding and strong adhesion (larger than 1,000 J m-2) to tendon on opposite surfaces of the hydrogel, as we show with porcine and human tendon preparations during cyclic-friction loadings. The hydrogel is biocompatible, strongly adheres to patellar, supraspinatus and Achilles tendons of live rats, boosted healing and reduced scar formation in a rat model of Achilles-tendon rupture, and sustainably released the corticosteroid triamcinolone acetonide in a rat model of patellar tendon injury, reducing inflammation, modulating chemokine secretion, recruiting tendon stem and progenitor cells, and promoting macrophage polarization to the M2 phenotype. Hydrogels with 'Janus' surfaces and sustained-drug-release functionality could be designed for a range of biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin R Freedman
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Andreas Kuttler
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Sungmin Nam
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Daniel Kent
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | - Nathalie Accart
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anna Rock
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jianyu Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Markus Kurz
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Fisch
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Ullrich
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael W Hast
- Biedermann Lab for Orthopaedic Research, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Yann Tinguely
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Eckhard Weber
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - David J Mooney
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA.
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8
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Lee N, Shi L, Colon Caraballo M, Nallasamy S, Mahendroo M, Iozzo RV, Myers K. Mechanical Response of Mouse Cervices Lacking Decorin and Biglycan During Pregnancy. J Biomech Eng 2022; 144:061009. [PMID: 35348624 PMCID: PMC9125869 DOI: 10.1115/1.4054199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cervical remodeling is critical for a healthy pregnancy. The proper regulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) turnover leads to remodeling throughout gestation, transforming the tissue from a stiff material to a compliant, extensible, viscoelastic tissue prepared for delivery. Small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRPs) regulate structural fiber assembly in the cervical ECM and overall tissue material properties. To quantify the SLRPs' mechanical role in the cervix, whole cervix specimens from nonpregnant and late pregnant knockout mice of SLRPs, decorin and biglycan, were subjected to cyclic load-unload, ramp-hold, and load-to-failure mechanical tests. Further, a fiber composite material model, accounting for collagen fiber bundle waviness, was developed to describe the cervix's three-dimensional large deformation equilibrium behavior. In nonpregnant tissue, SLRP knockout cervices have the same equilibrium material properties as wild-type tissue. In contrast, the load-to-failure and ramp-hold tests reveal SLRPs impact rupture and time-dependent relaxation behavior. Loss of decorin in nonpregnant (NP) cervices results in inferior rupture properties. After extensive remodeling, cervical strength is similar between all genotypes, but the SLRP-deficient tissue has a diminished ability to dissipate stress during a ramp-hold. In mice with a combined loss of decorin and biglycan, the pregnant cervix loses its extensibility, compliance, and viscoelasticity. These results suggest that decorin and biglycan are necessary for crucial extensibility and viscoelastic material properties of a healthy, remodeled pregnant cervix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027
| | - Lei Shi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027
| | - Mariano Colon Caraballo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biological Science, The University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Shanmugasundaram Nallasamy
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biological Science, The University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Mala Mahendroo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biological Science, The University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Renato V. Iozzo
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology and the Translational Cellular Oncology Program, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Kristin Myers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027
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9
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Xu X, Ha P, Yen E, Li C, Zheng Z. Small Leucine-Rich Proteoglycans in Tendon Wound Healing. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle) 2022; 11:202-214. [PMID: 34978952 DOI: 10.1089/wound.2021.0069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Significance: Tendon injury possesses a high morbidity rate and is difficult to achieve a satisfying prognosis with currently available treatment strategies. Current approaches used for tendon healing always lead to the formation of fibrovascular scar tissue, which significantly compromises the biomechanics of the healed tendon. Moreover, the related functional deficiency deteriorates over time with an increased injury recurrence risk. Small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRPs) link and interact with collagen fibrils to regulate tendon structure and biomechanics, which can provide a new and promising method in the field of tendon injury management. Recent Advances: The effect of SLRPs on tendon development has been extensively investigated. SLRP deficiency impairs tendon collagen fibril structure and biomechanic properties, while administration of SLRPs generally benefits tendon wound healing and regains better mechanical properties. Critical Issues: Current knowledge on the role of SLRPs in tendon development and regeneration mostly comes from uninjured knockout mice, and mainly focuses on the morphology description of collagen fibril profile and mechanical properties. Little is known about the regulatory mechanism on the molecular level. Future Directions: This article reviews the current knowledge in this highly translational topic and provides an evidence-based conclusion, thereby encouraging in-depth investigations of SLRPs in tendons and the development of SLRP-based treatments for desired tendon healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Xu
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Plastic and Traumatic Surgery, Beijing Stomatological Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Division of Growth and Development, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Pin Ha
- Division of Growth and Development, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Emily Yen
- Arcadia High School, Arcadia, California, USA
| | - Chenshuang Li
- Department of Orthodontics, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Zhong Zheng
- Division of Growth and Development, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Orthodontics, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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10
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Leiphart RJ, Pham H, Harvey T, Komori T, Kilts TM, Shetye SS, Weiss SN, Adams SM, Birk DE, Soslowsky LJ, Young MF. Coordinate roles for collagen VI and biglycan in regulating tendon collagen fibril structure and function. Matrix Biol Plus 2022; 13:100099. [PMID: 35036900 PMCID: PMC8749075 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbplus.2021.100099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Tendon is a vital musculoskeletal tissue that is prone to degeneration. Proper tendon maintenance requires complex interactions between extracellular matrix components that remain poorly understood. Collagen VI and biglycan are two matrix molecules that localize pericellularly within tendon and are critical regulators of tissue properties. While evidence suggests that collagen VI and biglycan interact within the tendon matrix, the relationship between the two molecules and its impact on tendon function remains unknown. We sought to elucidate potential coordinate roles of collagen VI and biglycan within tendon by defining tendon properties in knockout models of collagen VI, biglycan, or both molecules. We first demonstrated co-expression and co-localization of collagen VI and biglycan within the healing tendon, providing further evidence of cooperation between the two molecules during nascent tendon matrix formation. Deficiency in collagen VI and/or biglycan led to significant reductions in collagen fibril size and tendon mechanical properties. However, collagen VI-null tendons displayed larger reductions in fibril size and mechanics than seen in biglycan-null tendons. Interestingly, knockout of both molecules resulted in similar properties to collagen VI knockout alone. These results indicate distinct and non-additive roles for collagen VI and biglycan within tendon. This work provides better understanding of regulatory interactions between two critical tendon matrix molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J. Leiphart
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hai Pham
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Tyler Harvey
- Carnegie Institution for Science, Department of Embryology, The Johns Hopkins University, USA
| | - Taishi Komori
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Tina M. Kilts
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Snehal S. Shetye
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Stephanie N. Weiss
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Sheila M. Adams
- University of South Florida, Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - David E. Birk
- University of South Florida, Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Louis J. Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Marian F. Young
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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11
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Colon-Caraballo M, Lee N, Nallasamy S, Myers K, Hudson D, Iozzo RV, Mahendroo M. Novel regulatory roles of small leucine-rich proteoglycans in remodeling of the uterine cervix in pregnancy. Matrix Biol 2022; 105:53-71. [PMID: 34863915 PMCID: PMC9446484 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The cervix undergoes rapid and dramatic shifts in collagen and elastic fiber structure to achieve its disparate physiological roles of competence during pregnancy and compliance during birth. An understanding of the structure-function relationships of collagen and elastic fibers to maintain extracellular matrix (ECM) homeostasis requires an understanding of the mechanisms executed by non-structural ECM molecules. Small-leucine rich proteoglycans (SLRPs) play key functions in biology by affecting collagen fibrillogenesis and regulating enzyme and growth factor bioactivities. In the current study, we evaluated collagen and elastic fiber structure-function relationships in mouse cervices using mice with genetic ablation of decorin and/or biglycan genes as representative of Class I SLRPs, and lumican gene representative of Class II SLRP. We identified structural defects in collagen fibril and elastic fiber organization in nonpregnant mice lacking decorin, or biglycan or lumican with variable resolution of defects noted during pregnancy. The severity of collagen and elastic fiber defects was greater in nonpregnant mice lacking both decorin and biglycan and defects were maintained throughout pregnancy. Loss of biglycan alone reduced tissue extensibility in nonpregnant mice while loss of both decorin and biglycan manifested in decreased rupture stretch in late pregnancy. Collagen cross-link density was similar in the Class I SLRP null mice as compared to wild-type nonpregnant and pregnant controls. A broader range in collagen fibril diameter along with an increase in mean fibril spacing was observed in the mutant mice compared to wild-type controls. Collectively, these findings uncover functional redundancy and hierarchical roles of Class I and Class II SLRPs as key regulators of cervical ECM remodeling in pregnancy. These results expand our understating of the critical role SLRPs play to maintain ECM homeostasis in the cervix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariano Colon-Caraballo
- Department of Ob/Gyn and Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biological Science, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390
| | - Nicole Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University New York, New York 10027
| | - Shanmugasundaram Nallasamy
- Department of Ob/Gyn and Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biological Science, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390,Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Vermont Burlington, Vermont 05405
| | - Kristin Myers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University New York, New York 10027
| | - David Hudson
- Department of Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine, University of Washington Seattle, Washington 98165
| | - Renato V. Iozzo
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology and the Translational Cellular Oncology Program, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
| | - Mala Mahendroo
- Department of Ob/Gyn and Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biological Science, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390,Correspondence to: Mala Mahendroo, Ph.D, Department of Ob/Gyn and Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biological Sciences, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390.
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12
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Mienaltowski MJ, Gonzales NL, Beall JM, Pechanec MY. Basic Structure, Physiology, and Biochemistry of Connective Tissues and Extracellular Matrix Collagens. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1348:5-43. [PMID: 34807414 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-80614-9_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The physiology of connective tissues like tendons and ligaments is highly dependent upon the collagens and other such extracellular matrix molecules hierarchically organized within the tissues. By dry weight, connective tissues are mostly composed of fibrillar collagens. However, several other forms of collagens play essential roles in the regulation of fibrillar collagen organization and assembly, in the establishment of basement membrane networks that provide support for vasculature for connective tissues, and in the formation of extensive filamentous networks that allow for cell-extracellular matrix interactions as well as maintain connective tissue integrity. The structures and functions of these collagens are discussed in this chapter. Furthermore, collagen synthesis is a multi-step process that includes gene transcription, translation, post-translational modifications within the cell, triple helix formation, extracellular secretion, extracellular modifications, and then fibril assembly, fibril modifications, and fiber formation. Each step of collagen synthesis and fibril assembly is highly dependent upon the biochemical structure of the collagen molecules created and how they are modified in the cases of development and maturation. Likewise, when the biochemical structures of collagens or are compromised or these molecules are deficient in the tissues - in developmental diseases, degenerative conditions, or injuries - then the ultimate form and function of the connective tissues are impaired. In this chapter, we also review how biochemistry plays a role in each of the processes involved in collagen synthesis and assembly, and we describe differences seen by anatomical location and region within tendons. Moreover, we discuss how the structures of the molecules, fibrils, and fibers contribute to connective tissue physiology in health, and in pathology with injury and repair.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicole L Gonzales
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jessica M Beall
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Monica Y Pechanec
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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13
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Stephens AR, Buterbaugh KL, Gordon JA, Steinberg DR, Bozentka DJ, Khoury V, Kazmers NH. Comparison of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Ultrasound Evaluations of Zone II Partial Flexor Tendon Lacerations: A Cadaveric Study. JOURNAL OF ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE 2021; 40:1651-1656. [PMID: 33174636 DOI: 10.1002/jum.15553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Surgical intervention for zone II high-grade partial flexor tendon lacerations is often required when more than half of the tendon width is torn. Reliable noninvasive tests are critical for optimizing clinical decision making. Our team previously investigated the use of ultrasound (US) for identification of high-grade zone II flexor digitorum profundus lacerations. In this study, we compared magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to US for the evaluation of high-grade partial flexor tendon lacerations in cadaveric specimens. METHODS Dissection of 32 digits in 8 fresh-frozen upper extremity cadaveric specimens was performed. The flexor digitorum profundus tendons were randomized into 3 groups: intact, low-grade laceration, and high-grade laceration. A dynamic US examination was performed by a blinded musculoskeletal radiologist. The same specimens underwent hand coil MRI, which was read by the same blinded radiologist. Magnetic resonance imaging test performance metrics were calculated and compared to those computed for the US evaluation. RESULTS For US evaluation of high-grade lacerations, the sensitivity and specificity were 0.5 and 1.0, with positive likelihood ratio (LR+) and negative likelihood ratio (LR-) values of ∞ and 0.50, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity for MRI evaluation were 0.2 and 1.0, with LR+ and LR- values of ∞ and 0.80. CONCLUSIONS Both US and MRI are adequate at determining the presence of a high-grade laceration. Magnetic resonance imaging was more specific than US in identification of high-grade partial flexor tendon lacerations. Although less specific, US is a reasonable and less-expensive alternative to MRI when evaluating for clinically significant high-grade partial flexor tendon lacerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Stephens
- University of Utah, School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
- Department of Orthopedics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Kristin L Buterbaugh
- Departments of Orthopedics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Joshua A Gordon
- Departments of Orthopedics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - David R Steinberg
- Departments of Orthopedics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - David J Bozentka
- Departments of Orthopedics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Viviane Khoury
- Departments of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nikolas H Kazmers
- Department of Orthopedics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
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14
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Intracellular and Extracellular Markers of Lethality in Osteogenesis Imperfecta: A Quantitative Proteomic Approach. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22010429. [PMID: 33406681 PMCID: PMC7795927 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a heritable disorder that mainly affects the skeleton. The inheritance is mostly autosomal dominant and associated to mutations in one of the two genes, COL1A1 and COL1A2, encoding for the type I collagen α chains. According to more than 1500 described mutation sites and to outcome spanning from very mild cases to perinatal-lethality, OI is characterized by a wide genotype/phenotype heterogeneity. In order to identify common affected molecular-pathways and disease biomarkers in OI probands with different mutations and lethal or surviving phenotypes, primary fibroblasts from dominant OI patients, carrying COL1A1 or COL1A2 defects, were investigated by applying a Tandem Mass Tag labeling-Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (TMT LC-MS/MS) proteomics approach and bioinformatic tools for comparative protein-abundance profiling. While no difference in α1 or α2 abundance was detected among lethal (type II) and not-lethal (type III) OI patients, 17 proteins, with key effects on matrix structure and organization, cell signaling, and cell and tissue development and differentiation, were significantly different between type II and type III OI patients. Among them, some non-collagenous extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins (e.g., decorin and fibrillin-1) and proteins modulating cytoskeleton (e.g., nestin and palladin) directly correlate to the severity of the disease. Their defective presence may define proband-failure in balancing aberrances related to mutant collagen.
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15
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Siadat SM, Zamboulis DE, Thorpe CT, Ruberti JW, Connizzo BK. Tendon Extracellular Matrix Assembly, Maintenance and Dysregulation Throughout Life. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1348:45-103. [PMID: 34807415 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-80614-9_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In his Lissner Award medal lecture in 2000, Stephen Cowin asked the question: "How is a tissue built?" It is not a new question, but it remains as relevant today as it did when it was asked 20 years ago. In fact, research on the organization and development of tissue structure has been a primary focus of tendon and ligament research for over two centuries. The tendon extracellular matrix (ECM) is critical to overall tissue function; it gives the tissue its unique mechanical properties, exhibiting complex non-linear responses, viscoelasticity and flow mechanisms, excellent energy storage and fatigue resistance. This matrix also creates a unique microenvironment for resident cells, allowing cells to maintain their phenotype and translate mechanical and chemical signals into biological responses. Importantly, this architecture is constantly remodeled by local cell populations in response to changing biochemical (systemic and local disease or injury) and mechanical (exercise, disuse, and overuse) stimuli. Here, we review the current understanding of matrix remodeling throughout life, focusing on formation and assembly during the postnatal period, maintenance and homeostasis during adulthood, and changes to homeostasis in natural aging. We also discuss advances in model systems and novel tools for studying collagen and non-collagenous matrix remodeling throughout life, and finally conclude by identifying key questions that have yet to be answered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Danae E Zamboulis
- Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Chavaunne T Thorpe
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London, UK
| | - Jeffrey W Ruberti
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brianne K Connizzo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA.
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16
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Leiphart RJ, Shetye SS, Weiss SN, Dyment NA, Soslowsky LJ. Induced Knockdown of Decorin, Alone and in Tandem With Biglycan Knockdown, Directly Increases Aged Murine Patellar Tendon Viscoelastic Properties. J Biomech Eng 2020; 142:111006. [PMID: 32766748 PMCID: PMC7580841 DOI: 10.1115/1.4048030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Tendon injuries increase with age, yet the age-associated changes in tendon properties remain unexplained. Decorin and biglycan are two matrix proteoglycans that play complex roles in regulating tendon formation, maturation, and aging, most notably in extracellular matrix assembly and maintenance. However, the roles of decorin and biglycan have not been temporally isolated in a homeostatic aged context. The goal of this work was to temporally isolate and define the roles of decorin and biglycan in regulating aged murine patellar tendon mechanical properties. We hypothesized that decorin would have a larger influence than biglycan on aged tendon mechanical properties and that biglycan would have an additive role in this regulation. When decorin and biglycan were knocked down in aged tendons, minimal changes in gene expression were observed, implying that these models directly define the roles of decorin and biglycan in regulating tendon mechanical properties. Knockdown of decorin or biglycan led to minimal changes in quasi-static mechanical properties. However, decorin deficiency led to increases in stress relaxation and phase shift that were exacerbated when coupled with biglycan deficiency. This study highlights an important role for decorin, alone and in tandem with biglycan, in regulating aged tendon viscoelastic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J. Leiphart
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Snehal S. Shetye
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Stephanie N. Weiss
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Nathaniel A. Dyment
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Louis J. Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, 307A Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104
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17
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Zuskov A, Freedman BR, Gordon JA, Sarver JJ, Buckley MR, Soslowsky LJ. Tendon Biomechanics and Crimp Properties Following Fatigue Loading Are Influenced by Tendon Type and Age in Mice. J Orthop Res 2020; 38:36-42. [PMID: 31286548 PMCID: PMC6917867 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
In tendon, type-I collagen assembles together into fibrils, fibers, and fascicles that exhibit a wavy or crimped pattern that uncrimps with applied tensile loading. This structural property has been observed across multiple tendons throughout aging and may play an important role in tendon viscoelasticity, response to fatigue loading, healing, and development. Previous work has shown that crimp is permanently altered with the application of fatigue loading. This opens the possibility of evaluating tendon crimp as a clinical surrogate of tissue damage. The purpose of this study was to determine how fatigue loading in tendon affects crimp and mechanical properties throughout aging and between tendon types. Mouse patellar tendons (PT) and flexor digitorum longus (FDL) tendons were fatigue loaded while an integrated plane polariscope simultaneously assessed crimp properties at P150 and P570 days of age to model mature and aged tendon phenotypes (N = 10-11/group). Tendon type, fatigue loading, and aging were found to differentially affect tendon mechanical and crimp properties. FDL tendons had higher modulus and hysteresis, whereas the PT showed more laxity and toe region strain throughout aging. Crimp frequency was consistently higher in FDL compared with PT throughout fatigue loading, whereas the crimp amplitude was cycle dependent. This differential response based on tendon type and age further suggests that the FDL and the PT respond differently to fatigue loading and that this response is age-dependent. Together, our findings suggest that the mechanical and structural effects of fatigue loading are specific to tendon type and age in mice. © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 38:36-42, 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey Zuskov
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Benjamin R Freedman
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Joshua A Gordon
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Joseph J Sarver
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Mark R Buckley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York
| | - Louis J Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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18
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Abstract
Tendons link muscle to bone and transfer forces necessary for normal movement. Tendon injuries can be debilitating and their intrinsic healing potential is limited. These challenges have motivated the development of model systems to study the factors that regulate tendon formation and tendon injury. Recent advances in understanding of embryonic and postnatal tendon formation have inspired approaches that aimed to mimic key aspects of tendon development. Model systems have also been developed to explore factors that regulate tendon injury and healing. We highlight current model systems that explore developmentally inspired cellular, mechanical, and biochemical factors in tendon formation and tenogenic stem cell differentiation. Next, we discuss in vivo, in vitro, ex vivo, and computational models of tendon injury that examine how mechanical loading and biochemical factors contribute to tendon pathologies and healing. These tendon development and injury models show promise for identifying the factors guiding tendon formation and tendon pathologies, and will ultimately improve regenerative tissue engineering strategies and clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia K Theodossiou
- Biological Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Dr. MS 0904, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
| | - Nathan R Schiele
- Biological Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Dr. MS 0904, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
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19
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Freedman BR, Mooney DJ. Biomaterials to Mimic and Heal Connective Tissues. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2019; 31:e1806695. [PMID: 30908806 PMCID: PMC6504615 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201806695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Connective tissue is one of the four major types of animal tissue and plays essential roles throughout the human body. Genetic factors, aging, and trauma all contribute to connective tissue dysfunction and motivate the need for strategies to promote healing and regeneration. The goal here is to link a fundamental understanding of connective tissues and their multiscale properties to better inform the design and translation of novel biomaterials to promote their regeneration. Major clinical problems in adipose tissue, cartilage, dermis, and tendon are discussed that inspire the need to replace native connective tissue with biomaterials. Then, multiscale structure-function relationships in native soft connective tissues that may be used to guide material design are detailed. Several biomaterials strategies to improve healing of these tissues that incorporate biologics and are biologic-free are reviewed. Finally, important guidance documents and standards (ASTM, FDA, and EMA) that are important to consider for translating new biomaterials into clinical practice are highligted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin R Freedman
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - David J Mooney
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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20
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Hillin CD, Fryhofer GW, Freedman BR, Choi DS, Weiss SN, Huegel J, Soslowsky LJ. Effects of immobilization angle on tendon healing after achilles rupture in a rat model. J Orthop Res 2019; 37:562-573. [PMID: 30720208 PMCID: PMC6534419 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Conservative (non-operative) treatment of Achilles tendon ruptures is a common alternative to operative treatment. Following rupture, ankle immobilization in plantarflexion is thought to aid healing by restoring tendon end-to-end apposition. However, early activity may improve limb function, challenging the role of immobilization position on tendon healing, as it may affect loading across the injury site. This study investigated the effects of ankle immobilization angle in a rat model of Achilles tendon rupture. We hypothesized that manipulating the ankle from full plantarflexion into a more dorsiflexed position during the immobilization period would result in superior hindlimb function and tendon properties, but that prolonged casting in dorsiflexion would result in inferior outcomes. After Achilles tendon transection, animals were randomized into eight immobilization groups ranging from full plantarflexion (160°) to mid-point (90°) to full dorsiflexion (20°), with or without angle manipulation. Tendon properties and ankle function were influenced by ankle immobilization position and time. Tendon lengthening occurred after 1 week at 20° compared to more plantarflexed angles, and was associated with loss of propulsion force. Dorsiflexing the ankle during immobilization from 160° to 90° produced a stiffer, more aligned tendon, but did not lead to functional changes compared to immobilization at 160°. Although more dorsiflexed immobilization can enhance tissue properties and function of healing Achilles tendon following rupture, full dorsiflexion creates significant tendon elongation regardless of application time. This study suggests that the use of moderate plantarflexion and earlier return to activity can provide improved clinical outcomes. © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cody D. Hillin
- McKay Orthopaedic LaboratoryUniversity of Pennsylvania110 Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton WalkPhiladelphiaPennsylvania19104‐6081
| | - George W. Fryhofer
- McKay Orthopaedic LaboratoryUniversity of Pennsylvania110 Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton WalkPhiladelphiaPennsylvania19104‐6081
| | - Benjamin R. Freedman
- McKay Orthopaedic LaboratoryUniversity of Pennsylvania110 Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton WalkPhiladelphiaPennsylvania19104‐6081
| | - Daniel S. Choi
- McKay Orthopaedic LaboratoryUniversity of Pennsylvania110 Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton WalkPhiladelphiaPennsylvania19104‐6081
| | - Stephanie N. Weiss
- McKay Orthopaedic LaboratoryUniversity of Pennsylvania110 Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton WalkPhiladelphiaPennsylvania19104‐6081
| | - Julianne Huegel
- McKay Orthopaedic LaboratoryUniversity of Pennsylvania110 Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton WalkPhiladelphiaPennsylvania19104‐6081
| | - Louis J. Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopaedic LaboratoryUniversity of Pennsylvania110 Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton WalkPhiladelphiaPennsylvania19104‐6081
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21
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Sikes KJ, Renner K, Li J, Grande-Allen KJ, Connell JP, Cali V, Midura RJ, Sandy JD, Plaas A, Wang VM. Knockout of hyaluronan synthase 1, but not 3, impairs formation of the retrocalcaneal bursa. J Orthop Res 2018; 36:2622-2632. [PMID: 29672913 PMCID: PMC6203660 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Hyaluronan (HA), a high molecular weight non-sulfated glycosaminoglycan, is an integral component of the extracellular matrix of developing and mature connective tissues including tendon. There are few published reports quantifying HA content during tendon growth and maturation, or detailing its effects on the mechanical properties of the tendon extracellular matrix. Therefore, the goal of the current study was to examine the role of HA synthesis during post-natal skeletal growth and maturation, and its influence on tendon structure and biomechanical function. For this purpose, the morphological, biochemical, and mechanical properties of Achilles tendons from wild type (WT) and hyaluronan synthase 1 and 3 deficient mouse strains (Has1-/- (Has1KO), Has3-/- (Has3KO), and Has1-/- 3-/- (Has1/3KO)) were determined at 4, 8, and 12 weeks of age. Overall, HAS-deficient mice did not show any marked differences from WT mice in Achilles tendon morphology or in the HA and chondroitin/dermatan sulfate (CS/DS) contents. However, HAS1-deficiency (in the single or Has1/3 double KO) impeded post-natal formation of the retrocalcaneal bursa, implicating HAS1 in regulating HA metabolism by cells lining the bursal cavity. Together, these data suggest that HA metabolism via HAS1 and HAS3 does not markedly influence the extracellular matrix structure or function of the tendon body, but plays a role in the formation/maintenance of peritendinous bursa. Additional studies are warranted to elucidate the relationship of HA and CS/DS metabolism to tendon healing and repair in vivo. © 2018 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 36:2622-2632, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie J. Sikes
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Rush University Medical Center, 1611 W. Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60612
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, 851 S. Morgan Street, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Kristen Renner
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, 339 Kelly Hall, 325 Stanger Street MC 0298, Blacksburg, VA, 24061
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Internal Medicine (Rheumatology), Rush University Medical Center, 1611 W. Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - K. Jane Grande-Allen
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005
| | - Jennifer P. Connell
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005
| | - Valbona Cali
- Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue Cleveland, OH 44195
| | - Ronald J. Midura
- Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue Cleveland, OH 44195
| | - John D. Sandy
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Rush University Medical Center, 1611 W. Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Anna Plaas
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Rush University Medical Center, 1611 W. Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60612
- Department of Internal Medicine (Rheumatology), Rush University Medical Center, 1611 W. Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60612
| | - Vincent M. Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, 851 S. Morgan Street, Chicago, IL 60607
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, 339 Kelly Hall, 325 Stanger Street MC 0298, Blacksburg, VA, 24061
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22
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Delgado Caceres M, Pfeifer CG, Docheva D. Understanding Tendons: Lessons from Transgenic Mouse Models. Stem Cells Dev 2018; 27:1161-1174. [PMID: 29978741 PMCID: PMC6121181 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2018.0121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Tendons and ligaments are connective tissues that have been comparatively less studied than muscle and cartilage/bone, even though they are crucial for proper function of the musculoskeletal system. In tendon biology, considerable progress has been made in identifying tendon-specific genes (Scleraxis, Mohawk, and Tenomodulin) in the past decade. However, besides tendon function and the knowledge of a small number of important players in tendon biology, neither the ontogeny of the tenogenic lineage nor signaling cascades have been fully understood. This results in major drawbacks in treatment and repair options following tendon degeneration. In this review, we have systematically evaluated publications describing tendon-related genes, which were studied in depth and characterized by using knockout technologies and the subsequently generated transgenic mouse models (Tg) (knockout mice, KO). We report in a tabular manner, that from a total of 24 tendon-related genes, in 22 of the respective knockout mouse models, phenotypic changes were detected. Additionally, in some of the models it was described at which developmental stages these changes appeared and progressed. To summarize, only loss of Scleraxis and TGFβ signaling led to severe tendon developmental phenotypes, while mice deficient for various proteoglycans, Mohawk, EGR1 and 2, and Tenomodulin presented mild phenotypes. These data suggest that the tendon developmental system is well organized, orchestrated, and backed up; this is even more evident among the members of the proteoglycan family, where the compensatory effects are much clearer. In future, it will be of great importance to discover additional master tendon transcription factors and the genes that play crucial roles in tendon development. This would improve our understanding of the genetic makeup of tendons, and will increase the chances of generating tendon-specific drugs to advance overall treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Delgado Caceres
- Experimental Trauma Surgery, Department of Trauma Surgery, University Regensburg Medical Centre, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Christian G. Pfeifer
- Experimental Trauma Surgery, Department of Trauma Surgery, University Regensburg Medical Centre, Regensburg, Germany
- Department of Trauma Surgery, University Regensburg Medical Centre, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Denitsa Docheva
- Experimental Trauma Surgery, Department of Trauma Surgery, University Regensburg Medical Centre, Regensburg, Germany
- Department of Medical Biology, Medical University-Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
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23
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Fang F, Lake SP. Multiscale Mechanical Evaluation of Human Supraspinatus Tendon Under Shear Loading After Glycosaminoglycan Reduction. J Biomech Eng 2018; 139:2625661. [PMID: 28462418 DOI: 10.1115/1.4036602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Proteoglycans (PGs) are broadly distributed within many soft tissues and, among other roles, often contribute to mechanical properties. Although PGs, consisting of a core protein and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) sidechains, were once hypothesized to regulate stress/strain transfer between collagen fibrils and help support load in tendon, several studies have reported no changes to tensile mechanics after GAG depletion. Since GAGs are known to help sustain nontensile loading in other tissues, we hypothesized that GAGs might help support shear loading in human supraspinatus tendon (SST), a commonly injured tendon which functions in a complex multiaxial loading environment. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether GAGs contribute to the response of SST to shear, specifically in terms of multiscale mechanical properties and mechanisms of microscale matrix deformation. Results showed that chondroitinase ABC (ChABC) treatment digested GAGs in SST while not disrupting collagen fibers. Peak and equilibrium shear stresses decreased only slightly after ChABC treatment and were not significantly different from pretreatment values. Reduced stress ratios were computed and shown to be slightly greater after ChABC treatment compared to phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) incubation without enzyme, suggesting that these relatively small changes in stress values were not due strictly to tissue swelling. Microscale deformations were also not different after ChABC treatment. This study demonstrates that GAGs possibly play a minor role in contributing to the mechanical behavior of SST in shear, but are not a key tissue constituent to regulate shear mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Fang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, MO 63130 e-mail:
| | - Spencer P Lake
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, MO 63130;Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, MO 63130;Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, MO 63130 e-mail:
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24
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Sarver DC, Kharaz YA, Sugg KB, Gumucio JP, Comerford E, Mendias CL. Sex differences in tendon structure and function. J Orthop Res 2017; 35:2117-2126. [PMID: 28071813 PMCID: PMC5503813 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Tendons play a critical role in the transmission of forces between muscles and bones, and chronic tendon injuries and diseases are among the leading causes of musculoskeletal disability. Little is known about sex-based differences in tendon structure and function. Our objective was to evaluate the mechanical properties, biochemical composition, transcriptome, and cellular activity of plantarflexor tendons from 4 month old male and female C57BL/6 mice using in vitro biomechanics, mass spectrometry-based proteomics, genome-wide expression profiling, and cell culture techniques. While the Achilles tendons of male mice were approximately 6% larger than female mice (p < 0.05), the cell density of female mice was around 19% greater than males (p < 0.05). No significant differences in mechanical properties (p > 0.05) of plantaris tendons were observed. Mass spectrometry proteomics analysis revealed no significant difference between sexes in the abundance of major extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins such as collagen types I (p = 0.30) and III (p = 0.68), but female mice had approximately twofold elevations (p < 0.05) in less abundant ECM proteins such as fibronectin, periostin, and tenascin C. The transcriptome of male and female tendons differed by only 1%. In vitro, neither the sex of the serum that fibroblasts were cultured in, nor the sex of the ECM in which they were embedded, had profound effects on the expression of collagen and cell proliferation genes. Our results indicate that while male mice expectedly had larger tendons, male and female tendons have very similar mechanical properties and biochemical composition, with small increases in some ECM proteins and proteoglycans evident in female tendons. © 2017 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 35:2117-2126, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan C Sarver
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Section of Plastic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Yalda Ashraf Kharaz
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Kristoffer B Sugg
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Section of Plastic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA,Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, Section of Plastic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA,Department of Surgery, Section of Plastic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jonathan P Gumucio
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Section of Plastic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA,Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, Section of Plastic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Eithne Comerford
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Christopher L Mendias
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Section of Plastic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA,Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, Section of Plastic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA,Corresponding Author: Christopher L Mendias, PhD, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, BSRB 2017, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2200, 734-764-3250, 734-647-0003 fax,
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25
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Temporal Healing of Achilles Tendons After Injury in Rodents Depends on Surgical Treatment and Activity. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2017; 25:635-647. [PMID: 28837456 PMCID: PMC5603242 DOI: 10.5435/jaaos-d-16-00620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Achilles tendon ruptures affect 15 of 100,000 women and 55 of 100,000 men each year. Controversy continues to exist regarding optimal treatment and rehabilitation protocols. The objective of this study was to investigate the temporal effects of surgical repair and immobilization or activity on Achilles tendon healing and limb function after complete transection in rodents. METHODS Injured tendons were repaired (n = 64) or left nonrepaired (n = 64). The animals in both cohorts were further randomized into groups immobilized in plantar flexion for 1, 3, or 6 weeks that later resumed cage and treadmill activity for 5, 3, or 0 weeks, respectively (n = 36 for each regimen), which were euthanized at 6 weeks after injury, or into groups immobilized for 1 week and then euthanized (n = 20). RESULTS At 6 weeks after injury, the groups that had 1 week of immobilization and 5 weeks of activity had increased range of motion and decreased ankle joint toe stiffness compared with the groups that had 3 weeks of immobilization and 3 weeks of activity. The groups with 6 weeks of immobilization and no activity period had decreased tendon cross-sectional area but increased tendon echogenicity and collagen alignment. Surgical treatment dramatically decreased fatigue cycles to failure in repaired tendons from groups with 1 week of immobilization and 5 weeks of activity. Normalized comparisons between 1-week and 6-week postinjury data demonstrated that changes in tendon healing properties (area, alignment, and echogenicity) were maximized by 1 week of immobilization and 5 weeks of activity, compared with 6 weeks of immobilization and no activity period. DISCUSSION This study builds on an earlier study of Achilles tendon fatigue mechanics and functional outcomes during early healing by examining the temporal effects of different immobilization and/or activity regimens after initial postinjury immobilization. CONCLUSION This study demonstrates how the temporal postinjury healing response of rodent Achilles tendons depends on both surgical treatment and the timing of immobilization/activity timing. The different pattern of healing and qualities of repaired and nonrepaired tendons suggest that two very different healing processes may occur, depending on the chosen immobilization/activity regimen.
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26
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Fang F, Lake SP. Experimental evaluation of multiscale tendon mechanics. J Orthop Res 2017; 35:1353-1365. [PMID: 27878999 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Tendon's primary function is a mechanical link between muscle and bone. The hierarchical structure of tendon and specific compositional constituents are believed to be critical for proper mechanical function. With increased appreciation for tendon importance and the development of various technological advances, this review paper summarizes recent experimental approaches that have been used to study multiscale tendon mechanics, includes an overview of studies that have evaluated the role of specific tissue constituents, and also proposes challenges/opportunities facing tendon study. Tendon has been demonstrated to have specific structural characteristics (e.g., multi-level hierarchy, crimp pattern, helix) and complex mechanical properties (e.g., non-linearity, anisotropy, viscoelasticity). Physical mechanisms including uncrimping, fiber sliding, and collagen reorganization have been shown to govern tendon mechanical responses under both static and dynamic loading. Several tendon constituents with relatively small quantities have been suggested to play a role in its mechanics, although some results are conflicting. Further research should be performed to understand the interplay and communication of tendon mechanical properties across levels of the hierarchical structure, and further show how each of these components contribute to tendon mechanics. The studies summarized and discussed in this review have helped elucidate important aspects of multiscale tendon mechanics, which is a prerequisite for analyzing stress/strain transfer between multiple scales and identifying key principles of mechanotransduction. This information could further facilitate interpreting the functional diversity of tendons from different species, different locations, and even different developmental stages, and then better understand and identify fundamental concepts related to tendon degeneration, disease, and healing. © 2017 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 35:1353-1365, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Fang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, Missouri, 63130
| | - Spencer P Lake
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, Missouri, 63130.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, Missouri, 63130.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, Missouri, 63130
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27
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Foolen J, Wunderli SL, Loerakker S, Snedeker JG. Tissue alignment enhances remodeling potential of tendon-derived cells - Lessons from a novel microtissue model of tendon scarring. Matrix Biol 2017. [PMID: 28636876 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2017.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Tendinopathy is a widespread and unresolved clinical challenge, in which associated pain and hampered mobility present a major cause for work-related disability. Tendinopathy associates with a change from a healthy tissue with aligned extracellular matrix (ECM) and highly polarized cells that are connected head-to-tail, towards a diseased tissue with a disorganized ECM and randomly distributed cells, scar-like features that are commonly attributed to poor innate regenerative capacity of the tissue. A fundamental clinical dilemma with this scarring process is whether treatment strategies should focus on healing the affected (disorganized) tissue or strengthen the remaining healthy (anisotropic) tissue. The question was thus asked whether the intrinsic remodeling capacity of tendon-derived cells depends on the organization of the 3D extracellular matrix (isotropic vs anisotropic). Progress in this field is hampered by the lack of suitable in vitro tissue platforms. We aimed at filling this critical gap by creating and exploiting a next generation tissue platform that mimics aspects of the tendon scarring process; cellular response to a gradient in tissue organization from isotropic (scarred/non-aligned) to highly anisotropic (unscarred/aligned) was studied, as was a transient change from isotropic towards highly anisotropic. Strikingly, cells residing in an 'unscarred' anisotropic tissue indicated superior remodeling capacity (increased gene expression levels of collagen, matrix metalloproteinases MMPs, tissue inhibitors of MMPs), when compared to their 'scarred' isotropic counterparts. A numerical model then supported the hypothesis that cellular remodeling capacity may correlate to cellular alignment strength. This in turn may have improved cellular communication, and could thus relate to the more pronounced connexin43 gap junctions observed in anisotropic tissues. In conclusion, increased tissue anisotropy was observed to enhance the cellular potential for functional remodeling of the matrix. This may explain the poor regenerative capacity of tenocytes in chronic tendinopathy, where the pathological process has resulted in ECM disorganization. Additionally, it lends support to treatment strategies that focus on strengthening the remaining healthy tissue, rather than regenerating scarred tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper Foolen
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Hospital Balgrist, Lengghalde 5, CH-8008 Zurich, Switzerland; Institute for Biomechanics, ETH Zurich, Lengghalde 5, CH-8008 Zurich, Switzerland; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Stefania L Wunderli
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Hospital Balgrist, Lengghalde 5, CH-8008 Zurich, Switzerland; Institute for Biomechanics, ETH Zurich, Lengghalde 5, CH-8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sandra Loerakker
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jess G Snedeker
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Hospital Balgrist, Lengghalde 5, CH-8008 Zurich, Switzerland; Institute for Biomechanics, ETH Zurich, Lengghalde 5, CH-8008 Zurich, Switzerland.
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28
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Freedman BR, Fryhofer GW, Salka NS, Raja HA, Hillin CD, Nuss CA, Farber DC, Soslowsky LJ. Mechanical, histological, and functional properties remain inferior in conservatively treated Achilles tendons in rodents: Long term evaluation. J Biomech 2017; 56:55-60. [PMID: 28366437 PMCID: PMC5393933 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2017.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Conservative treatment (non-operative) of Achilles tendon ruptures is suggested to produce equivalent capacity for return to function; however, long term results and the role of return to activity (RTA) for this treatment paradigm remain unclear. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the long term response of conservatively treated Achilles tendons in rodents with varied RTA. Sprague Dawley rats (n=32) received unilateral blunt transection of the Achilles tendon followed by randomization into groups that returned to activity after 1-week (RTA1) or 3-weeks (RTA3) of limb casting in plantarflexion, before being euthanized at 16-weeks post-injury. Uninjured age-matched control animals were used as a control group (n=10). Limb function, passive joint mechanics, tendon properties (mechanical, histological), and muscle properties (histological, immunohistochemical) were evaluated. Results showed that although hindlimb ground reaction forces and range of motion returned to baseline levels by 16-weeks post-injury regardless of RTA, ankle joint stiffness remained altered. RTA1 and RTA3 groups both exhibited no differences in fatigue properties; however, the secant modulus, hysteresis, and laxity were inferior compared to uninjured age-matched control tendons. Despite these changes, tendons 16-weeks post-injury achieved secant stiffness levels of uninjured tendons. RTA1 and RTA3 groups had no differences in histological properties, but had higher cell numbers compared to control tendons. No changes in gastrocnemius fiber size or type in the superficial or deep regions were detected, except for type 2x fiber fraction. Together, this work highlights RTA-dependent deficits in limb function and tissue-level properties in long-term Achilles tendon and muscle healing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - George W Fryhofer
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Nabeel S Salka
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Harina A Raja
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Cody D Hillin
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Courtney A Nuss
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Daniel C Farber
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Louis J Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
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29
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Orimoto A, Kurokawa M, Handa K, Ishikawa M, Nishida E, Aino M, Mitani A, Ogawa M, Tsuji T, Saito M. F-spondin negatively regulates dental follicle differentiation through the inhibition of TGF-β activity. Arch Oral Biol 2017; 79:7-13. [PMID: 28282516 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2017.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2016] [Revised: 02/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE F-spondin is an extracellular matrix (ECM) protein that belongs to the thrombospondin type I repeat superfamily and is a negative regulator of bone mass. We have previously shown that f-spondin is specifically expressed in the dental follicle (DF), which gives rise to the periodontal ligament (PDL) during the tooth root formation stage. To investigate the molecular mechanism of PDL formation, we investigated the function of f-spondin in DF differentiation. DESIGN The expression patterning of f-spondin in the developing tooth germ was compared with that of periodontal ligament-related genes, including runx2, type I collagen and periostin, by in situ hybridization analysis. To investigate the function of f-spondin during periodontal ligament formation, an f-spondin adenovirus was infected into the bell stage of the developing tooth germ, and the effect on dental differentiation was analyzed. RESULTS F-spondin was specifically expressed in the DF of the developing tooth germ; by contrast, type I collagen, runx2 and periostin were expressed in the DF and in the alveolar bone. F-spondin-overexpresssing tooth germ exhibited a reduction in gene expression of periostin and type I collagen in the DF. By contrast, the knockdown of f-spondin in primary DF cells increased the expression of these genes. Treatment with recombinant f-spondin protein functionally inhibited periostin expression induced by transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β). CONCLUSION Our data indicated that f-spondin inhibits the differentiation of DF cells into periodontal ligament cells by inhibiting TGF-β. These data suggested that f-spondin negatively regulates PDL differentiation which may play an important role in the immature phenotype of DF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai Orimoto
- Division of Operative Dentistry, Department of Restorative Dentistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Misaki Kurokawa
- Faculty of Industrial Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Katsushika, Japan
| | - Keisuke Handa
- Division of Operative Dentistry, Department of Restorative Dentistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Masaki Ishikawa
- Division of Operative Dentistry, Department of Restorative Dentistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Eisaku Nishida
- Department of Periodontology, School of Dentistry, Aichi-gakuin University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Makoto Aino
- Department of Periodontology, School of Dentistry, Aichi-gakuin University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Akio Mitani
- Department of Periodontology, School of Dentistry, Aichi-gakuin University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Miho Ogawa
- Laboratory for Organ Regeneration, RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Takashi Tsuji
- Laboratory for Organ Regeneration, RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Saito
- Division of Operative Dentistry, Department of Restorative Dentistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
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30
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Denduluri SK, Scott B, Lamplot JD, Yin L, Yan Z, Wang Z, Ye J, Wang J, Wei Q, Mohammed MK, Haydon RC, Kang RW, He TC, Athiviraham A, Ho SH, Shi LL. Immortalized Mouse Achilles Tenocytes Demonstrate Long-Term Proliferative Capacity While Retaining Tenogenic Properties. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2016; 22:280-9. [PMID: 26959762 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2015.0244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigating the cellular processes underlying tendon healing can allow researchers to improve long-term outcomes after injury. However, conducting meaningful studies to uncover the injury healing mechanism at cellular and molecular levels remains challenging. This is due to the inherent difficulty in isolating, culturing, and expanding sufficient primary tenocytes, due to their limited proliferative capacity and short lifespan. In this study, we sought to establish a novel line of immortalized mouse Achilles tenocytes (iMATs) with primary tenocyte properties, but increased proliferative capacity suitable for extensive in vitro experimentation. We show that isolated primary mouse Achilles tenocytes (pMATs) can be effectively immortalized using a piggyBac transposon expressing SV40 large T antigen flanked by FLP recombination target site (FRT). The resulting iMATs exhibit markedly greater proliferation and survival, which can be reversed with FLP recombinase. Furthermore, iMATs express the same set of tendon-specific markers as that of primary cells, although in lower levels, and respond similarly to exogenous stimulation with bone morphogenetic protein 13 (BMP13) as has been previously reported with pMATs. Taken together, our results suggest that iMATs acquire long-term proliferative capacity while maintaining tenogenic properties. We believe that iMATs are a suitable model for studying not only the native cellular processes involved in injury and healing, but also potential therapeutic agents that may augment the stability of tendon repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahitya K Denduluri
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Bryan Scott
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Joseph D Lamplot
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Liangjun Yin
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois.,2 Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Diagnostic Medicine, The Affiliated Hospitals of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing, China
| | - Zhengjian Yan
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois.,2 Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Diagnostic Medicine, The Affiliated Hospitals of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing, China
| | - Zhongliang Wang
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois.,2 Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Diagnostic Medicine, The Affiliated Hospitals of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing, China
| | - Jixing Ye
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Jing Wang
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois.,2 Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Diagnostic Medicine, The Affiliated Hospitals of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing, China
| | - Qiang Wei
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois.,2 Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Diagnostic Medicine, The Affiliated Hospitals of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing, China
| | - Maryam K Mohammed
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Rex C Haydon
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Richard W Kang
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Tong-Chuan He
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Aravind Athiviraham
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Sherwin H Ho
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
| | - Lewis L Shi
- 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine, The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine , Chicago, Illinois
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31
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Freedman BR, Gordon JA, Bhatt PB, Pardes AM, Thomas SJ, Sarver JJ, Riggin CN, Tucker JJ, Williams AW, Zanes RC, Hast MW, Farber DC, Silbernagel KG, Soslowsky LJ. Nonsurgical treatment and early return to activity leads to improved Achilles tendon fatigue mechanics and functional outcomes during early healing in an animal model. J Orthop Res 2016; 34:2172-2180. [PMID: 27038306 PMCID: PMC5047851 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Achilles tendon ruptures are common and devastating injuries; however, an optimized treatment and rehabilitation protocol has yet to be defined. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effects of surgical repair and return to activity on joint function and Achilles tendon properties after 3 weeks of healing. Sprague-Dawley rats (N = 100) received unilateral blunt transection of their Achilles tendon. Animals were then randomized into repaired or non-repaired treatments, and further randomized into groups that returned to activity after 1 week (RTA1) or after 3 weeks (RTA3) of limb casting in plantarflexion. Limb function, passive joint mechanics, and tendon properties (mechanical, organizational using high frequency ultrasound, histological, and compositional) were evaluated. Results showed that both treatment and return to activity collectively affected limb function, passive joint mechanics, and tendon properties. Functionally, RTA1 animals had increased dorsiflexion ROM and weight bearing of the injured limb compared to RTA3 animals 3-weeks post-injury. Such functional improvements in RTA1 tendons were evidenced in their mechanical fatigue properties and increased cross sectional area compared to RTA3 tendons. When RTA1 was coupled with nonsurgical treatment, superior fatigue properties were achieved compared to repaired tendons. No differences in cell shape, cellularity, GAG, collagen type I, or TGF-β staining were identified between groups, but collagen type III was elevated in RTA3 repaired tendons. The larger tissue area and increased fatigue resistance created in RTA1 tendons may prove critical for optimized outcomes in early Achilles tendon healing following complete rupture. © 2016 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 34:2172-2180, 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- BR Freedman
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - JA Gordon
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - PB Bhatt
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - AM Pardes
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - SJ Thomas
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Department of Kinesiology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - JJ Sarver
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - CN Riggin
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - JJ Tucker
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - AW Williams
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - RC Zanes
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - MW Hast
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - DC Farber
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - KG Silbernagel
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - LJ Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Fryhofer GW, Freedman BR, Hillin CD, Salka NS, Pardes AM, Weiss SN, Farber DC, Soslowsky LJ. Postinjury biomechanics of Achilles tendon vary by sex and hormone status. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2016; 121:1106-1114. [PMID: 27633741 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00620.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Achilles tendon ruptures are common injuries. Sex differences are present in mechanical properties of uninjured Achilles tendon, but it remains unknown if these differences extend to tendon healing. We hypothesized that ovariectomized females (OVX) and males would exhibit inferior postinjury tendon properties compared with females. Male, female, and OVX Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 32/group) underwent acclimation and treadmill training before blunt transection of the Achilles tendon midsubstance. Injured hindlimbs were immobilized for 1 wk, followed by gradual return to activity and assessment of active and passive hindlimb function. Animals were euthanized at 3 or 6 wk postinjury to assess tendon structure, mechanics, and composition. Passive ankle stiffness and range of motion were superior in females at 3 wk; however, by 6 wk, passive and active function were similar in males and females but remained inferior in OVX. At 6 wk, female tendons had greater normalized secant modulus, viscoelastic behavior, and laxity compared with males. Normalized secant modulus, cross-sectional area and tendon glycosaminoglycan composition were inferior in OVX compared with females at 6 wk. Total fatigue cycles until tendon failure were similar among groups. Postinjury muscle fiber size was better preserved in females compared with males, and females had greater collagen III at the tendon injury site compared with males at 6 wk. Despite male and female Achilles tendons withstanding similar durations of fatigue loading, early passive hindlimb function and tendon mechanical properties, including secant modulus, suggest superior healing in females. Ovarian hormone loss was associated with inferior Achilles tendon healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- George W Fryhofer
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Benjamin R Freedman
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Cody D Hillin
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Nabeel S Salka
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Adam M Pardes
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Stephanie N Weiss
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Daniel C Farber
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Louis J Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopaedic Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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Rubio-Azpeitia E, Bilbao AM, Sánchez P, Delgado D, Andia I. The Properties of 3 Different Plasma Formulations and Their Effects on Tendinopathic Cells. Am J Sports Med 2016; 44:1952-61. [PMID: 27161868 DOI: 10.1177/0363546516643814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tendinopathies are attributed to failure of the healing process and inadequate tissue remodeling. Plasma injections can trigger regenerative responses by modifying the molecular microenvironment. PURPOSE To examine the differences in the mitotic, chemotactic, anabolic, and inflammatory effects between leukocyte- and platelet-rich plasma (L-PRP), platelet-rich plasma (PRP), and platelet-poor plasma (PPP). STUDY DESIGN Controlled laboratory study. METHODS Tendinopathic cells were cultured in 3-dimensional (3D) hydrogels formed using PPP, PRP, and L-PRP. Cell migration was evaluated using a μ-Slide chemotaxis chamber with video microscopy. Proliferation was assessed using XTT assays. Expression of genes associated with matrix turnover, including type 1 collagen (COL1A1), COL3A1, aggrecan, decorin, fibronectin, matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1), MMP-3, A Disintegrin-Like And Metalloprotease With Thrombospondin Type 1 Motif proteins 4 (ADAMTS-4), and ADAMTS-5, was assessed using real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Secreted inflammatory proteins, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), and regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), as well as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), were quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS Tendinopathic cells migrate at a higher velocity along L-PRP and PRP than along PPP gradients. PRP and L-PRP promote hypercellularity. PPP and PRP showed more pronounced anabolic properties, as demonstrated by enhanced COL1A1 and COL3A1 and reduced MMP-1 expression. Decorin, fibronectin, and aggrecan were downregulated in L-PRP compared with PPP and PRP. L-PRP and PRP were shown to be more proinflammatory than PPP in terms of IL-6 secretion, but cells in PPP showed MCP-1(high) phenotype. CTGF secretion was significantly reduced in L-PRP compared with PPP and PRP. CONCLUSION The main advantages of L-PRP and PRP use, compared with PPP, include their stronger chemotactic and proliferative properties. While PPP and PRP stimulate matrix anabolism, L-PRP is more proinflammatory. Emphasis should be placed on the temporal needs and biological characteristics of injured tendons, and plasma formulations need to be tailored accordingly. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Versatile systems allowing the preparation of different plasma formulations, such as PPP, PRP, or L-PRP, can help refine clinical applications by taking advantage of their different biological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Rubio-Azpeitia
- BioCruces Health Research Institute, Cruces University Hospital, Barakaldo, Spain
| | - Ane M Bilbao
- Arthroscopic Surgery Unit Research, Hospital Vithas San José, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Pello Sánchez
- Arthroscopic Surgery Unit Research, Hospital Vithas San José, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Diego Delgado
- Arthroscopic Surgery Unit Research, Hospital Vithas San José, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Isabel Andia
- BioCruces Health Research Institute, Cruces University Hospital, Barakaldo, Spain
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Choi RK, Smith MM, Martin JH, Clarke JL, Dart AJ, Little CB, Clarke EC. Chondroitin sulphate glycosaminoglycans contribute to widespread inferior biomechanics in tendon after focal injury. J Biomech 2016; 49:2694-2701. [PMID: 27316761 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 05/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Both mechanical and structural properties of tendon change after injury however the causal relationship between these properties is presently unclear. This study aimed to determine the extent of biomechanical change in post-injury tendon pathology and whether the sulphated glycosaminoglycans (glycosaminoglycans) present are a causal factor in these changes. Equine superficial digital flexor tendons (SDF tendons) were surgically-injured in vivo (n=6 injured, n=6 control). Six weeks later they were harvested and regionally dissected into twelve regions around the lesion (equal medial/lateral, proximal/distal). Glycosaminoglycans were removed by enzymatic (chondroitinase) treatment. Elastic modulus (modulus) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) were measured under uniaxial tension to failure, and tendon glycosaminoglycan content was measured by spectrophotometry. Compared to healthy tendons, pathology induced by the injury decreased modulus (-38%; 95%CI -49% to -28%; P<0.001) and UTS (-38%; 95%CI -48% to -28%; P<0.001) and increased glycosaminoglycan content (+52%; 95%CI 39% - 64%; P<0.001) throughout the tendon. Chondroitinase-mediated glycosaminoglycan removal (50%; 95%CI 21-79%; P<0.001) in surgically-injured pathological tendons caused a significant increase in modulus (5.6MPa/µg removed; 95%CI 0.31-11; P=0.038) and UTS (1.0MPa per µg removed; 95%CI 0.043-2; P=0.041). These results demonstrate that the chondroitin/dermatan sulphate glycosaminoglycans that accumulate in pathological tendon post-injury are partly responsible for the altered biomechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel K Choi
- Murray Maxwell Biomechanics Laboratory (Institute of Bone and Joint Research), Kolling Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital (Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney), St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia; Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratories (Institute of Bone and Joint Research), Kolling Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital (Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney), St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Margaret M Smith
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratories (Institute of Bone and Joint Research), Kolling Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital (Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney), St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Joshua H Martin
- Murray Maxwell Biomechanics Laboratory (Institute of Bone and Joint Research), Kolling Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital (Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney), St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jillian L Clarke
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Sydney, Lidcombe, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Andrew J Dart
- Research and Clinical Training Unit, University Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Sydney, Camden, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Christopher B Little
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratories (Institute of Bone and Joint Research), Kolling Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital (Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney), St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia.
| | - Elizabeth C Clarke
- Murray Maxwell Biomechanics Laboratory (Institute of Bone and Joint Research), Kolling Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital (Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney), St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
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35
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Abstract
Tendon exhibits anisotropic, inhomogeneous and viscoelastic mechanical properties that are determined by its complicated hierarchical structure and varying amounts/organization of different tissue constituents. Although extensive research has been conducted to use modelling approaches to interpret tendon structure-function relationships in combination with experimental data, many issues remain unclear (i.e. the role of minor components such as decorin, aggrecan and elastin), and the integration of mechanical analysis across different length scales has not been well applied to explore stress or strain transfer from macro- to microscale. This review outlines mathematical and computational models that have been used to understand tendon mechanics at different scales of the hierarchical organization. Model representations at the molecular, fibril and tissue levels are discussed, including formulations that follow phenomenological and microstructural approaches (which include evaluations of crimp, helical structure and the interaction between collagen fibrils and proteoglycans). Multiscale modelling approaches incorporating tendon features are suggested to be an advantageous methodology to understand further the physiological mechanical response of tendon and corresponding adaptation of properties owing to unique in vivo loading environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Fang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science , Washington University in St Louis , St Louis, MO 63130 , USA
| | - Spencer P Lake
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO 63130, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO 63130, USA; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
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