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Kim TK, Slominski RM, Pyza E, Kleszczynski K, Tuckey RC, Reiter RJ, Holick MF, Slominski AT. Evolutionary formation of melatonin and vitamin D in early life forms: insects take centre stage. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:1772-1790. [PMID: 38686544 PMCID: PMC11368659 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Melatonin, a product of tryptophan metabolism via serotonin, is a molecule with an indole backbone that is widely produced by bacteria, unicellular eukaryotic organisms, plants, fungi and all animal taxa. Aside from its role in the regulation of circadian rhythms, it has diverse biological actions including regulation of cytoprotective responses and other functions crucial for survival across different species. The latter properties are also shared by its metabolites including kynuric products generated by reactive oxygen species or phototransfomation induced by ultraviolet radiation. Vitamins D and related photoproducts originate from phototransformation of ∆5,7 sterols, of which 7-dehydrocholesterol and ergosterol are examples. Their ∆5,7 bonds in the B ring absorb solar ultraviolet radiation [290-315 nm, ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation] resulting in B ring opening to produce previtamin D, also referred to as a secosteroid. Once formed, previtamin D can either undergo thermal-induced isomerization to vitamin D or absorb UVB radiation to be transformed into photoproducts including lumisterol and tachysterol. Vitamin D, as well as the previtamin D photoproducts lumisterol and tachysterol, are hydroxylated by cyochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes to produce biologically active hydroxyderivatives. The best known of these is 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D) for which the major function in vertebrates is regulation of calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Herein we review data on melatonin production and metabolism and discuss their functions in insects. We discuss production of previtamin D and vitamin D, and their photoproducts in fungi, plants and insects, as well as mechanisms for their enzymatic activation and suggest possible biological functions for them in these groups of organisms. For the detection of these secosteroids and their precursors and photoderivatives, as well as melatonin metabolites, we focus on honey produced by bees and on body extracts of Drosophila melanogaster. Common biological functions for melatonin derivatives and secosteroids such as cytoprotective and photoprotective actions in insects are discussed. We provide hypotheses for the photoproduction of other secosteroids and of kynuric metabolites of melatonin, based on the known photobiology of ∆5,7 sterols and of the indole ring, respectively. We also offer possible mechanisms of actions for these unique molecules and summarise differences and similarities of melatoninergic and secosteroidogenic pathways in diverse organisms including insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Kang Kim
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Radomir M Slominski
- Department of Genetics, Genomics, Bioinformatics and Informatics Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Elzbieta Pyza
- Department of Cell Biology and Imaging, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, Kraków, 30-387, Poland
| | - Konrad Kleszczynski
- Department of Dermatology, Münster, Von-Esmarch-Str. 58, Münster, 48161, Germany
| | - Robert C Tuckey
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Russel J Reiter
- Department of Cell Systems and Anatomy, UT Health, Long School of Medicine, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | | | - Andrzej T Slominski
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cancer Chemoprevention Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
- VA Medical Center, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
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Abbas AM, Elkhatib WF, Aboulwafa MM, Hassouna NA, Aboshanab KM. Characterization of vitamin D3 biotransformation by the cell lysate of Actinomyces hyovaginalis CCASU-A11-2. AMB Express 2024; 14:43. [PMID: 38658456 PMCID: PMC11043238 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-024-01694-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
A former work conducted in our Lab, lead to in a effective scale up of vitamin D3 bioconversion into calcitriol by Actinomyces (A.) hyovaginalis isolate CCASU-A11-2 in Lab fermenter (14 L) resulting in 32.8 µg/100 mL of calcitriol. However, the time needed for such a bioconversion process was up to 5 days. Therefore, the objective of this study was to shorten the bioconversion time by using cell-free lysate and studying different factors influencing bioconversion. The crude cell lysate was prepared, freeze-dried, and primarily fractionated into nine fractions, of which, only three fractions, 50, 100, and 150 mM NaCl elution buffers showed 22, 12, and 2 µg/10 mL, calcitriol production, respectively. Ammonium sulfate was used for protein precipitation, and it did not affect the bioconversion process except at a concentration of 10%w/v. Secondary fractionation was carried out using 80 mL of the 50 mM NaCl elution buffer and the results showed the 80 mL eluent volume was enough for the complete elution of the active protein. The pH 7.8, temperature 28 °C, and 6 h reaction time were optimum for maximum calcitriol production (31 µg/10 mL). In conclusion, the transformation of vitamin D3 into calcitriol was successfully carried out within 6 h and at pH 7.8 and 28 °C using fractionated cell lysate. This process resulted in a 10-fold increase in calcitriol as compared to that produced in our previous study using a 14 L fermenter (32.8 µg/100 mL). Therefore, cell-free lysate should be considered for industrial and scaling up vitamin D3 bioconversion into calcitriol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad M Abbas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Salman International University (KSIU), Ras Sudr, South Sinai, Egypt
| | - Walid F Elkhatib
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Galala University, New Galala City, Suez, Egypt
| | - Mohammad M Aboulwafa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Salman International University (KSIU), Ras Sudr, South Sinai, Egypt
| | - Nadia A Hassouna
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
| | - Khaled M Aboshanab
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt.
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Abbas AM, Elkhatib WF, Aboulwafa MM, Hassouna NA, Aboshanab KM. Bioconversion of vitamin D 3 into calcitriol by Actinomyces hyovaginalis isolate CCASU- A11-2. AMB Express 2023; 13:73. [PMID: 37434090 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-023-01574-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Vitamin D3 is a fat-soluble prohormone that is activated inside the liver to produce 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (calcidiol), and in the kidney to produce the fully active 1α, 25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 (calcitriol). A previous work piloted in our laboratory, resulted in a successful recovery of a local soil-promising Actinomyces hyovaginalis isolate CCASU-A11-2 capable of converting vitamin D3 into calcitriol. Despite the rising amount of research on vitamin D3 bioconversion into calcitriol, further deliberate studies on this topic can significantly contribute to the improvement of such a bioconversion process. Therefore, this work aimed to improve the bioconversion process, using the study isolate, in a 14 L laboratory fermenter (4 L fermentation medium composed of fructose (15 g/L), defatted soybean (15 g/L), NaCl (5 g/L), CaCO3 2 g/L); K2HPO4, (1 g/L) NaF (0.5 g/L) and initial of pH 7.8) where different experiments were undertaken to investigate the effect of different culture conditions on the bioconversion process. Using the 14 L laboratory fermenter, the calcitriol production was increased by about 2.5-fold (32.8 µg/100 mL) to that obtained in the shake flask (12.4 µg/100 mL). The optimal bioconversion conditions were inoculum size of 2% v/v, agitation rate of 200 rpm, aeration rate of 1 vvm, initial pH of 7.8 (uncontrolled); addition of vitamin D3 (substrate) 48 h after the start of the main culture. In conclusion, the bioconversion of vitamin D3 into calcitriol in a laboratory fermenter showed a 2.5-fold increase as compared to the shake flask level where, the important factors influencing the bioconversion process were the aeration rate, inoculum size, the timing of substrate addition, and the fixed pH of the fermentation medium. So, those factors should be critically considered for the scaling-up of the biotransformation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad M Abbas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Salman International University, South Sinai, Egypt
| | - Walid F Elkhatib
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Galala University, New Galala city, Suez, Egypt
| | - Mohammad M Aboulwafa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Salman International University, South Sinai, Egypt
| | - Nadia A Hassouna
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
| | - Khaled M Aboshanab
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, African Union Organization St. Abbassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt.
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Norlin M, Wikvall K. Enzymatic activation in vitamin D signaling - Past, present and future. Arch Biochem Biophys 2023; 742:109639. [PMID: 37196753 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2023.109639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin D signaling is important in regulating calcium homeostasis essential for bone health but also displays other functions in cells of several tissues. Disturbed vitamin D signaling is linked to a large number of diseases. The multiple cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes catalyzing the different hydroxylations in bioactivation of vitamin D3 are crucial for vitamin D signaling and function. This review is focused on the progress achieved in identification of the bioactivating enzymes and their genes in production of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and other active metabolites. Results obtained on species- and tissue-specific expression, catalytic reactions, substrate specificity, enzyme kinetics, and consequences of gene mutations are evaluated. Matters of incomplete understanding regarding the physiological roles of some vitamin D hydroxylases are critically discussed and the authors will give their view of the importance of each enzyme for vitamin D signaling. Roles of different vitamin D receptors and an alternative bioactivation pathway, leading to 20-hydroxylated vitamin D3 metabolites, are also discussed. Considerable progress has been achieved in knowledge of the vitamin D3 bioactivating enzymes. Nevertheless, several intriguing areas deserve further attention to understand the pleiotropic and diverse activities elicited by vitamin D signaling and the mechanisms of enzymatic activation necessary for vitamin D-induced responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Norlin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Kjell Wikvall
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Shang S, He Z, Hou W, Chen X, Zhao X, Han H, Chen S, Yang S, Tai F. Molecular cloning, expression analysis and functional characterization of chicken cytochrome P450 27A1: A novel mitochondrial vitamin D 3 25-hydroxylase. Poult Sci 2023; 102:102747. [PMID: 37276702 PMCID: PMC10258509 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2023.102747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Vitamin D3 is hydroxylated by cytochrome P450 (CYP) before exerting biological effects. The chicken CYP involved in vitamin D3 25-hydroxylation has yet to be cloned, and little is known about its functional characteristics, tissue distribution, and cellular expression. We identified a novel, full-length CYP27A1 gene cloned from chicken hepatocyte cDNA that encodes a putative protein of 518 amino acids. Swiss modeling revealed that chicken CYP27A1 has a classic open-fold form. Multisequence homology alignment determined that CYP27A1 contains conserved motifs for substrate recognition and binding. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis in 2-mo-old Partridge Shank broilers demonstrated that CYP27A1 mRNA levels were highest in the liver, followed by the thigh muscles, the breast muscles, and kidneys. The transcripts of CYP27A1 in breast muscles were significantly higher in males than in females. A subcellular localization analysis demonstrated that CYP27A1 was mainly expressed in the mitochondria. In vitro enzyme assays suggested that recombinant CYP27A1 hydroxylates vitamin D3 at the C-25 position to form 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25(OH)D3). The Km and Vmax values for CYP27A1-dependent vitamin D3 25-hydroxylation were estimated to be 4.929 μM and 0.389 mol min-1 mg-1 protein, respectively. In summary, these results suggest that CYP27A1 encodes a mitochondrial CYP that plays an important physiologic role in the 25-hydroxylation of vitamin D3 in chickens, providing novel insights into vitamin D3 metabolism in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Shang
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, China; Institute of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China; Qinba State Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Ecological Environment (Incubation), Hanzhong, China; Qinba Mountain Area Collaborative Innovation Center of Bioresources Comprehensive Development, China
| | - Z He
- Institute of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - W Hou
- Institute of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - X Chen
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, China
| | - X Zhao
- Hanzhong Central Hospital, Hanzhong, China
| | - H Han
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, China
| | - S Chen
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, China
| | - S Yang
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, China
| | - F Tai
- Institute of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China.
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The "beauty in the beast"-the multiple uses of Priestia megaterium in biotechnology. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:5719-5737. [PMID: 34263356 PMCID: PMC8390425 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11424-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Abstract Over 30 years, the Gram-positive bacterium Priestia megaterium (previously known as Bacillus megaterium) was systematically developed for biotechnological applications ranging from the production of small molecules like vitamin B12, over polymers like polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) up to the in vivo and in vitro synthesis of multiple proteins and finally whole-cell applications. Here we describe the use of the natural vitamin B12 (cobalamin) producer P. megaterium for the elucidation of the biosynthetic pathway and the subsequent systematic knowledge-based development for production purposes. The formation of PHB, a natural product of P. megaterium and potential petro-plastic substitute, is covered and discussed. Further important biotechnological characteristics of P. megaterium for recombinant protein production including high protein secretion capacity and simple cultivation on value-added carbon sources are outlined. This includes the advanced system with almost 30 commercially available expression vectors for the intracellular and extracellular production of recombinant proteins at the g/L scale. We also revealed a novel P. megaterium transcription-translation system as a complementary and versatile biotechnological tool kit. As an impressive biotechnology application, the formation of various cytochrome P450 is also critically highlighted. Finally, whole cellular applications in plant protection are completing the overall picture of P. megaterium as a versatile giant cell factory. Key points • The use of Priestia megaterium for the biosynthesis of small molecules and recombinant proteins through to whole-cell applications is reviewed. • P. megaterium can act as a promising alternative host in biotechnological production processes.
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Cho H, Shen Q, Zhang LH, Okumura M, Kawakami A, Ambrose J, Sigoillot F, Miller HR, Gleim S, Cobos-Correa A, Wang Y, Piechon P, Roma G, Eggimann F, Moore C, Aspesi P, Mapa FA, Burks H, Ross NT, Krastel P, Hild M, Maimone TJ, Fisher DE, Nomura DK, Tallarico JA, Canham SM, Jenkins JL, Forrester WC. CYP27A1-dependent anti-melanoma activity of limonoid natural products targets mitochondrial metabolism. Cell Chem Biol 2021; 28:1407-1419.e6. [PMID: 33794192 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2021.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Three limonoid natural products with selective anti-proliferative activity against BRAF(V600E) and NRAS(Q61K)-mutation-dependent melanoma cell lines were identified. Differential transcriptome analysis revealed dependency of compound activity on expression of the mitochondrial cytochrome P450 oxidase CYP27A1, a transcriptional target of melanogenesis-associated transcription factor (MITF). We determined that CYP27A1 activity is necessary for the generation of a reactive metabolite that proceeds to inhibit cellular proliferation. A genome-wide small interfering RNA screen in combination with chemical proteomics experiments revealed gene-drug functional epistasis, suggesting that these compounds target mitochondrial biogenesis and inhibit tumor bioenergetics through a covalent mechanism. Our work suggests a strategy for melanoma-specific targeting by exploiting the expression of MITF target gene CYP27A1 and inhibiting mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in BRAF mutant melanomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyelim Cho
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Qiong Shen
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Lydia H Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Mikiko Okumura
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Akinori Kawakami
- Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Jessi Ambrose
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Frederic Sigoillot
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Howard R Miller
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Scott Gleim
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Amanda Cobos-Correa
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ying Wang
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Piechon
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Guglielmo Roma
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabian Eggimann
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Charles Moore
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Peter Aspesi
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Felipa A Mapa
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Heather Burks
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Nathan T Ross
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Philipp Krastel
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marc Hild
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Thomas J Maimone
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - David E Fisher
- Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Daniel K Nomura
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Innovative Genomics Institute, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - John A Tallarico
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Stephen M Canham
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Jeremy L Jenkins
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - William C Forrester
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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Hartz P, Gehl M, König L, Bernhardt R, Hannemann F. Development and application of a highly efficient CRISPR-Cas9 system for genome engineering in Bacillus megaterium. J Biotechnol 2021; 329:170-179. [PMID: 33600891 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2021.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus megaterium has become increasingly important for the biotechnological production of valuable compounds of industrial and pharmaceutical importance. Despite recent advances in rational strain design of B. megaterium, these studies have been largely impaired by the lack of molecular tools that are not state-of-the-art for comprehensive genome engineering approaches. In the current work, we describe the adaptation of the CRISPR-Cas9 vector pJOE8999 to enable efficient genome editing in B. megaterium. Crucial modifications comprise the exchange of promoter elements and associated ribosomal binding sites as well as the implementation of a 5-fluorouracil based counterselection system to facilitate proper plasmid curing. In addition, the functionality and performance of the new CRISPR-Cas9 vector pMOE was successfully evaluated by chromosomal disruption studies of the endogenous β-galactosidase gene (BMD_2126) and demonstrated an outstanding efficiency of 100 % based on combinatorial pheno- and genotype analyses. Furthermore, pMOE was applied for the genomic deletion of a steroid esterase gene (BMD_2256) that was identified among several other candidates as the gene encoding the esterase, which prevented accumulation of pharmaceutically important glucocorticoid esters. Recombinant expression of the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase 1 gene (cat1) in the resulting esterase deficient B. megaterium strain ultimately yielded C21-acetylated as well as novel C21-esterified derivates of cortisone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Hartz
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Manuel Gehl
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany; Present address: Microbial Protein Structure Group, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Karl-von-Frisch-Strasse 10, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Lisa König
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Frank Hannemann
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.
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Di Nardo G, Gilardi G. Natural Compounds as Pharmaceuticals: The Key Role of Cytochromes P450 Reactivity. Trends Biochem Sci 2020; 45:511-525. [PMID: 32413326 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2020.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The design of drugs from natural products is a re-emerging area due to the need for bioactive compounds. The exploitation of natural products and their derivatives obtained by biocatalysis is in line with the higher attention given today to new sustainable technologies that better preserve the environment (green chemistry). The research field of cytochromes P450 (CYPs) is continuously providing new enzymes and mutants that produce metabolites suitable for late-stage functionalization for new potential drugs. This review provides an overview of the exploitation of CYPs as biocatalysts in drug synthesis. Additionally, recent progress in protein and metabolic engineering is provided to show how these enzymes offer a toolbox that can be combined with other biocatalytic or chemical processes to build new platforms for the green production of new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Di Nardo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Torino, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Gilardi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Torino, Italy.
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Whole-cell biocatalysis using cytochrome P450 monooxygenases for biotransformation of sustainable bioresources (fatty acids, fatty alkanes, and aromatic amino acids). Biotechnol Adv 2020; 40:107504. [PMID: 31926255 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450s (CYPs) are heme-thiolated enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of CH bonds in a regio and stereoselective manner. Activation of the non-activated carbon atom can be further enhanced by multistep chemo-enzymatic reactions; moreover, several useful chemicals can be synthesized to provide alternative organic synthesis routes. Given their versatile functionality, CYPs show promise in a number of biotechnological fields. Recently, various CYPs, along with their sequences and functionalities, have been identified owing to rapid developments in sequencing technology and molecular biotechnology. In addition to these discoveries, attempts have been made to utilize CYPs to industrially produce biochemicals from available and sustainable bioresources such as oil, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lignin. Here, these accomplishments, particularly those involving the use of CYP enzymes as whole-cell biocatalysts for bioresource biotransformation, will be reviewed. Further, recently developed biotransformation pathways that result in gram-scale yields of fatty acids and fatty alkanes as well as aromatic amino acids, which depend on the hosts used for CYP expression, and the nature of the multistep reactions will be discussed. These pathways are similar regardless of whether the hosts are CYP-producing or non-CYP-producing; the limitations of these methods and the ways to overcome them are reviewed here.
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Tang D, Liu W, Huang L, Cheng L, Xu Z. Efficient biotransformation of vitamin D 3 to 25-hydroxyvitamin D 3 by a newly isolated Bacillus cereus strain. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 104:765-774. [PMID: 31776608 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-10250-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
25-hydroxyvitamin D3 has attracted considerable attention due to its great medical value and huge market demand in animal husbandry. Microbial production of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 has been recognized as an alternative superior to traditional chemical synthesis. In this study, a Gram-positive bacteria zju 4-2 (CCTCC M 2019385) was isolated from the soil using vitamin D3 as the sole carbon source and was identified as Bacillus cereus according to its physiological characteristics and 16S rRNA analysis, which also showed a relatively high capacity for 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 production. Through systematic optimization of different catalytic conditions, the optimal solvent system of vitamin D3, vitamin D3 addition time and concentration, temperature, and pH were shown to be propylene glycol/ethanol (v/v = 9:1), early stationary phase, 2 g/L, 37 °C, and pH 7.2, respectively. With these optimal conditions, 796 mg/L of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 was achieved after 48 h bioconversion with zju 4-2 at the shake flask level. Finally, up to 830 mg/L 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 with a yield of 41.5% was obtained in a 5 L fermentation tank. Our developed biotransformation process with this newly isolated strain provides a platform to produce 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 efficiently at industrialization scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, College of Energy Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China.,Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering (Education Ministry), College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering (Education Ministry), College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Lei Huang
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering (Education Ministry), College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Leming Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, College of Energy Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China.
| | - Zhinan Xu
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering (Education Ministry), College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China.
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12
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Expanding the promoter toolbox of Bacillus megaterium. J Biotechnol 2019; 294:38-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2019.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Abdulmughni A, Jóźwik IK, Brill E, Hannemann F, Thunnissen AMWH, Bernhardt R. Biochemical and structural characterization of CYP109A2, a vitamin D 3 25-hydroxylase from Bacillus megaterium. FEBS J 2017; 284:3881-3894. [PMID: 28940959 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 enzymes are increasingly investigated due to their potential application as biocatalysts with high regio- and/or stereo-selectivity and under mild conditions. Vitamin D3 (VD3 ) metabolites are of pharmaceutical importance and are applied for the treatment of VD3 deficiency and other disorders. However, the chemical synthesis of VD3 derivatives shows low specificity and low yields. In this study, cytochrome P450 CYP109A2 from Bacillus megaterium DSM319 was expressed, purified, and shown to oxidize VD3 with high regio-selectivity. The in vitro conversion, using cytochrome P450 reductase (BmCPR) and ferredoxin (Fdx2) from the same strain, showed typical Michaelis-Menten reaction kinetics. A whole-cell system in B. megaterium overexpressing CYP109A2 reached 76 ± 5% conversion after 24 h and allowed to identify the main product by NMR analysis as 25-hydroxylated VD3 . Product yield amounted to 54.9 mg·L-1 ·day-1 , rendering the established whole-cell system as a highly promising biocatalytic route for the production of this valuable metabolite. The crystal structure of substrate-free CYP109A2 was determined at 2.7 Å resolution, displaying an open conformation. Structural analysis predicts that CYP109A2 uses a highly similar set of residues for VD3 binding as the related VD3 hydroxylases CYP109E1 from B. megaterium and CYP107BR1 (Vdh) from Pseudonocardia autotrophica. However, the folds and sequences of the BC loops in these three P450s are highly divergent, leading to differences in the shape and apolar/polar surface distribution of their active site pockets, which may account for the observed differences in substrate specificity and the regio-selectivity of VD3 hydroxylation. DATABASE The atomic coordinates and structure factors have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank with accession code 5OFQ (substrate-free CYP109A2). ENZYMES Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase CYP109A2, EC 1.14.14.1, UniProt ID: D5DF88, Ferredoxin, UniProt ID: D5DFQ0, cytochrome P450 reductase, EC 1.8.1.2, UniProt ID: D5DGX1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ammar Abdulmughni
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Ilona K Jóźwik
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elisa Brill
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Frank Hannemann
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Andy-Mark W H Thunnissen
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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Stenger B, Gerber A, Bernhardt R, Hannemann F. Functionalized poly(3-hydroxybutyric acid) bodies as new in vitro biocatalysts. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2017; 1866:52-59. [PMID: 28870733 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cytochromes P450 play a key role in the drug and steroid metabolism in the human body. This leads to a high interest in this class of proteins. Mammalian cytochromes P450 are rather delicate. Due to their localization in the mitochondrial or microsomal membrane, they tend to aggregate during expression and purification and to convert to an inactive form so that they have to be purified and stored in complex buffers. The complex buffers and low storage temperatures, however, limit the feasibility of fast, automated screening of the corresponding cytochrome P450-effector interactions, which are necessary to study substrate-protein and inhibitor-protein interactions. Here, we present the production and isolation of functionalized poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) granules (PHB bodies) from Bacillus megaterium MS941 strain. In contrast to the expression in Escherichia coli, where mammalian cytochromes P450 are associated to the cell membrane, when CYP11A1 is heterologously expressed in Bacillus megaterium, it is located on the PHB bodies. The surface of these particles provides a matrix for immobilization and stabilization of the CYP11A1 during the storage of the protein and substrate conversion. It was demonstrated that the PHB polymer basis is inert concerning the performed conversion. Immobilization of the CYP11A1 onto the PHB bodies allows freeze-drying of the complex without significant decrease of the CYP11A1 activity. This is the first lyophilization of a mammalian cytochrome P450, which allows storage over more than 18days at 4°C instead of storage at -80°C. In addition, we were able to immobilize the cytochrome P450 on the PHB bodies in vitro. In this case the expression of the protein is separated from the production of the immobilization matrix, which widens the application of this method. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cytochrome P450 biodiversity and biotechnology, edited by Erika Plettner, Gianfranco Gilardi, Luet Wong, Vlada Urlacher, Jared Goldstone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Stenger
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Adrian Gerber
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Frank Hannemann
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany.
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Ly TTB, Schifrin A, Nguyen BD, Bernhardt R. Improvement of a P450-Based Recombinant Escherichia coli Whole-Cell System for the Production of Oxygenated Sesquiterpene Derivatives. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:3891-3899. [PMID: 28447451 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b00792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Sesquiterpenes are common constituents of essential oil in plants. Their oxygenated derivatives often possess desirable flavor, fragrance, and pharmaceutical properties. Recently, the CYP264B1-based recombinant Escherichia coli whole-cell system has been constructed for the oxidation of sesquiterpenes. However, limiting factors of this system related to the high volatility of substrates and the suitability of the P450 redox partner need to be addressed. In this work, the improvement of the system was implemented with (+)-α-longipinene as a model substrate. By using 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin and an alternative ferredoxin reductase, the conversion of (+)-α-longipinene was improved 77.1%. Applying the optimized conditions, the yields of the main products were 54.2, 34.2, and 47.2 mg L-1, corresponding to efficiencies of 82.1, 51.8, and 71.5% for the conversion of (+)-α-longipinene, (-)-isolongifolene, and α-humulene, respectively, at a 200 mL scale. These products were characterized as 12-hydroxy-α-longipinene, isolongifolene-9-one, and 5-hydroxy-α-humulene, respectively, by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thuy T B Ly
- Institute of Biotechnology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) , 18-Hoang Quoc Viet, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Alexander Schifrin
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University , D-66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Bach Duc Nguyen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Vietnam National University of Agriculture , Ngo Xuan Quang, Trau Quy, Gia Lam, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University , D-66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
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Abstract
Steroid modifications by selected wild-type and engineered strains of microorganisms became an effective tool for the production of high-valued steroidal drugs and their precursors for the pharmaceutical industry. Some microorganisms are effective at the performance of sterol side-chain degradation, oxyfunctionalization of steroid core, and redox reactions at different positions of the steroid molecule. A number of bioprocesses using steroid-transforming microbial strains are well established on an industrial level. Although a range of biocatalytic methods has been developed, selection of suitable microorganisms, as well as creation of new engineered strains, is of great importance for generation of improved bioprocesses and production schemes for obtaining known and new metabolites with potent biological activity. The achievements in genetic and metabolic engineering of steroid-transforming strains in combination with novel approaches in the enzymatic and whole-cell biocatalysis provide a platform for highly effective and selective biotransformations.Here, we briefly review the current state and prospects in the field of microbial bioconversions with special attention to the application of molecular microbiology methods for the generation of new whole cell biocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina V Donova
- G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry & Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki, 5, Puschino, Russia, 142290.
- Pharmins LTD, Pushchino, 142290, Russia.
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Characterization of cytochrome P450 CYP109E1 from Bacillus megaterium as a novel vitamin D 3 hydroxylase. J Biotechnol 2016; 243:38-47. [PMID: 28043840 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2016.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 12/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In this study the ability of CYP109E1 from Bacillus megaterium to metabolize vitamin D3 (VD3) was investigated. In an in vitro system using bovine adrenodoxin reductase (AdR) and adrenodoxin (Adx4-108), VD3 was converted by CYP109E1 into several products. Furthermore, a whole-cell system in B. megaterium MS941 was established. The new system showed a conversion of 95% after 24h. By NMR analysis it was found that CYP109E1 catalyzes hydroxylation of VD3 at carbons C-24 and C-25, resulting in the formation of 24(S)-hydroxyvitamin D3 (24S(OH)VD3), 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25(OH)VD3) and 24S,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (24S,25(OH)2VD3). Through time dependent whole-cell conversion of VD3, we identified that the formation of 24S,25(OH)2VD3 by CYP109E1 is derived from VD3 via the intermediate 24S(OH)VD3. Moreover, using docking analysis and site-directed mutagenesis, we identified important active site residues capable of determining substrate specificity and regio-selectivity. HPLC analysis of the whole-cell conversion with the I85A-mutant revealed an increased selectivity towards 25-hydroxylation of VD3 compared with the wild type activity, resulting in an approximately 2-fold increase of 25(OH)VD3 production (45mgl-1day-1) compared to wild type (24.5mgl-1day-1).
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Gerber A, Milhim M, Hartz P, Zapp J, Bernhardt R. Genetic engineering of Bacillus megaterium for high-yield production of the major teleost progestogens 17α,20β-di- and 17α,20β,21α-trihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one. Metab Eng 2016; 36:19-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2016.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Ehrhardt M, Gerber A, Zapp J, Hannemann F, Bernhardt R. Human CYP27A1 catalyzes hydroxylation of β-sitosterol and ergosterol. Biol Chem 2016; 397:513-8. [DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2016-0111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
β-Sitosterol and ergosterol are the equivalents of cholesterol in plants and fungi, respectively, and common sterols in the human diet. In the current work, both were identified as novel CYP27A1 substrates by in vitro experiments applying purified human CYP27A1 and its redox partners adrenodoxin (Adx) and adrenodoxin reductase (AdR). A Bacillus megaterium based biocatalyst recombinantly expressing the same proteins was utilized for the conversion of the substrates to obtain sufficient amounts of the novel products for a structural NMR analysis. β-Sitosterol was found to be converted into 26-hydroxy-β-sitosterol and 29-hydroxy-β-sitosterol, whereas ergosterol was converted into 24-hydroxyergosterol, 26-hydroxyergosterol and 28-hydroxyergosterol.
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