1
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Aftab N, Gupta A, Prasad P, Kushwaha HK, Kishor R, Singh V, Chandra S, Venkatesha KT, Kumar D, Kumar N, Shanker K, Gupta N, Kumar B. Exploring Genetic Diversity for High CBD Content in Cannabis Accessions in Tropical and Subtropical Regions of India. Biochem Genet 2024:10.1007/s10528-024-10914-2. [PMID: 39322818 DOI: 10.1007/s10528-024-10914-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 09/09/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024]
Abstract
Cannabis, also known as marijuana or hemp, has been utilized since ancient times for industrial, religious, recreational, and medical uses. However, regardless of the intended use, there are legal requirements for quantitative testing of cannabinoids across the supply chains. This investigation aimed to evaluate the genetic diversity of 54 Cannabis samples collected from tropical and subtropical regions in India. The research found a high genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV), phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV), heritability, and genetic advance for total cannabidiol (CBD) content. The genotypic and phenotypic correlation among the morpho-chemical characters revealed strong positive correlations among most characters. Clustering and Principal component analysis identified three accessions in cluster II (CIM-CS-65, CIM-CS-189 & CIM-CS-64) with high CBD content that could be used for breeding and as sources of high CBD content in Cannabis. CIM-CS-64, with its high CBD content with 0.01%THC content, holds potential as a valuable parental line for utilization in hybridization programs and recombinant breeding. Furthermore, in accordance with the NDPC Act of 1985, CIM-CS-64 can be commercialized for medicinal purposes, making it a promising source for the development of medicinal CBD products.
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Grants
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- GAP-430 Asheesh Concentrates International LLP (ACI), Mumbai (Maharashtra) India
- Candidate Id: 132-3067-6419/2K23/1 CSIR-Direct SRF, CSIR, Govt. of India, New Delhi
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Affiliation(s)
- Nashra Aftab
- Seed Quality Lab, Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226015, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Akancha Gupta
- Seed Quality Lab, Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226015, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Priyanka Prasad
- Seed Quality Lab, Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226015, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Himanshu Kumar Kushwaha
- Seed Quality Lab, Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226015, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Ram Kishor
- Seed Quality Lab, Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226015, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Vagmi Singh
- Seed Quality Lab, Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226015, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Shivani Chandra
- Seed Quality Lab, Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226015, India
| | - K T Venkatesha
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
- Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Centre-Pantnagar, US Nagar, 263149, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Dipender Kumar
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
- Division of Crop Production and Protection, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Centre-Pantnagar, US Nagar, 263149, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Narendra Kumar
- Seed Quality Lab, Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226015, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Karuna Shanker
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
- Chemical Sciences Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, 226015, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Namita Gupta
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
- Chemical Sciences Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, 226015, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Birendra Kumar
- Seed Quality Lab, Plant Breeding and Genetic Resources Conservation Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226015, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India.
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2
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Wang F, Zang Z, Zhao Q, Xiaoyang C, Lei X, Wang Y, Ma Y, Cao R, Song X, Tang L, Deyholos MK, Zhang J. Advancement of Research Progress on Synthesis Mechanism of Cannabidiol (CBD). ACS Synth Biol 2024; 13:2008-2018. [PMID: 38900848 PMCID: PMC11264327 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.4c00239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is a multipurpose crop with high value for food, textiles, and other industries. Its secondary metabolites, including cannabidiol (CBD), have potential for broad application in medicine. With the CBD market expanding, traditional production may not be sufficient. Here we review the potential for the production of CBD using biotechnology. We describe the chemical and biological synthesis of cannabinoids, the associated enzymes, and the application of metabolic engineering, synthetic biology, and heterologous expression to increasing production of CBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu Wang
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Zhenyuan Zang
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Qian Zhao
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Chunxiao Xiaoyang
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Xiujuan Lei
- College
of Chinese Medicinal Materials, Jilin Agricultural
University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Yingping Wang
- College
of Chinese Medicinal Materials, Jilin Agricultural
University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Yiqiao Ma
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
| | - Rongan Cao
- College
of Food Science, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural
University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xixia Song
- Institute
of Industrial Crops of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Haerbin 150000, China
| | - Lili Tang
- Institute
of Industrial Crops of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Haerbin 150000, China
| | - Michael K. Deyholos
- Department
of Biology, University of British Columbia,
Okanagan, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Jian Zhang
- Faculty
of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
- Department
of Biology, University of British Columbia,
Okanagan, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
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3
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Charles APR, Gu Z, Archer R, Auwarter C, Hatterman-Valenti H, Rao J, Chen B. Effect of High-Tunnel and Open-Field Production on the Yield, Cannabinoids, and Volatile Profiles in Industrial Hemp ( Cannabis sativa L.) Inflorescence. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:12975-12987. [PMID: 38807047 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c01668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
This study discovered the impact of high-tunnel (i.e., unheated greenhouse) and open-field production on two industrial hemp cultivars (SB1 and CJ2) over their yield parameters, cannabinoid development, and volatile profiles. Development of neutral cannabinoids (CBD, THC, and CBC), acidic cannabinoids (CBDA, THCA, and CBCA), and total cannabinoids during floral maturation were investigated. The volatile profiles of hemp flowers were holistically compared via HS-SPME-GC/MS. Findings indicated a high tunnel as an efficient practice for achieving greater total weight, stem number, and caliper, especially in the SB1 cultivar. Harvesting high-tunnel-grown SB1 cultivars during early flower maturation could obtain a high CBD yield while complying with THC regulations. Considering the volatile profiles, hemp flowers mainly consisted of mono- and sesquiterpenoids, as well as oxygenated mono- and sesquiterpenoids. Volatile analysis revealed the substantial impact of cultivars on the volatile profile compared to the production systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anto Pradeep Raja Charles
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
| | - Zixuan Gu
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
| | - Ryan Archer
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
| | - Collin Auwarter
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
| | - Harlene Hatterman-Valenti
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
| | - Jiajia Rao
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
| | - Bingcan Chen
- Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, United States
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4
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Love AC, Purdy TN, Hubert FM, Kirwan EJ, Holland DC, Moore BS. Discovery of Latent Cannabichromene Cyclase Activity in Marine Bacterial Flavoenzymes. ACS Synth Biol 2024; 13:1343-1354. [PMID: 38459634 PMCID: PMC11031283 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.4c00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Production of phytocannabinoids remains an area of active scientific interest due to the growing use of cannabis by the public and the underexplored therapeutic potential of the over 100 minor cannabinoids. While phytocannabinoids are biosynthesized by Cannabis sativa and other select plants and fungi, structural analogs and stereoisomers can only be accessed synthetically or through heterologous expression. To date, the bioproduction of cannabinoids has required eukaryotic hosts like yeast since key, native oxidative cyclization enzymes do not express well in bacterial hosts. Here, we report that two marine bacterial flavoenzymes, Clz9 and Tcz9, perform oxidative cyclization reactions on phytocannabinoid precursors to efficiently generate cannabichromene scaffolds. Furthermore, Clz9 and Tcz9 express robustly in bacteria and display significant tolerance to organic solvent and high substrate loading, thereby enabling fermentative production of cannabichromenic acid in Escherichia coli and indicating their potential for biocatalyst development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna C. Love
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Trevor N. Purdy
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Felix M. Hubert
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Ella J. Kirwan
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Darren C. Holland
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Bradley S. Moore
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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5
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Schmidt C, Aras M, Kayser O. Engineering cannabinoid production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol J 2024; 19:e2300507. [PMID: 38403455 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202300507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Phytocannabinoids are natural products with highly interesting pharmacological properties mainly produced by plants. The production of cannabinoids in a heterologous host system has gained interest in recent years as a promising alternative to production from plant material. However, the systems reported so far do not achieve industrially relevant titers, highlighting the need for alternative systems. Here, we show the production of the cannabinoids cannabigerolic acid and cannabigerol from glucose and hexanoic acid in a heterologous yeast system using the aromatic prenyltransferase NphB from Streptomyces sp. strain CL190. The production was significantly increased by introducing a fusion protein consisting of ERG20WW and NphB. Furthermore, we improved the production of the precursor olivetolic acid to a titer of 56 mg L-1 . The implementation of the cannabinoid synthase genes enabled the production of Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinolic acid, cannabidiolic acid as well as cannabichromenic acid, where the heterologous biosynthesis of cannabichromenic acid in a yeast system was demonstrated for the first time. In addition, we found that the product spectrum of the cannabinoid synthases localized to the vacuoles of the yeast cells was highly dependent on extracellular pH, allowing for easy manipulation. Finally, using a fed-batch approach, we showed cannabigerolic acid and olivetolic acid titers of up to 18.2 mg L-1 and 117 mg L-1 , respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Schmidt
- Technical Biochemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Marco Aras
- Technical Biochemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Oliver Kayser
- Technical Biochemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
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6
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Spitzer S, Wloka J, Pietruszka J, Kayser O. Generation of Cannabigerolic Acid Derivatives and Their Precursors by Using the Promiscuity of the Aromatic Prenyltransferase NphB. Chembiochem 2023; 24:e202300441. [PMID: 37690998 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
NphB is an aromatic prenyltransferase with high promiscuity for phenolics including flavonoids, isoflavonoids, and plant polyketides. It has been demonstrated that cannabigerolic acid is successfully formed by the reaction catalysed by NphB using geranyl diphosphate and olivetolic acid as substrates. In this study, the substrate specificity of NphB was further determined by using olivetolic acid derivatives as potential substrates for the formation of new synthetic cannabinoids. The derivatives differ in the hydrocarbon chain attached to C6 of the core structure. We performed in silico experiments, including docking of olivetolic acid derivatives, to identify differences in their binding modes. Substrate acceptance was predicted. Based on these results, a library of olivetolic acid derivatives was constructed and synthesized by using different organic synthetic routes. Conversion was monitored in in vitro assays with purified NphB versions. For the substrates leading to a high conversion olivetolic acid-C8, olivetolic acid-C2 and 2-benzyl-4,6-dihydroxybenzoic acid, the products were further elucidated and identified as cannbigerolic acid derivatives. Therefore, these substrates show potential to be adapted in cannabinoid biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Spitzer
- Technical Biochemistry Laboratory, Technical University Dortmund, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Jasmin Wloka
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, 52426, Jülich, Germany
| | - Jörg Pietruszka
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, 52426, Jülich, Germany
| | - Oliver Kayser
- Technical Biochemistry Laboratory, Technical University Dortmund, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
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7
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Fulvio F, Mandolino G, Citti C, Pecchioni N, Cannazza G, Paris R. Phytocannabinoids biosynthesis during early stages of development of young Cannabis sativa L. seedlings: Integrating biochemical and transcription data. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2023; 214:113793. [PMID: 37479208 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2023.113793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa (L.) is characterized by great genetic and phenotypic diversity, also expressed in the array of bioactive compounds synthesized. Despite its great potential economic interest, knowledge of the biology and genetics of this crop is incomplete, and still many efforts are needed for a complete understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating its key traits. To better understand the synthesis of these compounds, we analysed the transcription levels of cannabinoid pathway genes during early phases of plant development, then comparing the transcriptional results with a chemical characterization of the same samples. The work was conducted on both industrial and medicinal C. sativa plants, using samples belonging to three different chemotypes. Genes coding for the cannabinoid synthases, involved in the last step of the cannabinoid biosynthetic pathway, were found to be already expressed in the seed, providing a measure of the importance of this metabolism for the plant. Cannabichromenic acid is known as the first cannabinoid accumulating in the seedlings, shortly after emergence, and it was found that there is a good correspondence between transcript accumulation of the cannabichromenic acid synthase gene and accumulation of the corresponding metabolite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Fulvio
- CREA-Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128, Bologna, Italy; Department of Sciences of Agriculture, Food Natural Resources and Engineering, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 25, 71122, Foggia, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Mandolino
- CREA-Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128, Bologna, Italy
| | - Cinzia Citti
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Via Monteroni, 73100, Lecce, Italy; Department of Life Science, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125, Modena, Italy
| | - Nicola Pecchioni
- CREA-Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, S.S. 673 Km 25,200, 71122, Foggia, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Via Monteroni, 73100, Lecce, Italy; Department of Life Science, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125, Modena, Italy
| | - Roberta Paris
- CREA-Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128, Bologna, Italy.
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8
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Bolaños-Martínez OC, Malla A, Rosales-Mendoza S, Vimolmangkang S. Harnessing the advances of genetic engineering in microalgae for the production of cannabinoids. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2023; 43:823-834. [PMID: 35762029 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2022.2071672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis is widely recognized as a medicinal plant owing to bioactive cannabinoids. However, it is still considered a narcotic plant, making it hard to be accessed. Since the biosynthetic pathway of cannabinoids is disclosed, biotechnological methods can be employed to produce cannabinoids in heterologous systems. This would pave the way toward biosynthesizing any cannabinoid compound of interest, especially minor substances that are less produced by a plant but have a high medicinal value. In this context, microalgae have attracted increasing scientific interest given their unique potential for biopharmaceutical production. In the present review, the current knowledge on cannabinoid production in different hosts is summarized and the biotechnological potential of microalgae as an emerging platform for synthetic production is put in perspective. A critical survey of genetic requirements and various transformation approaches are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omayra C Bolaños-Martínez
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Plant-Produced Pharmaceuticals, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Ashwini Malla
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Plant-Produced Pharmaceuticals, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sergio Rosales-Mendoza
- Laboratorio de Biofarmacéuticos Recombinantes, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, Mexico
- Sección de Biotecnología, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud y Biomedicina, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, Mexico
| | - Sornkanok Vimolmangkang
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Plant-Produced Pharmaceuticals, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
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9
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Ingvardsen CR, Brinch-Pedersen H. Challenges and potentials of new breeding techniques in Cannabis sativa. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1154332. [PMID: 37360738 PMCID: PMC10285108 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1154332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is an ancient crop used for fiber and seed production and not least for its content of cannabinoids used for medicine and as an intoxicant drug. Due to the psychedelic effect of one of the compounds, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), many countries had regulations or bands on Cannabis growing, also as fiber or seed crop. Recently, as many of these regulations are getting less tight, the interest for the many uses of this crop is increasing. Cannabis is dioecious and highly heterogenic, making traditional breeding costly and time consuming. Further, it might be difficult to introduce new traits without changing the cannabinoid profile. Genome editing using new breeding techniques might solve these problems. The successful use of genome editing requires sequence information on suitable target genes, a genome editing tool to be introduced into plant tissue and the ability to regenerate plants from transformed cells. This review summarizes the current status of Cannabis breeding, uncovers potentials and challenges of Cannabis in an era of new breeding techniques and finally suggests future focus areas that may help to improve our overall understanding of Cannabis and realize the potentials of the plant.
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10
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Stack GM, Carlson CH, Toth JA, Philippe G, Crawford JL, Hansen JL, Viands DR, Rose JKC, Smart LB. Correlations among morphological and biochemical traits in high-cannabidiol hemp ( Cannabis sativa L.). PLANT DIRECT 2023; 7:e503. [PMID: 37347078 PMCID: PMC10280002 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa is cultivated for multiple uses including the production of cannabinoids. In developing improved production systems for high-cannabinoid cultivars, scientists and cultivators must consider the optimization of complex and interacting sets of morphological, phenological, and biochemical traits, which have historically been shaped by natural and anthropogenic selection. Determining factors that modulate cannabinoid variation within and among genotypes is fundamental to developing efficient production systems and understanding the ecological significance of cannabinoids. Thirty-two high-cannabinoid hemp cultivars were characterized for traits including flowering date and shoot-tip cannabinoid concentration. Additionally, a set of plant architecture traits, as well as wet, dry, and stripped inflorescence biomass were measured at harvest. One plant per plot was partitioned post-harvest to quantify intra-plant variation in inflorescence biomass production and cannabinoid concentration. Some cultivars showed intra-plant variation in cannabinoid concentration, while many had a consistent concentration regardless of canopy position. There was both intra- and inter-cultivar variation in architecture that correlated with intra-plant distribution of inflorescence biomass, and concentration of cannabinoids sampled from various positions within a plant. These relationships among morphological and biochemical traits will inform future decisions by cultivators, regulators, and plant breeders.
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Affiliation(s)
- George M. Stack
- Horticulture Section, School of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell University, Cornell AgriTechGenevaNew YorkUSA
| | - Craig H. Carlson
- Horticulture Section, School of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell University, Cornell AgriTechGenevaNew YorkUSA
- Cereal Crops Research Unit, Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research, CenterUSDA‐ARSFargoNorth DakotaUSA
| | - Jacob A. Toth
- Horticulture Section, School of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell University, Cornell AgriTechGenevaNew YorkUSA
| | - Glenn Philippe
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell UniversityIthacaNew YorkUSA
| | - Jamie L. Crawford
- Plant Breeding and Genetics Section, School of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell UniversityIthacaNew YorkUSA
| | - Julie L. Hansen
- Plant Breeding and Genetics Section, School of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell UniversityIthacaNew YorkUSA
| | - Donald R. Viands
- Plant Breeding and Genetics Section, School of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell UniversityIthacaNew YorkUSA
| | - Jocelyn K. C. Rose
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell UniversityIthacaNew YorkUSA
| | - Lawrence B. Smart
- Horticulture Section, School of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell University, Cornell AgriTechGenevaNew YorkUSA
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11
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Kosalková K, Barreiro C, Sánchez-Orejas IC, Cueto L, García-Estrada C. Biotechnological Fungal Platforms for the Production of Biosynthetic Cannabinoids. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9020234. [PMID: 36836348 PMCID: PMC9963667 DOI: 10.3390/jof9020234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoids are bioactive meroterpenoids comprising prenylated polyketide molecules that can modulate a wide range of physiological processes. Cannabinoids have been shown to possess various medical/therapeutic effects, such as anti-convulsive, anti-anxiety, anti-psychotic, antinausea, and anti-microbial properties. The increasing interest in their beneficial effects and application as clinically useful drugs has promoted the development of heterologous biosynthetic platforms for the industrial production of these compounds. This approach can help circumvent the drawbacks associated with extraction from naturally occurring plants or chemical synthesis. In this review, we provide an overview of the fungal platforms developed by genetic engineering for the biosynthetic production of cannabinoids. Different yeast species, such as Komagataella phaffii (formerly P. pastoris) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, have been genetically modified to include the cannabinoid biosynthetic pathway and to improve metabolic fluxes in order to increase cannabinoid titers. In addition, we engineered the filamentous fungus Penicillium chrysogenum for the first time as a host microorganism for the production of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid from intermediates (cannabigerolic acid and olivetolic acid), thereby showing the potential of filamentous fungi as alternative platforms for cannabinoid biosynthesis upon optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Kosalková
- INBIOTEC (Instituto de Biotecnología de León), Av. Real 1, 24006 León, Spain
| | - Carlos Barreiro
- INBIOTEC (Instituto de Biotecnología de León), Av. Real 1, 24006 León, Spain
- Área de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Departamento de Biología Molecular, Campus de Vegazana, Universidad de León, 24007 León, Spain
| | | | - Laura Cueto
- INBIOTEC (Instituto de Biotecnología de León), Av. Real 1, 24006 León, Spain
| | - Carlos García-Estrada
- INBIOTEC (Instituto de Biotecnología de León), Av. Real 1, 24006 León, Spain
- Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Campus de Vegazana, Universidad de León, 24007 León, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-987-293-693
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12
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Thomas F, Kayser O. Improving CBCA synthase activity through rational protein design. J Biotechnol 2023; 363:40-49. [PMID: 36681096 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2023.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Global interest for the minor cannabinoid cannabichromene (CBC) is growing steadily, as potential pharmaceutical applications continue to emerge. Due to low-yielding and unspecific extraction processes from its plant host Cannabis sativa, a biotechnological production is desirable. The complete heterologous biosynthesis of several other cannabinoids has recently been demonstrated as an accessible platform. However, the enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of CBC precursor cannabichromenic acid (CBCA) suffers from comparatively low catalytic efficiency, has not been crystallized, and remains poorly characterized. This study contributes to overcoming these challenges in three unique aspects. A deep‑learning‑assisted prediction of the CBCA synthase crystal structure using DeepMinds AlphaFold is performed and evaluated. The predicted CBCA synthase structure scored considerably higher in various quality assessments than the alternative template‑based homology modeling approach. A robust and practical understanding of crucial structure-function relationships for CBCA synthase is provided and a new binding mode for the substrate uncovered. Rational design approaches and computational analyses to suggest CBCAS variants with facilitated activity are applied. Through subsequent screening the substrate conversion of those variants is compared to the native enzyme. The best variant presented in this study increases CBCA production from crude lysate 22-fold and is one of five positions where substitutions had a significantly favorable impact on product formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Thomas
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Oliver Kayser
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany.
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13
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Padgitt-Cobb LK, Pitra NJ, Matthews PD, Henning JA, Hendrix DA. An improved assembly of the "Cascade" hop ( Humulus lupulus) genome uncovers signatures of molecular evolution and refines time of divergence estimates for the Cannabaceae family. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2023; 10:uhac281. [PMID: 36818366 PMCID: PMC9930403 DOI: 10.1093/hr/uhac281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
We present a chromosome-level assembly of the Cascade hop (Humulus lupulus L. var. lupulus) genome. The hop genome is large (2.8 Gb) and complex, and early attempts at assembly were fragmented. Recent advances have made assembly of the hop genome more tractable, transforming the extent of investigation that can occur. The chromosome-level assembly of Cascade was developed by scaffolding the previously reported Cascade assembly generated with PacBio long-read sequencing and polishing with Illumina short-read DNA sequencing. We developed gene models and repeat annotations and used a controlled bi-parental mapping population to identify significant sex-associated markers. We assessed molecular evolution in gene sequences, gene family expansion and contraction, and time of divergence from Cannabis sativa and other closely related plant species using Bayesian inference. We identified the putative sex chromosome in the female genome based on significant sex-associated markers from the bi-parental mapping population. While the estimate of repeat content (~64%) is similar to the estimate for the hemp genome, syntenic blocks in hop contain a greater percentage of LTRs. Hop is enriched for disease resistance-associated genes in syntenic gene blocks and expanded gene families. The Cascade chromosome-level assembly will inform cultivation strategies and serve to deepen our understanding of the hop genomic landscape, benefiting hop researchers and the Cannabaceae genomics community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lillian K Padgitt-Cobb
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Nicholi J Pitra
- Department of Research and Development, Hopsteiner, S.S. Steiner, Inc., 1 West Washington Avenue, Yakima, Washington 98903, USA
| | - Paul D Matthews
- Department of Research and Development, Hopsteiner, S.S. Steiner, Inc., 1 West Washington Avenue, Yakima, Washington 98903, USA
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14
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Current status and future prospects in cannabinoid production through in vitro culture and synthetic biology. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 62:108074. [PMID: 36481387 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.108074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
For centuries, cannabis has been a rich source of fibrous, pharmaceutical, and recreational ingredients. Phytocannabinoids are the most important and well-known class of cannabis-derived secondary metabolites and display a broad range of health-promoting and psychoactive effects. The unique characteristics of phytocannabinoids (e.g., metabolite likeness, multi-target spectrum, and safety profile) have resulted in the development and approval of several cannabis-derived drugs. While most work has focused on the two main cannabinoids produced in the plant, over 150 unique cannabinoids have been identified. To meet the rapidly growing phytocannabinoid demand, particularly many of the minor cannabinoids found in low amounts in planta, biotechnology offers promising alternatives for biosynthesis through in vitro culture and heterologous systems. In recent years, the engineered production of phytocannabinoids has been obtained through synthetic biology both in vitro (cell suspension culture and hairy root culture) and heterologous systems. However, there are still several bottlenecks (e.g., the complexity of the cannabinoid biosynthetic pathway and optimizing the bioprocess), hampering biosynthesis and scaling up the biotechnological process. The current study reviews recent advances related to in vitro culture-mediated cannabinoid production. Additionally, an integrated overview of promising conventional approaches to cannabinoid production is presented. Progress toward cannabinoid production in heterologous systems and possible avenues for avoiding autotoxicity are also reviewed and highlighted. Machine learning is then introduced as a powerful tool to model, and optimize bioprocesses related to cannabinoid production. Finally, regulation and manipulation of the cannabinoid biosynthetic pathway using CRISPR- mediated metabolic engineering is discussed.
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15
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Wiles D, Shanbhag BK, O'Brien M, Doblin MS, Bacic A, Beddoe T. Heterologous production of Cannabis sativa-derived specialised metabolites of medicinal significance - Insights into engineering strategies. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2022; 203:113380. [PMID: 36049526 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2022.113380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. has been known for at least 2000 years as a source of important, medically significant specialised metabolites and several bio-active molecules have been enriched from multiple chemotypes. However, due to the many levels of complexity in both the commercial cultivation of cannabis and extraction of its specialised metabolites, several heterologous production approaches are being pursued in parallel. In this review, we outline the recent achievements in engineering strategies used for heterologous production of cannabinoids, terpenes and flavonoids along with their strength and weakness. We provide an overview of the specialised metabolism pathway in C. sativa and a comprehensive list of the specialised metabolites produced along with their medicinal significance. We highlight cannabinoid-like molecules produced by other species. We discuss the key biosynthetic enzymes and their heterologous production using various hosts such as microbial and eukaryotic systems. A brief discussion on complementary production strategies using co-culturing and cell-free systems is described. Various approaches to optimise specialised metabolite production through co-expression, enzyme engineering and pathway engineering are discussed. We derive insights from recent advances in metabolic engineering of hosts with improved precursor supply and suggest their application for the production of C. sativa speciality metabolites. We present a collation of non-conventional hosts with speciality traits that can improve the feasibility of commercial heterologous production of cannabis-based specialised metabolites. We provide a perspective of emerging research in synthetic biology, allied analytical techniques and plant heterologous platforms as focus areas for heterologous production of cannabis specialised metabolites in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Wiles
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences and AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia; Australian Research Council Research Hub for Medicinal Agriculture, AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Bhuvana K Shanbhag
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences and AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia; Australian Research Council Research Hub for Medicinal Agriculture, AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Martin O'Brien
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences and AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia; Australian Research Council Research Hub for Medicinal Agriculture, AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Monika S Doblin
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences and AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia; Australian Research Council Research Hub for Medicinal Agriculture, AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia; La Trobe Institute for Agriculture & Food, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Science, AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Antony Bacic
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences and AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia; Australian Research Council Research Hub for Medicinal Agriculture, AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia; La Trobe Institute for Agriculture & Food, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Science, AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Travis Beddoe
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences and AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, 3083, Australia; Australian Research Council Research Hub for Medicinal Agriculture, AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia.
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16
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WANG M, ZHANG W, WANG N. Covalent flavoproteins: types, occurrence, biogenesis and catalytic mechanisms. Chin J Nat Med 2022; 20:749-760. [DOI: 10.1016/s1875-5364(22)60194-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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17
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Welling MT, Deseo MA, Bacic A, Doblin MS. Biosynthetic origins of unusual cannabimimetic phytocannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L: A review. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2022; 201:113282. [PMID: 35718133 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2022.113282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Plants of Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabaceae) produce an array of more than 160 isoprenylated resorcinyl polyketides, commonly referred to as phytocannabinoids. These compounds represent molecules of therapeutic importance due to their modulation of the human endocannabinoid system (ECS). While understanding of the biosynthesis of the major phytocannabinoids Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) has grown rapidly in recent years, the biosynthetic origin and genetic regulation of many potentially therapeutically relevant minor phytocannabinoids remain unknown, which limits the development of chemotypically elite varieties of C. sativa. This review provides an up-to-date inventory of unusual phytocannabinoids which exhibit cannabimimetic-like activities and proposes putative metabolic origins. Metabolic branch points exploitable for combinatorial biosynthesis and engineering of phytocannabinoids with augmented therapeutic activities are also described, as is the role of phytocannabinoid remodelling to accelerate the therapeutic portfolio expansion in C. sativa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew T Welling
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture & Food, AgriBio Building, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Myrna A Deseo
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture & Food, AgriBio Building, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia; Australian Research Council Research Hub for Medicinal Agriculture, AgriBio Building, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Antony Bacic
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture & Food, AgriBio Building, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia; Australian Research Council Research Hub for Medicinal Agriculture, AgriBio Building, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Monika S Doblin
- La Trobe Institute for Agriculture & Food, AgriBio Building, Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia; Australian Research Council Research Hub for Medicinal Agriculture, AgriBio Building, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia.
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18
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Melzer R, McCabe PF, Schilling S. Evolution, genetics and biochemistry of plant cannabinoid synthesis: a challenge for biotechnology in the years ahead. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2022; 75:102684. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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19
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Purdy TN, Moore BS, Lukowski AL. Harnessing ortho-Quinone Methides in Natural Product Biosynthesis and Biocatalysis. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2022; 85:688-701. [PMID: 35108487 PMCID: PMC9006567 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c01026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The implementation of ortho-quinone methide (o-QM) intermediates in complex molecule assembly represents a remarkably efficient strategy designed by Nature and utilized by synthetic chemists. o-QMs have been taken advantage of in biomimetic syntheses for decades, yet relatively few examples of o-QM-generating enzymes in natural product biosynthetic pathways have been reported. The biosynthetic enzymes that have been discovered thus far exhibit tremendous potential for biocatalytic applications, enabling the selective production of desirable compounds that are otherwise intractable or inherently difficult to achieve by traditional synthetic methods. Characterization of this biosynthetic machinery has the potential to shine a light on new enzymes capable of similar chemistry on diverse substrates, thus expanding our knowledge of Nature's catalytic repertoire. The presently known o-QM-generating enzymes include flavin-dependent oxidases, hetero-Diels-Alderases, S-adenosyl-l-methionine-dependent pericyclases, and α-ketoglutarate-dependent nonheme iron enzymes. In this review, we discuss their diverse enzymatic mechanisms and potential as biocatalysts in constructing natural product molecules such as cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor N Purdy
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Bradley S Moore
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - April L Lukowski
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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20
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21
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Murovec J, Eržen JJ, Flajšman M, Vodnik D. Analysis of Morphological Traits, Cannabinoid Profiles, THCAS Gene Sequences, and Photosynthesis in Wide and Narrow Leaflet High-Cannabidiol Breeding Populations of Medical Cannabis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:786161. [PMID: 35283868 PMCID: PMC8907982 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.786161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is one of the oldest cultivated crops, used in medicine for millennia due to therapeutic characteristics of the phytocannabinoids it contains. Its medicinal properties are highly influenced by the chemotype, that is, the ratio of the two main cannabinoids cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Based on published data, the chemotype should correlate with plant morphology, genetics, and photosynthetic properties. In this work, we investigated leaf morphology, plant growth characteristics, cannabinoid profiles, THCAS gene sequences, and plant photosynthetic traits in two breeding populations of medical cannabis (MX-CBD-11 and MX-CBD-707). The populations differed significantly in morphological traits. The MX-CBD-11 plants were taller, less branched, and their leaves had narrower leaflets than the bushier, wideleaved MX-CBD-707 plants, and there were significant differences between populations in the dry biomass of different plant parts. Based on these morphological differences, MX-CBD-11 was designated as a narrow leaflet drug type or vernacular "Sativa" type, while MX-CBD-707 was classified as wide leaflet drug type or "Indica" type. Chemical characterisation revealed a discrepancy between the expected chemotypes based on plant morphology; although both populations have high CBD, within each Type II (CBD/THC intermediate) and Type III (CBD dominant) plants were detected. The THCAS gene sequence analysis clustered the plants based on their chemotypes and showed high similarity to the THCAS sequences deposited in NCBI. In silico complementary analysis, using published molecular markers for chemotype determination, showed their low discrimination power in our two populations, demonstrating the genotype dependence of the molecular markers. Basic photosynthetic traits derived from light and CO2 response curves were similar in the populations. However, measurements of gas exchange under chamber conditions revealed higher stomatal conductivity and photosynthesis in MX-CBD-707 plants, which were also characterised by higher day respiration. The results of this study showed that based on visual appearance and some morphological measurements, it is not possible to determine a plant's chemotype. Visually homogenous plants had different cannabinoid profiles and, vice versa, morphologically distinct plants contained similar CBD and THC content. The two chemotypes identified in our experimental plants therefore did not correlate with plant visual appearance, leaf morphometry, and photosynthetic properties of the populations studied. Correlation was only demonstrated with the respect to THCAS sequences, which showed great discrimination power between the chemotypes.
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22
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Pattnaik F, Nanda S, Mohanty S, Dalai AK, Kumar V, Ponnusamy SK, Naik S. Cannabis: Chemistry, extraction and therapeutic applications. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 289:133012. [PMID: 34838836 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis, a genus of perennial indigenous plants is well known for its recreational and medicinal activities. Cannabis and its derivatives have potential therapeutic activities to treat epilepsy, anxiety, depression, tumors, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, to name a few. This article reviews some recent literature on the bioactive constituents of Cannabis, commonly known as phytocannabinoids, their interactions with the different cannabinoids and non-cannabinoid receptors as well as the significances of these interactions in treating various diseases and syndromes. The biochemistry of some notable cannabinoids such as tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabinol, cannabigerol, cannabichromene and their carboxylic acid derivatives is explained in the context of therapeutic activities. The medicinal features of Cannabis-derived terpenes are elucidated for treating several neuro and non-neuro disorders. Different extraction techniques to recover cannabinoids are systematically discussed. Besides the medicinal activities, the traditional and recreational utilities of Cannabis and its derivatives are presented. A brief note on the legalization of Cannabis-derived products is provided. This review provides comprehensive knowledge about the medicinal properties, recreational usage, extraction techniques, legalization and some prospects of cannabinoids and terpenes extracted from Cannabis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Falguni Pattnaik
- Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India; Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Sonil Nanda
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | | | - Ajay K Dalai
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
| | - Vivek Kumar
- Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - Senthil Kumar Ponnusamy
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Kalavakkam, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Satyanarayan Naik
- Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
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23
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Hussain T, Jeena G, Pitakbut T, Vasilev N, Kayser O. Cannabis sativa research trends, challenges, and new-age perspectives. iScience 2021; 24:103391. [PMID: 34841230 PMCID: PMC8605354 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. has been one of the oldest medicinal plants cultivated for 10,000 years for several agricultural and industrial applications. However, the plant became controversial owing to some psychoactive components that have adverse effects on human health. In this review, we analyzed the trends in cannabis research for the past two centuries. We discussed the historical transitions of cannabis from the category of herbal medicine to an illicit drug and back to a medicinal product post-legalization. In addition, we address the new-age application of immuno-suppressive and anti-inflammatory extracts for the treatment of COVID-19 inflammation. We further address the influence of the legal aspects of cannabis cultivation for medicinal, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological research. We reviewed the up-to-date cannabis genomic resources and advanced technologies for their potential application in genomic-based cannabis improvement. Overall, this review discusses the diverse aspects of cannabis research developments ranging from traditional use as herbal medicine to the latest potential in COVID-19, legal practices with updated patent status, and current state of art genetic and genomic tools reshaping cannabis biotechnology in modern age agriculture and pharmaceutical industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tajammul Hussain
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Ganga Jeena
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Thanet Pitakbut
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Nikolay Vasilev
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Oliver Kayser
- Department of Technical Biochemistry, TU Dortmund University, Emil-Figge Strasse. 66, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
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24
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Fulvio F, Paris R, Montanari M, Citti C, Cilento V, Bassolino L, Moschella A, Alberti I, Pecchioni N, Cannazza G, Mandolino G. Analysis of Sequence Variability and Transcriptional Profile of Cannabinoid synthase Genes in Cannabis sativa L. Chemotypes with a Focus on Cannabichromenic acid synthase. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:1857. [PMID: 34579390 PMCID: PMC8466818 DOI: 10.3390/plants10091857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. has been long cultivated for its narcotic potential due to the accumulation of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) in female inflorescences, but nowadays its production for fiber, seeds, edible oil and bioactive compounds has spread throughout the world. However, some hemp varieties still accumulate traces of residual THCA close to the 0.20% limit set by European Union, despite the functional gene encoding for THCA synthase (THCAS) is lacking. Even if some hypotheses have been produced, studies are often in disagreement especially on the role of the cannabichromenic acid synthase (CBCAS). In this work a set of European Cannabis genotypes, representative of all chemotypes, were investigated from a chemical and molecular point of view. Highly specific primer pairs were developed to allow an accurate distinction of different cannabinoid synthases genes. In addition to their use as markers to detect the presence of CBCAS at genomic level, they allowed the analysis of transcriptional profiles in hemp or marijuana plants. While the high level of transcription of THCAS and cannabidiolic acid synthase (CBDAS) clearly reflects the chemical phenotype of the plants, the low but stable transcriptional level of CBCAS in all genotypes suggests that these genes are active and might contribute to the final amount of cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Fulvio
- CREA—Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (F.F.); (M.M.); (V.C.); (L.B.); (A.M.); (G.M.)
- Department of Sciences of Agriculture, Food Natural Resources and Engineering, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 25, 71122 Foggia, Italy
| | - Roberta Paris
- CREA—Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (F.F.); (M.M.); (V.C.); (L.B.); (A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - Massimo Montanari
- CREA—Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (F.F.); (M.M.); (V.C.); (L.B.); (A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - Cinzia Citti
- CNR NANOTEC—Institute of Nanotechnology, Via Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy; (C.C.); (G.C.)
- Department of Life Science, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Cilento
- CREA—Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (F.F.); (M.M.); (V.C.); (L.B.); (A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - Laura Bassolino
- CREA—Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (F.F.); (M.M.); (V.C.); (L.B.); (A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - Anna Moschella
- CREA—Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (F.F.); (M.M.); (V.C.); (L.B.); (A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - Ilaria Alberti
- CREA—Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via G. Amendola 82, 45100 Rovigo, Italy;
| | - Nicola Pecchioni
- CREA—Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, S.S. 673 Km 25,200, 71122 Foggia, Italy;
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- CNR NANOTEC—Institute of Nanotechnology, Via Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy; (C.C.); (G.C.)
- Department of Life Science, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Mandolino
- CREA—Research Centre for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Via di Corticella 133, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (F.F.); (M.M.); (V.C.); (L.B.); (A.M.); (G.M.)
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25
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van Velzen R, Schranz ME. Origin and Evolution of the Cannabinoid Oxidocyclase Gene Family. Genome Biol Evol 2021; 13:evab130. [PMID: 34100927 PMCID: PMC8521752 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evab130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis is an ancient crop representing a rapidly increasing legal market, especially for medicinal purposes. Medicinal and psychoactive effects of Cannabis rely on specific terpenophenolic ligands named cannabinoids. Recent whole-genome sequencing efforts have uncovered variation in multiple genes encoding the final steps in cannabinoid biosynthesis. However, the origin, evolution, and phylogenetic relationships of these cannabinoid oxidocyclase genes remain unclear. To elucidate these aspects, we performed comparative genomic analyses of Cannabis, related genera within the Cannabaceae family, and selected outgroup species. Results show that cannabinoid oxidocyclase genes originated in the Cannabis lineage from within a larger gene expansion in the Cannabaceae family. Localization and divergence of oxidocyclase genes in the Cannabis genome revealed two main syntenic blocks, each comprising tandemly repeated cannabinoid oxidocyclase genes. By comparing these blocks with those in genomes from closely related species, we propose an evolutionary model for the origin, neofunctionalization, duplication, and diversification of cannabinoid oxidocycloase genes. Based on phylogenetic analyses, we propose a comprehensive classification of three main clades and seven subclades that are intended to aid unequivocal referencing and identification of cannabinoid oxidocyclase genes. Our data suggest that cannabinoid phenotype is primarily determined by the presence/absence of single-copy genes. Although wild populations of Cannabis are still unknown, increased sampling of landraces and wild/feral populations across its native geographic range is likely to uncover additional cannabinoid oxidocyclase sequence variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin van Velzen
- Plant Sciences, Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Bedrocan International, Veendam, The Netherlands
| | - M Eric Schranz
- Plant Sciences, Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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26
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Sørensen M, Møller BL. Metabolic Engineering of Photosynthetic Cells – in Collaboration with Nature. Metab Eng 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/9783527823468.ch21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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27
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Johnson MS, Wallace JG. Genomic and Chemical Diversity of Commercially Available High-CBD Industrial Hemp Accessions. Front Genet 2021; 12:682475. [PMID: 34306025 PMCID: PMC8293613 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.682475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
High consumer demand for cannabidiol (CBD) has made high-CBD hemp (Cannabis sativa) an extremely high-value crop. However, high demand has resulted in the industry developing faster than the research, resulting in the sale of many hemp accessions with inconsistent performance and chemical profiles. These inconsistencies cause significant economic and legal problems for growers interested in producing high-CBD hemp. To determine the genetic and phenotypic consistency in available high-CBD hemp varieties, we obtained seed or clones from 22 different named accessions meant for commercial production. Genotypes (∼48,000 SNPs) and chemical profiles (% CBD and THC by dry weight) were determined for up to 8 plants per accession. Many accessions-including several with the same name-showed little consistency either genetically or chemically. Most seed-grown accessions also deviated significantly from their purported levels of CBD and THC based on the supplied certificates of analysis. Several also showed evidence of an active tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCa) synthase gene, leading to unacceptably high levels of THC in female flowers. We conclude that the current market for high-CBD hemp varieties is highly unreliable, making many purchases risky for growers. We suggest options for addressing these issues, such using unique names and developing seed and plant certification programs to ensure the availability of high-quality, verified planting materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S. Johnson
- Institute of Plant Breeding, Genetics, and Genomics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Jason G. Wallace
- Institute of Plant Breeding, Genetics, and Genomics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
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28
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Woods P, Campbell BJ, Nicodemus TJ, Cahoon EB, Mullen JL, McKay JK. Quantitative Trait Loci Controlling Agronomic and Biochemical Traits in Cannabis sativa. Genetics 2021; 219:6310019. [PMID: 34173826 PMCID: PMC9335937 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyab099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the genetic basis of complex traits is a fundamental goal of evolutionary genetics. Yet, the genetics controlling complex traits in many important species such as hemp (Cannabis sativa) remain poorly investigated. Because hemp’s change in legal status with the 2014 and 2018 U.S. Federal Farm Bills, interest in the genetics controlling its numerous agriculturally important traits has steadily increased. To better understand the genetics of agriculturally important traits in hemp, we developed an F2 population by crossing two phenotypically distinct hemp cultivars (Carmagnola and USO31). Using whole-genome sequencing, we mapped quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with variation in numerous agronomic and biochemical traits. A total of 69 loci associated with agronomic (34) and biochemical (35) trait variation were identified. We found that most QTL co-localized, suggesting that the phenotypic distinctions between Carmagnola and USO31 are largely controlled by a small number of loci. We identified TINY and olivetol synthase as candidate genes underlying co-localized QTL clusters for agronomic and biochemical traits, respectively. We functionally validated the olivetol synthase candidate by expressing the alleles in yeast. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry assays of extracts from these yeast colonies suggest that the USO31 olivetol synthase is functionally less active and potentially explains why USO31 produces lower cannabinoids compared to Carmagnola. Overall, our results help modernize the genomic understanding of complex traits in hemp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Woods
- Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America.,Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
| | - Brian J Campbell
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
| | - Timothy J Nicodemus
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68588, United States of America
| | - Edgar B Cahoon
- Center for Plant Science Innovation and Department of Biochemistry, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68588, United States of America
| | - Jack L Mullen
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
| | - John K McKay
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, United States of America
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29
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Jamieson CS, Misa J, Tang Y, Billingsley JM. Biosynthesis and synthetic biology of psychoactive natural products. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:6950-7008. [PMID: 33908526 PMCID: PMC8217322 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00065a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Psychoactive natural products play an integral role in the modern world. The tremendous structural complexity displayed by such molecules confers diverse biological activities of significant medicinal value and sociocultural impact. Accordingly, in the last two centuries, immense effort has been devoted towards establishing how plants, animals, and fungi synthesize complex natural products from simple metabolic precursors. The recent explosion of genomics data and molecular biology tools has enabled the identification of genes encoding proteins that catalyze individual biosynthetic steps. Once fully elucidated, the "biosynthetic pathways" are often comparable to organic syntheses in elegance and yield. Additionally, the discovery of biosynthetic enzymes provides powerful catalysts which may be repurposed for synthetic biology applications, or implemented with chemoenzymatic synthetic approaches. In this review, we discuss the progress that has been made toward biosynthetic pathway elucidation amongst four classes of psychoactive natural products: hallucinogens, stimulants, cannabinoids, and opioids. Compounds of diverse biosynthetic origin - terpene, amino acid, polyketide - are identified, and notable mechanisms of key scaffold transforming steps are highlighted. We also provide a description of subsequent applications of the biosynthetic machinery, with an emphasis placed on the synthetic biology and metabolic engineering strategies enabling heterologous production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cooper S Jamieson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Joshua Misa
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Yi Tang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA. and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - John M Billingsley
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA. and Invizyne Technologies, Inc., Monrovia, CA, USA
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30
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Lim KJH, Lim YP, Hartono YD, Go MK, Fan H, Yew WS. Biosynthesis of Nature-Inspired Unnatural Cannabinoids. Molecules 2021; 26:2914. [PMID: 34068935 PMCID: PMC8156804 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26102914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural products make up a large proportion of medicine available today. Cannabinoids from the plant Cannabis sativa is one unique class of meroterpenoids that have shown a wide range of bioactivities and recently seen significant developments in their status as therapeutic agents for various indications. Their complex chemical structures make it difficult to chemically synthesize them in efficient yields. Synthetic biology has presented a solution to this through metabolic engineering in heterologous hosts. Through genetic manipulation, rare phytocannabinoids that are produced in low yields in the plant can now be synthesized in larger quantities for therapeutic and commercial use. Additionally, an exciting avenue of exploring new chemical spaces is made available as novel derivatized compounds can be produced and investigated for their bioactivities. In this review, we summarized the biosynthetic pathways of phytocannabinoids and synthetic biology efforts in producing them in heterologous hosts. Detailed mechanistic insights are discussed in each part of the pathway in order to explore strategies for creating novel cannabinoids. Lastly, we discussed studies conducted on biological targets such as CB1, CB2 and orphan receptors along with their affinities to these cannabinoid ligands with a view to inform upstream diversification efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J. H. Lim
- Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; (K.J.H.L.); (Y.P.L.); (Y.D.H.); (M.K.G.); (H.F.)
- Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 14 Medical Drive, Singapore 117599, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore
- Bioinformatics Institute, A*STAR, 30 Biopolis Street, Matrix #07-01, Singapore 138671, Singapore
| | - Yan Ping Lim
- Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; (K.J.H.L.); (Y.P.L.); (Y.D.H.); (M.K.G.); (H.F.)
- Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 14 Medical Drive, Singapore 117599, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | - Yossa D. Hartono
- Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; (K.J.H.L.); (Y.P.L.); (Y.D.H.); (M.K.G.); (H.F.)
- Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 14 Medical Drive, Singapore 117599, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore
- Bioinformatics Institute, A*STAR, 30 Biopolis Street, Matrix #07-01, Singapore 138671, Singapore
| | - Maybelle K. Go
- Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; (K.J.H.L.); (Y.P.L.); (Y.D.H.); (M.K.G.); (H.F.)
- Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 14 Medical Drive, Singapore 117599, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | - Hao Fan
- Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; (K.J.H.L.); (Y.P.L.); (Y.D.H.); (M.K.G.); (H.F.)
- Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 14 Medical Drive, Singapore 117599, Singapore
- Bioinformatics Institute, A*STAR, 30 Biopolis Street, Matrix #07-01, Singapore 138671, Singapore
| | - Wen Shan Yew
- Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore 117456, Singapore; (K.J.H.L.); (Y.P.L.); (Y.D.H.); (M.K.G.); (H.F.)
- Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 14 Medical Drive, Singapore 117599, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore
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31
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Vergara D, Feathers C, Huscher EL, Holmes B, Haas JA, Kane NC. Widely assumed phenotypic associations in Cannabis sativa lack a shared genetic basis. PeerJ 2021; 9:e10672. [PMID: 33976953 PMCID: PMC8063869 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The flowering plant Cannabis sativa, cultivated for centuries for multiple purposes, displays extensive variation in phenotypic traits in addition to its wide array of secondary metabolite production. Notably, Cannabis produces two well-known secondary-metabolite cannabinoids: cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), which are the main products sought by consumers in the medical and recreational market. Cannabis has several suggested subspecies which have been shown to differ in chemistry, branching patterns, leaf morphology and other traits. In this study we obtained measurements related to phytochemistry, reproductive traits, growth architecture, and leaf morphology from 297 hybrid individuals from a cross between two diverse lineages. We explored correlations among these characteristics to inform our understanding of which traits may be causally associated. Many of the traits widely assumed to be strongly correlated did not show any relationship in this hybrid population. The current taxonomy and legal regulation within Cannabis is based on phenotypic and chemical characteristics. However, we find these traits are not associated when lineages are inter-crossed, which is a common breeding practice and forms the basis of most modern marijuana and hemp germplasms. Our results suggest naming conventions based on leaf morphology do not correspond to the chemical properties in plants with hybrid ancestry. Therefore, a new system for identifying variation within Cannabis is warranted that will provide reliable identifiers of the properties important for recreational and, especially, medical use.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ezra L Huscher
- Ebio, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | | | | | - Nolan C Kane
- Ebio, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
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32
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Aguillón AR, Leão RAC, Miranda LSM, de Souza ROMA. Cannabidiol Discovery and Synthesis-a Target-Oriented Analysis in Drug Production Processes. Chemistry 2021; 27:5577-5600. [PMID: 32780909 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202002887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The current state of evidence and recommendations for cannabidiol (CBD) and its health effects change the legal landscape and aim to destigmatize its phytotherapeutic research. Recently, some countries have included CBD as an antiepileptic product for compassionate use in children with refractory epilepsy. The growing demand for CBD has led to the need for high-purity cannabinoids on the emerging market. The discovery and development of approaches toward CBD synthesis have arisen from the successful extraction of Cannabis plants for cannabinoid fermentation in brewer's yeast. To understand different contributions to the design and enhancement of the synthesis of CBD and its key intermediates, a detailed analysis of the history behind cannabinoid compounds and their optimization is provided herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson R Aguillón
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Raquel A C Leão
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil.,Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, 21941-170, CEP, 21941-910, Brazil
| | - Leandro S M Miranda
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo O M A de Souza
- Biocatalysis and Organic Synthesis Group, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 21941-909, Brazil.,Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, 21941-170, CEP, 21941-910, Brazil
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33
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Tahir MN, Shahbazi F, Rondeau-Gagné S, Trant JF. The biosynthesis of the cannabinoids. J Cannabis Res 2021; 3:7. [PMID: 33722296 PMCID: PMC7962319 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00062-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis has been integral to Eurasian civilization for millennia, but a century of prohibition has limited investigation. With spreading legalization, science is pivoting to study the pharmacopeia of the cannabinoids, and a thorough understanding of their biosynthesis is required to engineer strains with specific cannabinoid profiles. This review surveys the biosynthesis and biochemistry of cannabinoids. The pathways and the enzymes' mechanisms of action are discussed as is the non-enzymatic decarboxylation of the cannabinoic acids. There are still many gaps in our knowledge about the biosynthesis of the cannabinoids, especially for the minor components, and this review highlights the tools and approaches that will be applied to generate an improved understanding and consequent access to these potentially biomedically-relevant materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nazir Tahir
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Fred Shahbazi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Simon Rondeau-Gagné
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada.
| | - John F Trant
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada.
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34
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Blatt-Janmaat K, Qu Y. The Biochemistry of Phytocannabinoids and Metabolic Engineering of Their Production in Heterologous Systems. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052454. [PMID: 33671077 PMCID: PMC7957758 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The medicinal properties of cannabis and the its legal status in several countries and jurisdictions has spurred the massive growth of the cannabis economy around the globe. The value of cannabis stems from its euphoric activity offered by the unique phytocannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). However, this is rapidly expanding beyond THC owing to other non-psychoactive phytocannabinoids with new bioactivities that will contribute to their development into clinically useful drugs. The discovery of the biosynthesis of major phytocannabinoids has allowed the exploration of their heterologous production by synthetic biology, which may lead to the industrial production of rare phytocannabinoids or novel synthetic cannabinoid pharmaceuticals that are not easily offered by cannabis plants. This review summarizes the biosynthesis of major phytocannabinoids in detail, the most recent development of their metabolic engineering in various systems, and the engineering approaches and strategies used to increase the yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn Blatt-Janmaat
- Department of Chemistry, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB E3B 5A3, Canada;
| | - Yang Qu
- Department of Chemistry, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB E3B 5A3, Canada;
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB E3B 5A3, Canada
- Correspondence:
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35
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SNP in Potentially Defunct Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid Synthase Is a Marker for Cannabigerolic Acid Dominance in Cannabis sativa L. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12020228. [PMID: 33557333 PMCID: PMC7916091 DOI: 10.3390/genes12020228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The regulation of cannabinoid synthesis in Cannabis sativa is of increasing research interest as restrictions around the globe loosen to allow the plant's legal cultivation. Of the major cannabinoids, the regulation of cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) production is the least understood. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the inheritance of CBGA dominance in C. sativa and describe a marker related to this chemotype. We produced two crossing populations, one between a CBGA dominant cultivar and a tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) dominant cultivar, and one between a CBGA dominant cultivar and a cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) cultivar. Chemical and genotyping analyses confirmed that CBGA dominance is inherited as a single recessive gene, potentially governed by a non-functioning allelic variant of the THCA synthase. The "null" THCAS synthase contains a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) that may render the synthase unable to convert CBGA to THCA leading to the accumulation of CBGA. This SNP can be reliably used as a molecular marker for CBGA dominance in the selection and breeding of C. sativa.
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36
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Singh A, Bilichak A, Kovalchuk I. The genetics of Cannabis-genomic variations of key synthases and their effect on cannabinoid content. Genome 2020; 64:490-501. [PMID: 33186070 DOI: 10.1139/gen-2020-0087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite being a controversial crop, Cannabis sativa L. has a long history of cultivation throughout the world. Following recent legalization in Canada, Cannabis is emerging as an important plant for both medicinal and recreational purposes. Recent progress in genome sequencing of both cannabis and hemp varieties allow for systematic analysis of genes coding for enzymes involved in the cannabinoid biosynthesis pathway. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the coding regions of cannabinoid synthases play an important role in determining plant chemotype. Deep understanding of how these variants affect enzyme activity and accumulation of cannabinoids will allow breeding of novel cultivars with desirable cannabinoid profiles. Here we present a short overview of the major cannabinoid synthases and present the data on the analysis of their genetic variants and their effect on cannabinoid content using several in-house sequenced Cannabis cultivars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparna Singh
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Andriy Bilichak
- Morden Research and Development Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Morden, MB R6M 1Y5, Canada
| | - Igor Kovalchuk
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
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37
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Thomas F, Schmidt C, Kayser O. Bioengineering studies and pathway modeling of the heterologous biosynthesis of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid in yeast. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:9551-9563. [PMID: 33043390 PMCID: PMC7595985 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10798-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Heterologous biosynthesis of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) in yeast is a biotechnological process in Natural Product Biotechnology that was recently introduced. Based on heterologous genes from Cannabis sativa and Streptomyces spp. cloned into Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the heterologous biosynthesis was fully embedded as a proof of concept. Low titer and insufficient biocatalytic rate of most enzymes require systematic optimization of recombinant catalyst by protein engineering and consequent C-flux improvement of the yeast chassis for sufficient precursor (acetyl-CoA), energy (ATP), and NADH delivery. In this review basic principles of in silico analysis of anabolic pathways towards olivetolic acid (OA) and cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) are elucidated and discussed to identify metabolic bottlenecks. Based on own experimental results, yeasts are discussed as potential platform organisms to be introduced as potential cannabinoid biofactories. Especially feeding strategies and limitations in the committed mevalonate and olivetolic acid pathways are in focus of in silico and experimental studies to validate the scientific and commercial potential as a realistic alternative to the plant Cannabis sativa.Key points• First time critical review of the heterologous process for recombinant THCA/CBDA production and critical review of bottlenecks and limitations for a bioengineered technical process• Integrative approach of protein engineering, systems biotechnology, and biochemistry of yeast physiology and biosynthetic cannabinoid enzymes• Comparison of NphB and CsPT aromatic prenyltransferases as rate-limiting catalytic steps towards cannabinoids in yeast as platform organisms Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Thomas
- TU Dortmund University, Technical Biochemistry, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Christina Schmidt
- TU Dortmund University, Technical Biochemistry, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Oliver Kayser
- TU Dortmund University, Technical Biochemistry, Emil-Figge-Strasse 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany.
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Vergara D, Gaudino R, Blank T, Keegan B. Modeling cannabinoids from a large-scale sample of Cannabis sativa chemotypes. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0236878. [PMID: 32870907 PMCID: PMC7462266 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The widespread legalization of Cannabis has opened the industry to using contemporary analytical techniques for chemotype analysis. Chemotypic data has been collected on a large variety of oil profiles inherent to the cultivars that are commercially available. The unknown gene regulation and pharmacokinetics of dozens of cannabinoids offer opportunities of high interest in pharmacology research. Retailers in many medical and recreational jurisdictions are typically required to report chemical concentrations of at least some cannabinoids. Commercial cannabis laboratories have collected large chemotype datasets of diverse Cannabis cultivars. In this work a data set of 17,600 cultivars tested by Steep Hill Inc., is examined using machine learning techniques to interpolate missing chemotype observations and cluster cultivars into groups based on chemotype similarity. The results indicate cultivars cluster based on their chemotypes, and that some imputation methods work better than others at grouping these cultivars based on chemotypic identity. Due to the missing data and to the low signal to noise ratio for some less common cannabinoids, their behavior could not be accurately predicted. These findings have implications for characterizing complex interactions in cannabinoid biosynthesis and improving phenotypical classification of Cannabis cultivars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Vergara
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Reggie Gaudino
- Front Range Biosciences, Lafayette, CO, United States of America
| | - Thomas Blank
- Front Range Biosciences, Lafayette, CO, United States of America
| | - Brian Keegan
- Department of Information Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
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Romero P, Peris A, Vergara K, Matus JT. Comprehending and improving cannabis specialized metabolism in the systems biology era. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 298:110571. [PMID: 32771172 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2020.110571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa is a source of food, fiber and specialized metabolites such as cannabinoids, with psychoactive and pharmacological effects. Due to its expanding and increasingly-accepted use in medicine, cannabis cultivation is acquiring more importance and less social stigma. Humans initiated different domestication episodes whose later spread gave rise to a plethora of landrace cultivars. At present, breeders cross germplasms from different gene pools depending on their specific use. The fiber (hemp) and drug (marijuana) types of C. sativa differ in their cannabinoid chemical composition phenotype (chemotype) and also in the accumulation of terpenoid compounds that constitute a strain's particular flavor and scent. Cannabinoids are isoprenylated polyketides among which cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and (-)-trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol acid (THCA) have been well-documented for their many effects on humans. Here, we review the most studied specialized metabolic pathways in C. sativa, showing how terpenes and cannabinoids share both part of the isoprenoid pathway and the same biosynthetic compartmentalization (i.e. glandular trichomes of leaves and flowers). We enlist the several studies that have deciphered these pathways in this species including physical and genetic maps, QTL analyses and localization and enzymatic studies of cannabinoid and terpene synthases. In addition, new comparative modeling of cannabinoid synthases and phylogenetic trees are presented. We describe the genome sequencing initiatives of several accessions with the concomitant generation of next-generation genome maps and transcriptomic data. Very recently, proteomic characterizations and systems biology approaches such as those applying network theory or the integration of multi-omics data have increased the knowledge on gene function, enzyme diversity and metabolite content in C. sativa. In this revision we drift through the history, present and future of cannabis research and on how second- and third-generation sequencing technologies are bringing light to the field of cannabis specialized metabolism. We also discuss different biotechnological approaches for producing cannabinoids in engineered microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Romero
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology, I²SysBio (Universitat de València - CSIC), 46908, Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - A Peris
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology, I²SysBio (Universitat de València - CSIC), 46908, Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - K Vergara
- Centro de Estudios del Cannabis, CECANN, Santiago, Chile
| | - J T Matus
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology, I²SysBio (Universitat de València - CSIC), 46908, Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
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40
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The Power of Three in Cannabis Shotgun Proteomics: Proteases, Databases and Search Engines. Proteomes 2020; 8:proteomes8020013. [PMID: 32549361 PMCID: PMC7356525 DOI: 10.3390/proteomes8020013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis research has taken off since the relaxation of legislation, yet proteomics is still lagging. In 2019, we published three proteomics methods aimed at optimizing protein extraction, protein digestion for bottom-up and middle-down proteomics, as well as the analysis of intact proteins for top-down proteomics. The database of Cannabis sativa proteins used in these studies was retrieved from UniProt, the reference repositories for proteins, which is incomplete and therefore underrepresents the genetic diversity of this non-model species. In this fourth study, we remedy this shortcoming by searching larger databases from various sources. We also compare two search engines, the oldest, SEQUEST, and the most popular, Mascot. This shotgun proteomics experiment also utilizes the power of parallel digestions with orthogonal proteases of increasing selectivity, namely chymotrypsin, trypsin/Lys-C and Asp-N. Our results show that the larger the database the greater the list of accessions identified but the longer the duration of the search. Using orthogonal proteases and different search algorithms increases the total number of proteins identified, most of them common despite differing proteases and algorithms, but many of them unique as well.
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41
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Formato M, Crescente G, Scognamiglio M, Fiorentino A, Pecoraro MT, Piccolella S, Catauro M, Pacifico S. (‒)-Cannabidiolic Acid, a Still Overlooked Bioactive Compound: An Introductory Review and Preliminary Research. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25112638. [PMID: 32517131 PMCID: PMC7321064 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25112638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) is the main phytocannabinoid in fiber and seed-oil hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) plants, but its potential health-related capabilities have been masked for years by a greater scientific interest towards its neutral derivative cannabidiol (CBD). This review aims to collect from the literature and critically discuss all the information about this molecule, starting from its biosynthesis, and focusing on its bioactivity, as an anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic, anti-convulsant, and anti-cancerogenic drug. Furthermore, in the awareness that, despite its multiple bioactive effects, currently poor efforts have been made to achieve its reliable purification, herein, we propose a relatively simple, fast, and inexpensive procedure for its recovery from pollen of industrial hemp cultivars. Spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques allowed us to unequivocally identify pure isolated CBDA and to distinguish it from the constitutional isomer tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA-A).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marialuisa Formato
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Giuseppina Crescente
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Monica Scognamiglio
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Antonio Fiorentino
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Maria Tommasina Pecoraro
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Simona Piccolella
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
| | - Michelina Catauro
- Department of Engineering, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Roma 29, I-81031 Aversa, Italy;
| | - Severina Pacifico
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Via Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy; (M.F.); (G.C.); (M.S.); (A.F.); (M.T.P.); (S.P.)
- Correspondence:
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Abstract
The use of Cannabis-based preparations for medicinal use has waxed and waned in the multi-millennial history of human co-existence with the plant and its cultivation. Recorded use of preparations from Cannabis is effectively as old as recorded history with examples from China, India and Ancient Egypt. Prohibition and restriction of availability allowed a number of alternatives to take the place of Cannabis preparations. However, there has been a worldwide resurgence in medicinal Cannabis advocacy from the public. Media interest has been piqued by particular evocative cases. Altogether, therefore, there is pressure on healthcare professionals to prescribe and dispense Cannabis-based preparations. This review enunciates some of the barriers which are slowing the wider adoption of medicinal Cannabis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Ph Alexander
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham, UK
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Kovalchuk I, Pellino M, Rigault P, van Velzen R, Ebersbach J, Ashnest JR, Mau M, Schranz ME, Alcorn J, Laprairie RB, McKay JK, Burbridge C, Schneider D, Vergara D, Kane NC, Sharbel TF. The Genomics of Cannabis and Its Close Relatives. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 71:713-739. [PMID: 32155342 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-081519-040203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is an important yet controversial plant with a long history of recreational, medicinal, industrial, and agricultural use, and together with its sister genus Humulus, it represents a group of plants with a myriad of academic, agricultural, pharmaceutical, industrial, and social interests. We have performed a meta-analysis of pooled published genomics data, andwe present a comprehensive literature review on the evolutionary history of Cannabis and Humulus, including medicinal and industrial applications. We demonstrate that current Cannabis genome assemblies are incomplete, with ∼10% missing, 10-25% unmapped, and 45S and 5S ribosomal DNA clusters as well as centromeres/satellite sequences not represented. These assemblies are also ordered at a low resolution, and their consensus quality clouds the accurate annotation of complete, partial, and pseudogenized gene copies. Considering the importance of genomics in the development of any crop, this analysis underlines the need for a coordinated effort to quantify the genetic and biochemical diversity of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Kovalchuk
- Department of Biology, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - M Pellino
- College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4J8, Canada;
| | - P Rigault
- Gydle Inc., Québec, Québec G1S 1E7, Canada
- Center for Organismal Studies (COS), University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - R van Velzen
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, 6703 BD Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Bedrocan International, 9640 CA Veendam, The Netherlands
| | - J Ebersbach
- Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0X2, Canada
| | - J R Ashnest
- College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4J8, Canada;
| | - M Mau
- College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4J8, Canada;
| | - M E Schranz
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, 6703 BD Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - J Alcorn
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - R B Laprairie
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E5, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - J K McKay
- College of Agricultural Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
| | - C Burbridge
- School of Environment and Sustainability, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - D Schneider
- School of Environment and Sustainability, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - D Vergara
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - N C Kane
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - T F Sharbel
- College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4J8, Canada;
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The Cannabis Proteome Draft Map Project. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21030965. [PMID: 32024021 PMCID: PMC7037972 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently we have seen a relaxation of the historic restrictions on the use and subsequent research on the Cannabis plants, generally classified as Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica. What research has been performed to date has centered on chemical analysis of plant flower products, namely cannabinoids and various terpenes that directly contribute to phenotypic characteristics of the female flowers. In addition, we have seen many groups recently completing genetic profiles of various plants of commercial value. To date, no comprehensive attempt has been made to profile the proteomes of these plants. We report herein our progress on constructing a comprehensive draft map of the Cannabis proteome. To date we have identified over 17,000 potential protein sequences. Unfortunately, no annotated genome of Cannabis plants currently exists. We present a method by which “next generation” DNA sequencing output and shotgun proteomics data can be combined to produce annotated FASTA files, bypassing the need for annotated genetic information altogether in traditional proteomics workflows. The resulting material represents the first comprehensive annotated protein FASTA for any Cannabis plant. Using this annotated database as reference we can refine our protein identifications, resulting in the confident identification of 13,000 proteins with putative function. Furthermore, we demonstrate that post-translational modifications play an important role in the proteomes of Cannabis flower, particularly lysine acetylation and protein glycosylation. To facilitate the evolution of analytical investigations into these plant materials, we have created a portal to host resources developed from our proteomic and metabolomic analysis of Cannabis plant material as well as our results integrating these resources.
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A cell-free platform for the prenylation of natural products and application to cannabinoid production. Nat Commun 2019; 10:565. [PMID: 30718485 PMCID: PMC6362252 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-08448-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Prenylation of natural compounds adds structural diversity, alters biological activity, and enhances therapeutic potential. Because prenylated compounds often have a low natural abundance, alternative production methods are needed. Metabolic engineering enables natural product biosynthesis from inexpensive biomass, but is limited by the complexity of secondary metabolite pathways, intermediate and product toxicities, and substrate accessibility. Alternatively, enzyme catalyzed prenyl transfer provides excellent regio- and stereo-specificity, but requires expensive isoprenyl pyrophosphate substrates. Here we develop a flexible cell-free enzymatic prenylating system that generates isoprenyl pyrophosphate substrates from glucose to prenylate an array of natural products. The system provides an efficient route to cannabinoid precursors cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) and cannabigerovarinic acid (CBGVA) at >1 g/L, and a single enzymatic step converts the precursors into cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and cannabidivarinic acid (CBDVA). Cell-free methods may provide a powerful alternative to metabolic engineering for chemicals that are hard to produce in living organisms. Producing individual cannabinoids by metabolically engineered microbes has proven challenging. Here, the authors develop a cell-free enzymatic prenylating system to generate isoprenyl pyrophosphate substrates directly from glucose and produce both common and rare cannabinoids at >1 g/L.
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