Demographic, temporal and environmental effects on the frequency of cribra orbitalia in three Early Medieval populations from western Slovakia

Using portable X-ray fluorescence elemental analysis to explore porous skeletal lesions: Interplay of sex, age at death, and cause of death

OBJECTIVES

Search for possible associations between bone elemental concentration and the presence of porous skeletal lesions (PSLs), considering the sex, age, and cause of death (COD) of the individuals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The sample comprised 107 non-adult individuals (56 females, 51 males) aged 0-20 (x̄ = 13.2, SD = 5.8) from the Coimbra and Lisbon Identified Skeletal Collections. Cribra cranii, orbitalia, humeralis, and femoralis were recorded as present/absent, and elemental concentrations were assessed by portable x-ray fluorescence (pXRF). A multivariate statistical approach was applied.

RESULTS

Well-preserved skeletons with minimal diagenesis showed no sex-related elemental variations or PSL associations. In contrast, age-at-death correlated with elevated Ca, P, Sr, and Pb levels. Cribra cranii increased with age while other cribra declined post-adolescence. Higher concentrations of Fe and lower of S were linked to cribra cranii. Respiratory infections as COD increased the odds of expressing cribra femoralis (OR = 5.25, CI = 1.25-15.14), cribra cranii (OR = 2.91, CI = 0.97-8.69), and cribra orbitalia (OR = 2.76, CI = 1.06-7.24).

DISCUSSION

Feasible pXRF results and low cribra intraobserver error assure replicability. Elevated Ca, P, and Sr in older individuals may relate to skeletal growth, while increased Pb suggests bioaccumulation. Cribra's increase with age reflects different rates of marrow conversion and bone remodeling. Higher Fe and lower S in individuals with cribra cranii possibly reflects poor nutrition, early alcohol use, and sideroblastic anemia, aligning with 19th-20th-century Portugal's living conditions. Respiratory infections increased cribra expression, revealing intricate interplays among inflammation, anemia(s), marrow expansion, and diet. This research highlights a complex scenario and blazes a new path for cribra interpretation.

Toward a bioarchaeology of urbanization: Demography, health, and behavior in cities in the past

Urbanization is one of the most important settlement shifts in human history and has been the focus of research within bioarchaeology for decades. However, there have been limited attempts to synthesize the results of these studies in order to gain a broader perspective on whether or how urbanization affects the biology, demography, and behavior of humans, and how these potential effects are embodied in the human skeleton. This paper outlines how bioarchaeology is well-suited to examine urbanization in the past, and we provide an overview and examples of three main ways in which urbanization is studied in bioarchaeological research: comparison of (often contemporaneous) urban and rural sites, synchronic studies of the variation that exists within and between urban sites, and investigations of changes that occur within urban sites over time. Studies of urbanization, both within bioarchaeology and in other fields of study, face a number of limitations, including a lack of a consensus regarding what urban and urbanization mean, the assumed dichotomous nature of urban versus rural settlements, the supposition that urbanization is universally bad for people, and the assumption (at least in practice) of homogeneity within urban and rural populations. Bioarchaeologists can address these limitations by utilizing a wide array of data and methods, and the studies described here collectively demonstrate the complex, nuanced, and highly variable effects of urbanization.

The ice age with little effect? Exploring stress in the Danish Black Friars cemetery before and after the turn of the 14th century

The Little Ice Age, beginning in Europe in the 14th century, saw a period of climatic cooling and increased precipitation where food sources dwindled and famine became rampant, particularly in urban city centers. This study focuses on the Black Friars population (13th-17th centuries) to explore changes in stress in Denmark at the onset of the Little Ice Age. This study specifically explores the periods before and after the turn of the 14th century. Forty-five adult individuals were analyzed for cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, and enamel hypoplastic lesions. Results showed no statistically significant differences between the prevalence of these stress indicators between either time period; however, reduced age at death and increased lesion frequency was more prevalent post-1300. It was expected that increased stress would be evident in those buried after the turn of the 14th century due to the many challenges associated with wide spread climatic cooling; however, the reliance on nutrient rich marine resources and alms provisions may have helped lessen the burden of these stressors during this period of climatic hardship. Additionally, while famine characterized the beginning of the 14^th century, agricultural rebound shortly after this period may have also influenced the stress levels observed.

Cribra orbitalia as a potential indicator of childhood stress: Evidence from paleopathology, stable C, N, and O isotopes, and trace element concentrations in children from a 17th-18th century cemetery in Jēkabpils, Latvia

Cribra orbitalia (CO), or porotic hyperostosis (PH) of the orbital roof, is one of the most common pathological conditions found in archaeological subadult skeletal remains. Reaching frequencies higher than 50% in many prehistoric samples, CO has been generally attributed to a variety of factors including malnutrition (e.g., megaloblastic anemia) and parasitism. In this study, we tested the relationship between CO, trace element concentrations, and stable isotope values (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, δ¹⁸O) in subadult skeletons from a 17^th to 18^th century cemetery in the historic town of Jēkabpils, Latvia. A total of 28 subadults were examined, seven of which (25%) showed evidence of CO. Bioarchaeological evidence indicated high mortality for children in this cemetery: half of the burials were subadults under the age of 14, while a third were under the age of four. Life expectancy at birth was estimated to have been only 21.6 years. Trace element concentrations measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) showed no relationship between presence or absence of CO and levels of manganese, zinc, strontium, barium, copper, cadmium, or lead in the bones (p>0.05). However, a significant correlation (p<0.05) was found between the presence of CO and decreased levels of iron. The correlations between CO and decreased levels of copper and lead approached significance (p=0.056 for both elements). Individuals with CO furthermore displayed significantly lower δ¹⁵N isotope values, suggesting greater consumption of lower trophic level food resources than those unaffected by CO; δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values, in contrast, showed no significant differences. These results suggest that the prevalence of CO may be related to dietary deficiencies. In this case, low iron levels may also signify a diet low in other key vitamins (e.g., B₉ and B₁₂), which are known to cause megaloblastic anemia.

Osteoarchaeological Studies of Human Systemic Stress of Early Urbanization in Late Shang at Anyang, China

Through the analysis of human skeletal remains and mortuary practice in Yinxu, this study investigates the impact of early urbanization on the commoners during the Late Shang dynasty (ca. 1250-1046 B.C.). A total of 347 individuals examined in this study represent non-elites who were recovered from two different burial contexts (formally buried in lineage cemeteries and randomly scattered in refuse pits). Frequencies of enamel hypoplasia (childhood stress), cribra orbitalia (childhood stress and frailty) and osteoperiostitis (adult stress) were examined to assess systemic stress exposure. Our results reveal that there was no significant difference in the frequency of enamel hypoplasia between two burial groups and between sexes, suggesting these urban commoners experienced similar stresses during childhood, but significantly elevated levels of cribra orbitalia and osteoperiostitis were observed in the refuse pit female cohort. Theoretically, urbanization would have resulted in increased population density in the urban centre, declining sanitary conditions, and increased risk of resource shortage. Biologically, children would be more vulnerable to such physiological disturbance; as a result, high percentages of enamel hypoplasia (80.9% overall) and cribra orbitalia (30.3% overall) are observed in Yin commoners. Adults continued to suffer from stress, resulting in high frequencies of osteoperiostitis (40.0% total adults); in particular, in the refuse pit females who may also reflect a compound impact of gender inequality. Our data show that the non-elite urban population in the capital city of Late Shang Dynasty had experienced extensive stress exposure due to early urbanization with further social stratification only worsening the situation, and eventually contributing to collapse of the Shang Dynasty.

Lessons from the past: cribra orbitalia, an orbital roof pathology

AIMS

To define a computed tomography protocol that may be used in future clinical practice for the reliable detection and analysis of cribra orbitalia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two osteological assemblages from the Museum of London were used to select 13 cribratous skulls and 5 non-cribratous skulls. Area of cribra orbitalia was measured using image analysis. Morphology of cribra orbitalia, orbital roof density and the associated optic canal diameter was analysed using computed tomography reconstructions.

RESULTS

The presence of cribra orbitalia was associated with changes in the internal diploë layer as well as the cortical bone table. A novel radiological grading system and protocol was developed to identify the pathology. A decrease in the orbital roof density by 210 Hounsfield units and a reduction in the optic canal diameter, up to 1 mm, were found to be associated with the presence of cribra orbitalia.

CONCLUSIONS

The occurrence of cribra orbitalia is found to be associated with stenosis of the optic canal, and could explain a proportion of cases ofoptic nerve entrapment. This study provides a guideline for radiologists and oculoplastic surgeons to help detect the presence of cribra orbitalia in suspected patients.

Analysis of cribra orbitalia in the earliest inhabitants of medieval Vilnius

The purpose of this work is to present an analysis of cribra orbitalia (CO) from the population of a medieval cemetery in Vilnius, Lithuania, dated between the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 15th centuries. The sample consisted of 208 individuals with sufficiently preserved orbits: 82 subadults and 122 adults. CO was correlated with sex, age-at-death, and three skeletal indicators of biological health: linear enamel hypoplasia, periostitis, and adult femur length as a proxy value for stature. Siler's and Gompertz-Makeham's parametric models of mortality as well as χ2 statistics were used to evaluate these relationships. Almost one-third of all analyzed individuals had signs of CO, including approximately 60% of the subadults. There was a very strong relationship between the age-at-death and incidence of CO, i.e., individuals with the lesion were dying much younger. The frequency of CO among the sexes was not statistically significant. On the other hand, CO had a negative effect only on adult males, i.e., males who had the lesion died at a younger age. Furthermore, CO and linear enamel hypoplasia were positively related for subadults, whereas no significant relationships were found among adults of corresponding sex. Incidence of periostitis and adult stature were not related to CO.