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Illath K, Kar S, Gupta P, Shinde A, Wankhar S, Tseng FG, Lim KT, Nagai M, Santra TS. Microfluidic nanomaterials: From synthesis to biomedical applications. Biomaterials 2021; 280:121247. [PMID: 34801251 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Microfluidic platforms gain popularity in biomedical research due to their attractive inherent features, especially in nanomaterials synthesis. This review critically evaluates the current state of the controlled synthesis of nanomaterials using microfluidic devices. We describe nanomaterials' screening in microfluidics, which is very relevant for automating the synthesis process for biomedical applications. We discuss the latest microfluidics trends to achieve noble metal, silica, biopolymer, quantum dots, iron oxide, carbon-based, rare-earth-based, and other nanomaterials with a specific size, composition, surface modification, and morphology required for particular biomedical application. Screening nanomaterials has become an essential tool to synthesize desired nanomaterials using more automated processes with high speed and repeatability, which can't be neglected in today's microfluidic technology. Moreover, we emphasize biomedical applications of nanomaterials, including imaging, targeting, therapy, and sensing. Before clinical use, nanomaterials have to be evaluated under physiological conditions, which is possible in the microfluidic system as it stimulates chemical gradients, fluid flows, and the ability to control microenvironment and partitioning multi-organs. In this review, we emphasize the clinical evaluation of nanomaterials using microfluidics which was not covered by any other reviews. In the future, the growth of new materials or modification in existing materials using microfluidics platforms and applications in a diversity of biomedical fields by utilizing all the features of microfluidic technology is expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavitha Illath
- Department of Engineering Design, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India
| | - Srabani Kar
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Cambridge, UK
| | - Pallavi Gupta
- Department of Engineering Design, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India
| | - Ashwini Shinde
- Department of Engineering Design, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India
| | - Syrpailyne Wankhar
- Department of Bioengineering, Christian Medical College Vellore, Vellore, India
| | - Fan-Gang Tseng
- Department of Engineering and System Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Ki-Taek Lim
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Kangwon National University, South Korea
| | - Moeto Nagai
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, Aichi, Japan
| | - Tuhin Subhra Santra
- Department of Engineering Design, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India.
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Shen J, Shafiq M, Ma M, Chen H. Synthesis and Surface Engineering of Inorganic Nanomaterials Based on Microfluidic Technology. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 10:E1177. [PMID: 32560284 PMCID: PMC7353232 DOI: 10.3390/nano10061177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The controlled synthesis and surface engineering of inorganic nanomaterials hold great promise for the design of functional nanoparticles for a variety of applications, such as drug delivery, bioimaging, biosensing, and catalysis. However, owing to the inadequate and unstable mass/heat transfer, conventional bulk synthesis methods often result in the poor uniformity of nanoparticles, in terms of microstructure, morphology, and physicochemical properties. Microfluidic technologies with advantageous features, such as precise fluid control and rapid microscale mixing, have gathered the widespread attention of the research community for the fabrication and engineering of nanomaterials, which effectively overcome the aforementioned shortcomings of conventional bench methods. This review summarizes the latest research progress in the microfluidic fabrication of different types of inorganic nanomaterials, including silica, metal, metal oxides, metal organic frameworks, and quantum dots. In addition, the surface modification strategies of nonporous and porous inorganic nanoparticles based on microfluidic method are also introduced. We also provide the readers with an insight on the red blocks and prospects of microfluidic approaches, for designing the next generation of inorganic nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Shen
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructures, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China; (J.S.); (H.C.)
- Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Muhammad Shafiq
- Department of Chemistry, Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Nilore, Islamabad 45650, Pakistan;
| | - Ming Ma
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructures, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China; (J.S.); (H.C.)
- Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hangrong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructures, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China; (J.S.); (H.C.)
- Center of Materials Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Hao N, Zhang M, Zhang JXJ. Microfluidics for ZnO micro-/nanomaterials development: rational design, controllable synthesis, and on-chip bioapplications. Biomater Sci 2020; 8:1783-1801. [PMID: 31965125 PMCID: PMC7768907 DOI: 10.1039/c9bm01787a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Zinc oxide (ZnO) materials hold great promise in diverse applications due to their attractive physicochemical features. Recent years, especially the last decade, have witnessed considerable progress toward rational design and bioapplications of multiscale ZnO materials through microfluidic techniques. Design of a microfluidic device that allows for precise control over reaction conditions could not only yield ZnO particles with a fast production rate and high quality, but also permit downstream applications with desirable and superior performance. This review summarizes microfluidic approaches for the synthesis and applications of ZnO micro-/nanomaterials. In particular, we discuss the recent achievement of using microfluidic reactors in the controllable synthesis of ZnO structures (wire, rod, sphere, flower, sheet, flake, spindle, and ellipsoid), and highlight the unprecedented opportunities for applying them in biosensing, biological separation, and molecular catalysis applications through microfluidic chips. Finally, major challenges and potential opportunities are explored to guide future studies in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanjing Hao
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA.
| | - Michael Zhang
- The Lawrenceville School, 2500 Main St, Lawrenceville, New Jersey 08648, USA
| | - John X J Zhang
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA.
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Microfluidics-enabled acceleration of Fenton oxidation for degradation of organic dyes with rod-like zero-valent iron nanoassemblies. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 559:254-262. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2019.10.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Hao N, Xu Z, Nie Y, Jin C, Closson AB, Zhang M, Zhang JXJ. Microfluidics-enabled rational design of ZnO micro-/nanoparticles with enhanced photocatalysis, cytotoxicity, and piezoelectric properties. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING JOURNAL (LAUSANNE, SWITZERLAND : 1996) 2019; 378:122222. [PMID: 32831625 PMCID: PMC7441810 DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2019.122222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidics-based reactors enables the controllable synthesis of micro-/nanostructures for a broad spectrum of applications from materials science, bioengineering to medicine. In this study, we first develop a facile and straightforward flow synthesis strategy to control zinc oxide (ZnO) of different shapes (sphere, ellipsoid, short rod, long rod, cube, urchin, and platelet) on a few seconds time scale, based on the 1.5-run spiral-shaped microfluidic reactor with a relative short microchannel length of ca. 92 mm. The formation of ZnO is realized simply by mixing reactants through two inlet flows, one containing zinc nitrate and the other sodium hydroxide. The structures of ZnO are tuned by choosing appropriate flow rates and reactant concentrations of two inlet fluids. The formation mechanism behind microfluidics is proposed. The photocatalysis, cytotoxicity, and piezoelectric capabilities of as-synthesized ZnO from microreactors are further examined, and the structure-dependent efficacy is observed, where higher surface area ZnO structures generally behave better performance. These results bring new insights not only in the rational design of functional micro-/nanoparticles from microfluidics, but also for deeper understanding of the structure-efficacy relationship when translating micro-/nanomaterials into practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanjing Hao
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Zhe Xu
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Yuan Nie
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Congran Jin
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Andrew B. Closson
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Michael Zhang
- The Lawrenceville School, 2500 Main St, Lawrenceville, New Jersey 08648, United States
| | - John X. J. Zhang
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
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Alduhaish O, Ubaidullah M, Al-Enizi AM, Alhokbany N, Alshehri SM, Ahmed J. Facile Synthesis of Mesoporous α-Fe 2O 3@g-C 3N 4-NCs for Efficient Bifunctional Electro-catalytic Activity (OER/ORR). Sci Rep 2019; 9:14139. [PMID: 31578464 PMCID: PMC6775101 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-50780-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesoporous α-iron oxide@graphitized-carbon nitride nanocomposites (α-Fe2O3@g-C3N4-NCs) were synthesized using urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins at 400 °C/2 h. The mesoporous nature of the prepared nanocomposites was observed from electron microscopy and surface area measurements. The electrochemical measurements show the bifunctional nature of mesoporous α-Fe2O3@g-C3N4-NCs in electrolysis of water for oxygen evolution and oxygen reduction reactions (OER/ORR) using 0.5 M KOH. Higher current density of mesoporous α-Fe2O3@g-C3N4-NCs reveals the enhanced electrochemical performance compared to pure Fe2O3 nanoparticles (NPs). The onset potential, over-potential and Tafel slopes of mesoporous α-Fe2O3@g-C3N4-NCs were found lower than that of pure α-Fe2O3-NPs. Rotating disc electrode experiments followed by the K-L equation were used to investigate 4e- redox system. Therefore, the mesoporous α-Fe2O3@g-C3N4-NCs bifunctional electro-catalysts can be considered as potential future low-cost alternatives for Pt/C catalysts, which are currently used in fuel cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osamah Alduhaish
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohd Ubaidullah
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah M Al-Enizi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Norah Alhokbany
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saad M Alshehri
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Jahangeer Ahmed
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia.
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Zhang W, Hou C, Li Y, Zhang Q, Wang H. Microfluidic spinning of editable polychromatic fibers. J Colloid Interface Sci 2019; 558:115-122. [PMID: 31585220 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2019.09.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Chromatic fibers that change color in response to external stimuli are expected to be widely used in various applications such as anti-counterfeiting, military camouflage, and wearable displays. Advanced chromatic fibers with polychromatic and editable color properties behavior are strongly desired for practical applications but have not yet been realized using existing spinning technologies. Here, we present the low-cost, continuous microfluidic spinning of editable polychromatic polylactide (PLA) fibers. The structure and performance of the polychromatic PLA fibers were precisely controlled by adjusting the parameters used in microfluidic spinning. The structure of the as-spun products evolved through three different stages based on the editable encapsulation of functional materials into the PLA matrix. Fibers with versatile performance were achieved. A beaded polychromatic PLA fiber showed the possibility to delivery coded information through its editable chromatic behavior. A core-shell polychromatic PLA fiber showed good mechanical properties and knittability, which make it promising to fabricate smart color-changing textiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, International Joint Laboratory for Advanced Fiber and Low-dimension Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201600, China
| | - Chengyi Hou
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, International Joint Laboratory for Advanced Fiber and Low-dimension Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201600, China.
| | - Yaogang Li
- Engineering Research Center of Advanced Glasses Manufacturing Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, 201600, China
| | - Qinghong Zhang
- Engineering Research Center of Advanced Glasses Manufacturing Technology, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, 201600, China
| | - Hongzhi Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, International Joint Laboratory for Advanced Fiber and Low-dimension Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201600, China.
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Hao N, Nie Y, Xu Z, Closson AB, Usherwood T, J Zhang JX. Microfluidic continuous flow synthesis of functional hollow spherical silica with hierarchical sponge-like large porous shell. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING JOURNAL (LAUSANNE, SWITZERLAND : 1996) 2019; 366:433-438. [PMID: 31762686 PMCID: PMC6874225 DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2019.02.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidics brings unique opportunities for engineering micro-/nanomaterials with well-controlled physicochemical properties. Herein, using a miniaturized multi-run spiral-shaped microreactor, we develop a flow synthesis strategy to continuously produce hollow spherical silica (HSS) with hierarchical sponge-like pore sizes ranging from several nanometers to over one hundred nanometers. The formation of HSS is realized by mixing two reactant flows, one containing cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and diluted ammonia and the other 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene (TMB) and diluted tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), at a flow rate as high as 5 mL/min. The effect of the reactant concentration and the flow rate on the structural change of the resultant materials is examined. Functional small-sized nanoparticles (magnetic nanoparticle, quantum dot, and silver nanoparticle) can be separately assembled into HSS and high molecular weight protein (bovine serum albumin) can be successfully loaded into HSS and delivered into cancer cells afterward, making them promising in the fields of separation and purification, bioimaging, catalysis, and theranostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanjing Hao
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States.
| | - Yuan Nie
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States.
| | - Zhe Xu
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States.
| | - Andrew B Closson
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States.
| | - Thomas Usherwood
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States.
| | - John X J Zhang
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States.
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Hao N, Nie Y, Zhang JX. Microfluidics for silica biomaterials synthesis: opportunities and challenges. Biomater Sci 2019; 7:2218-2240. [PMID: 30919847 PMCID: PMC6538461 DOI: 10.1039/c9bm00238c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The rational design and controllable synthesis of silica nanomaterials bearing unique physicochemical properties is becoming increasingly important for a variety of biomedical applications from imaging to drug delivery. Microfluidics has recently emerged as a promising platform for nanomaterial synthesis, providing precise control over particle size, shape, porosity, and structure compared to conventional batch synthesis approaches. This review summarizes microfluidics approaches for the synthesis of silica materials as well as the design, fabrication and the emerging roles in the development of new classes of functional biomaterials. We highlight the unprecedented opportunities of using microreactors in biomaterial synthesis, and assess the recent progress of continuous and discrete microreactors and the associated biomedical applications of silica materials. Finally, we discuss the challenges arising from the intrinsic properties of microfluidics reactors for inspiring future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanjing Hao
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States.
| | - Yuan Nie
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States.
| | - John X.J. Zhang
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States.
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Li K, Yang X, Xue C, Zhao L, Zhang Y, Gao X. Biomimetic human lung-on-a-chip for modeling disease investigation. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2019. [PMID: 31263514 DOI: 10.1063/1.5119052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The lung is the primary respiratory organ of the human body and has a complicated and precise tissue structure. It comprises conductive airways formed by the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles, and many alveoli, the smallest functional units where gas-exchange occurs via the unique gas-liquid exchange interface known as the respiratory membrane. In vitro bionic simulation of the lung or its microenvironment, therefore, presents a great challenge, which requires the joint efforts of anatomy, physics, material science, cell biology, tissue engineering, and other disciplines. With the development of micromachining and miniaturization technology, the concept of a microfluidics-based organ-on-a-chip has received great attention. An organ-on-a-chip is a small cell-culture device that can accurately simulate tissue and organ functions in vitro and has the potential to replace animal models in evaluations of drug toxicity and efficacy. A lung-on-a-chip, as one of the first proposed and developed organs-on-a-chip, provides new strategies for designing a bionic lung cell microenvironment and for in vitro construction of lung disease models, and it is expected to promote the development of basic research and translational medicine in drug evaluation, toxicological detection, and disease model-building for the lung. This review summarizes current lungs-on-a-chip models based on the lung-related cellular microenvironment, including the latest advances described in studies of lung injury, inflammation, lung cancer, and pulmonary fibrosis. This model should see effective use in clinical medicine to promote the development of precision medicine and individualized diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyan Li
- Materials Genome Institute, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Xingyuan Yang
- Materials Genome Institute, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Chang Xue
- Materials Genome Institute, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Lijuan Zhao
- Materials Genome Institute, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | | | - Xinghua Gao
- Materials Genome Institute, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
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Hao N, Nie Y, Xu Z, Zhang JXJ. Ultrafast microfluidic synthesis of hierarchical triangular silver core-silica shell nanoplatelet toward enhanced cellular internalization. J Colloid Interface Sci 2019; 542:370-378. [PMID: 30771632 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2019.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 01/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Microfluidic reactors represent a new frontier in the rational design and controllable synthesis of functional micro-/nanomaterials. Herein, we develop a continuous and ultrafast flow synthesis method to obtain triangular silver (tAg) nanoplatelet using a short range two-loop spiral-shaped laminar flow microfluidic reactor, with one inlet flow containing AgNO3, trisodium citrate, and H2O2 and the other NaBH4. The effect of the reactant concentration and flow rate on the structural changes of tAg is examined. Through the same miniaturized microreactor, hierarchical core-shell Ag@SiO2 can be produced with tunable silica shell thickness using one inlet flow containing the as-synthesized Ag nanoparticles together with tetraethyl orthosilicate and the other ammonia. The enhanced cellular internalization efficiency of triangular nanoplatelets by PANC-1 and MCF-7 cells is further confirmed in comparison with the spherical ones. These results not only bring new insights for engineering nanomaterials from microreactors but also facilitate the rational design of functional nanostructures for enhancing their biological performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanjing Hao
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH 03755, United States
| | - Yuan Nie
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH 03755, United States
| | - Zhe Xu
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH 03755, United States
| | - John X J Zhang
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH 03755, United States.
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