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Tang L, Ding H, Zeng Q, Zhou R, Liu B, Huang X. Engineered Nanovesicles Expressing Bispecific Single Chain Variable Fragments to Protect against SARS-CoV-2 Infection. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2023; 9:6783-6796. [PMID: 37969099 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.3c01108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has resulted in high morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. Although the epidemic has been controlled in many areas and numerous patients have been successfully treated, the risk of reinfection persists due to the low neutralizing antibody titers and weak immune response. To provide long-term immune protection for infected patients, novel bispecific CB6/dendritic cell (DC)-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 3-grabbing nonintegrin (SIGN) nanovesicles (NVs) were constructed to target both the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S) and the DC receptors for virus neutralization and immune activation. Herein, we designed NVs expressing both CB6 and DC-SIGN single chain variable fragments (scFvs) on the surface to block SARS-CoV-2 invasion and activate DC function. Monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) was loaded into the CB6/DC-SIGN NVs as an adjuvant to promote this process. The CB6/DC-SIGN NVs prevented a pseudovirus expressing the S protein from infecting the target cells expressing high levels of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in vitro. Additionally, CB6/DC-SIGN NVs admixed with S-expressing pseudoviruses activated the DCs, which was promoted by the adjuvant MPLA loaded in the NVs. Using a mouse model, we also confirmed that the CB6/DC-SIGN NVs effectively improved the neutralizing antibody titer and inhibited the growth of tumors expressing the S protein after 3 weeks of treatment. This potential NV-based treatment not only exerts a blocking effect by binding the S protein in the short term but may also provide patients with long-term protection against secondary infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lantian Tang
- Center for Infection and Immunity and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong 519000, China
| | - Hanxi Ding
- Center for Infection and Immunity and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong 519000, China
| | - Qi Zeng
- Cancer Center, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, Guangdong, China
| | - Renjie Zhou
- Department of Emergency, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University, 400037 Chongqing, China
| | - Bo Liu
- Department of Emergency, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University, 400037 Chongqing, China
| | - Xi Huang
- Center for Infection and Immunity and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong 519000, China
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Pathakumari B, Marty PK, Shah M, Van Keulen VP, Erskine CL, Block MS, Arias-Sanchez P, Escalante P, Peikert T. Convalescent Adaptive Immunity Is Highly Heterogenous after SARS-CoV-2 Infection. J Clin Med 2023; 12:7136. [PMID: 38002748 PMCID: PMC10672050 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12227136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The optimal detection strategies for effective convalescent immunity after SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination remain unclear. The objective of this study was to characterize convalescent immunity targeting the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein using a multiparametric approach. At the beginning of the pandemic, we recruited 30 unvaccinated convalescent donors who had previously been infected with COVID-19 and 7 unexposed asymptomatic controls. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were obtained from leukapheresis cones. The humoral immune response was assessed by measuring serum anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike S1 subunit IgG via semiquantitative ELISA, and T-cell immunity against S1 and S2 subunits were studied via IFN-γ enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISpot) and flow cytometric (FC) activation-induced marker (AIM) assays and the assessment of cytotoxic CD8+ T-cell function (in the subset of HLA-A2-positive patients). No single immunoassay was sufficient in identifying anti-spike convalescent immunity among all patients. There was no consistent correlation between adaptive humoral and cellular anti-spike responses. Our data indicate that the magnitude of anti-spike convalescent humoral and cellular immunity is highly heterogeneous and highlights the need for using multiple assays to comprehensively measure SARS-CoV-2 convalescent immunity. These observations might have implications for COVID-19 surveillance, and the determination of optimal vaccination strategies for emerging variants. Further studies are needed to determine the optimal assessment of adaptive humoral and cellular immunity following SARS-CoV-2 infection, especially in the context of emerging variants and unclear vaccination schedules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balaji Pathakumari
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (B.P.); (P.K.M.); (M.S.); (V.P.V.K.); (P.A.-S.); (P.E.)
| | - Paige K. Marty
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (B.P.); (P.K.M.); (M.S.); (V.P.V.K.); (P.A.-S.); (P.E.)
| | - Maleeha Shah
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (B.P.); (P.K.M.); (M.S.); (V.P.V.K.); (P.A.-S.); (P.E.)
| | - Virginia P. Van Keulen
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (B.P.); (P.K.M.); (M.S.); (V.P.V.K.); (P.A.-S.); (P.E.)
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (C.L.E.); (M.S.B.)
| | - Courtney L. Erskine
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (C.L.E.); (M.S.B.)
| | - Matthew S. Block
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (C.L.E.); (M.S.B.)
- Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Pedro Arias-Sanchez
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (B.P.); (P.K.M.); (M.S.); (V.P.V.K.); (P.A.-S.); (P.E.)
| | - Patricio Escalante
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (B.P.); (P.K.M.); (M.S.); (V.P.V.K.); (P.A.-S.); (P.E.)
| | - Tobias Peikert
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (B.P.); (P.K.M.); (M.S.); (V.P.V.K.); (P.A.-S.); (P.E.)
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; (C.L.E.); (M.S.B.)
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Marty PK, Pathakumari B, Shah M, Keulen VP, Erskine CL, Block MS, Arias-Sanchez P, Escalante P, Peikert T. Convalescent Adaptive Immunity is Highly Heterogenous after SARS-CoV-2 Infection. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3222112. [PMID: 37674707 PMCID: PMC10479471 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3222112/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Optimal detection strategies for effective convalescent immunity after SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination remain unclear. The objective of this study was to characterize convalescent immunity targeting the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein using a multiparametric approach. At the beginning of the pandemic, between April 23, 2020, to May 11, 2020, we recruited 30 COVID-19 unvaccinated convalescent donors and 7 unexposed asymptomatic donors. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were obtained from leukapheresis cones. The humoral immune response was assessed by measuring serum anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike S1 subunit IgG semiquantitative ELISA and T cell immunity against S1 and S2 subunits were studied by IFN-γ Enzyme-Linked Immune absorbent Spot (ELISpot), flow cytometric (FC) activation-induced marker (AIM) assays and the assessment of cytotoxic CD8+ T-cell function (in the subset of HLA-A2 positive patients). No single immunoassay was sufficient in identifying anti-spike convalescent immunity among all patients. There was no consistent correlation between adaptive humoral and cellular anti-spike responses. Our data indicate that the magnitude of anti-spike convalescent humoral and cellular immunity is highly heterogeneous and highlights the need for using multiple assays to comprehensively measure SARS-CoV-2 convalescent immunity. These observations might have implications for COVID-19 surveillance, and optimal vaccination strategies for emerging variants. Further studies are needed to determine the optimal assessment of adaptive humoral and cellular immunity following SARSCoV-2 infection, especially in the context of emerging variants and unclear vaccination schedules.
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Bego T, Meseldžić N, Prnjavorac B, Prnjavorac L, Marjanović D, Azevedo R, Pinto E, Duro M, Couto C, Almeida A. Association of trace element status in COVID-19 patients with disease severity. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2022; 74:127055. [PMID: 35985069 PMCID: PMC9349050 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2022.127055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Caused by the new SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) evolves with clinical symptoms that vary widely in severity, from mild symptoms to critical conditions, which can even result in the patient's death. A critical aspect related to an individual response to SARS-CoV-2 infection is the competence of the immune system, and it is well known that several trace elements are essential for an adequate immune response and have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that are of particular importance in fighting infection. Thus, it is widely accepted that adequate trace element status can reduce the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and disease severity. In this study, we evaluated the serum levels of Cu, Zn, Se, Fe, I and Mg in patients (n = 210) with clinical conditions of different severity ("mild", "moderate", "severe" and "exitus letalis", i.e., patients who eventually died). The results showed significant differences between the four groups for Cu, Zn, Se and Fe, in particular a significant trend of Zn and Se serum levels to be decreased and Cu to be increased with the severity of symptoms. For Mg and I, no differences were observed, but I levels were shown to be increased in all groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamer Bego
- University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
| | - Neven Meseldžić
- University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Besim Prnjavorac
- University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Pharmacy, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; General Hospital Tešanj, 74260 Tešanj, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | | | - Damir Marjanović
- International Burch University, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Rui Azevedo
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Edgar Pinto
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Department of Environmental Health, School of Health, P.Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
| | - Mary Duro
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Fernando Pessoa Health School, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal
| | - Cristina Couto
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; TOXRUN - Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Almeida
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
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Möhlendick B, Schönfelder K, Zacher C, Elsner C, Rohn H, Konik MJ, Thümmler L, Rebmann V, Lindemann M, Jöckel KH, Siffert W. The GNB3 c.825C>T (rs5443) polymorphism and protection against fatal outcome of corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Front Genet 2022; 13:960731. [PMID: 36017493 PMCID: PMC9395599 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.960731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and aims: Albeit several factors which influence the outcome of corona virus disease (COVID-19) are already known, genetic markers which may predict the outcome of the disease in hospitalized patients are still very sparse. Thus, in this study, we aimed to analyze whether the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs5443 in the gene GNB3, which was associated with higher T cell responses in previous studies, might be a suitable biomarker to predict T cell responses and the outcome of COVID-19 in a comprehensive German cohort.Methods: We analyzed the influence of demographics, pre-existing disorders, laboratory parameters at the time of hospitalization, and GNB3 rs5443 genotype in a comprehensive cohort (N = 1570) on the outcome of COVID-19. In a sub cohort, we analyzed SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell responses and associated GNB3 rs5443 genotypes. We investigated the influence of all factors on COVID-19 fatality in multivariable analysis.Results: We found a younger patient age, normotension or absence of diabetes mellitus or cardiovascular diseases, normal blood cell counts, and low inflammatory markers at hospital admission were protective factors against fatal course of disease. In addition, the rs5443 TT genotype was significantly associated with protection against COVID-19 fatality (OR: 0.60, 95% CI: 0.40–0.92, p = 0.02). We also observed significantly increased SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell responses in rs5443 TT genotype carriers (p = 0.01). Although we observed a significant association of the factors described previously in univariate analysis, only a younger age of the patients, normal blood cell counts, and the GNB3 rs5443 TT genotype remained independent predictors against COVID-19 fatality in multivariable analysis.Conclusion: Immutable predictors for COVID-19 fatality are relatively rare. In this study we could show that the TT genotype of the SNP rs5443 in the gene GNB3 is associated with protection against COVID-19 fatality. It was as well correlated to higher SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell responses, which could result in a milder course of disease in those patients. Based on those observations we hereby provide a further prognostic biomarker, which might be used in routine diagnostics as a predictive factor for COVID-19 mortality already upon hospitalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birte Möhlendick
- Institute of Pharmacogenetics, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
- *Correspondence: Birte Möhlendick,
| | - Kristina Schönfelder
- Department of Nephrology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Christoph Zacher
- Institute of Pharmacogenetics, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Carina Elsner
- Institute for Virology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Hana Rohn
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Margarethe J. Konik
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Laura Thümmler
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Vera Rebmann
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Monika Lindemann
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Karl-Heinz Jöckel
- Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Winfried Siffert
- Institute of Pharmacogenetics, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
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Chivese T, Matizanadzo JT, Musa OAH, Hindy G, Furuya-Kanamori L, Islam N, Al-Shebly R, Shalaby R, Habibullah M, Al-Marwani TA, Hourani RF, Nawaz AD, Haider MZ, Emara MM, Cyprian F, Doi SAR. The prevalence of adaptive immunity to COVID-19 and reinfection after recovery - a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. Pathog Glob Health 2022; 116:269-281. [PMID: 35099367 PMCID: PMC9248963 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2022.2029301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aims to estimate the prevalence and longevity of detectable SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and T and B memory cells after recovery. In addition, the prevalence of COVID-19 reinfection and the preventive efficacy of previous infection with SARS-CoV-2 were investigated. A synthesis of existing research was conducted. The Cochrane Library, the China Academic Journals Full Text Database, PubMed, and Scopus, and preprint servers were searched for studies conducted between 1 January 2020 to 1 April 2021. Included studies were assessed for methodological quality and pooled estimates of relevant outcomes were obtained in a meta-analysis using a bias adjusted synthesis method. Proportions were synthesized with the Freeman-Tukey double arcsine transformation and binary outcomes using the odds ratio (OR). Heterogeneity was assessed using the I2 and Cochran's Q statistics and publication bias was assessed using Doi plots. Fifty-four studies from 18 countries, with around 12,000,000 individuals, followed up to 8 months after recovery, were included. At 6-8 months after recovery, the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 specific immunological memory remained high; IgG - 90.4% (95%CI 72.2-99.9, I2 = 89.0%), CD4+ - 91.7% (95%CI 78.2-97.1y), and memory B cells 80.6% (95%CI 65.0-90.2) and the pooled prevalence of reinfection was 0.2% (95%CI 0.0-0.7, I2 = 98.8). Individuals previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 had an 81% reduction in odds of a reinfection (OR 0.19, 95% CI 0.1-0.3, I2 = 90.5%). Around 90% of recovered individuals had evidence of immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2, at 6-8 months after recovery and had a low risk of reinfection.RegistrationPROSPERO: CRD42020201234.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tawanda Chivese
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar,CONTACT Tawanda Chivese ; Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Joshua T. Matizanadzo
- Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, UK
| | - Omran A. H. Musa
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - George Hindy
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Luis Furuya-Kanamori
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Herston, Australia
| | - Nazmul Islam
- Department of Public Health, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Rafal Al-Shebly
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Rana Shalaby
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Mohammad Habibullah
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Talal A. Al-Marwani
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Rizeq F. Hourani
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Ahmed D. Nawaz
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Mohammad Z. Haider
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Mohamed M. Emara
- Immunology Section, Basic Medical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar,Microbiology Section, Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Research Unit, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Farhan Cyprian
- Immunology Section, Basic Medical Sciences Department, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Suhail A. R. Doi
- Department of Population Medicine, College of Medicine, Qu Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
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Wirsching S, Harder L, Heymanns M, Gröndahl B, Hilbert K, Kowalzik F, Meyer C, Gehring S. Long-Term, CD4 + Memory T Cell Response to SARS-CoV-2. Front Immunol 2022; 13:800070. [PMID: 35514974 PMCID: PMC9065554 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.800070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The first cases of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) were reported by Chinese authorities at the end of 2019. The disease spread quickly and was declared a global pandemic shortly thereafter. To respond effectively to infection and prevent viral spread, it is important to delineate the factors that affect protective immunity. Herein, a cohort of convalescent healthcare workers was recruited and their immune responses were studied over a period of 3 to 9 months following the onset of symptoms. A cross-reactive T cell response to SARS-CoV-2 and endemic coronaviruses, i.e., OC43 and NL63, was demonstrated in the infected, convalescent cohort, as well as a cohort composed of unexposed individuals. The convalescent cohort, however, displayed an increased number of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells relative to the unexposed group. Moreover, unlike humoral immunity and quickly decreasing antibody titers, T cell immunity in convalescent individuals was maintained and stable throughout the study period. This study also suggests that, based on the higher CD4 T cell memory response against nucleocapsid antigen, future vaccine designs may include nucleocapsid as an additional antigen along with the spike protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Wirsching
- Children's Hospital, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Laura Harder
- Children's Hospital, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Markus Heymanns
- Children's Hospital, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Britta Gröndahl
- Children's Hospital, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Katja Hilbert
- Children's Hospital, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Frank Kowalzik
- Children's Hospital, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Claudius Meyer
- Children's Hospital, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stephan Gehring
- Children's Hospital, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
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