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1
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Galinsky AD, Turek A, Agarwal G, Anicich EM, Rucker DD, Bowles HR, Liberman N, Levin C, Magee JC. Are many sex/gender differences really power differences? PNAS NEXUS 2024; 3:pgae025. [PMID: 38415218 PMCID: PMC10898859 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
This research addresses the long-standing debate about the determinants of sex/gender differences. Evolutionary theorists trace many sex/gender differences back to natural selection and sex-specific adaptations. Sociocultural and biosocial theorists, in contrast, emphasize how societal roles and social power contribute to sex/gender differences beyond any biological distinctions. By connecting two empirical advances over the past two decades-6-fold increases in sex/gender difference meta-analyses and in experiments conducted on the psychological effects of power-the current research offers a novel empirical examination of whether power differences play an explanatory role in sex/gender differences. Our analyses assessed whether experimental manipulations of power and sex/gender differences produce similar psychological and behavioral effects. We first identified 59 findings from published experiments on power. We then conducted a P-curve of the experimental power literature and established that it contained evidential value. We next subsumed these effects of power into 11 broad categories and compared them to 102 similar meta-analytic sex/gender differences. We found that high-power individuals and men generally display higher agency, lower communion, more positive self-evaluations, and similar cognitive processes. Overall, 71% (72/102) of the sex/gender differences were consistent with the effects of experimental power differences, whereas only 8% (8/102) were opposite, representing a 9:1 ratio of consistent-to-inconsistent effects. We also tested for discriminant validity by analyzing whether power corresponds more strongly to sex/gender differences than extraversion: although extraversion correlates with power, it has different relationships with sex/gender differences. These results offer novel evidence that many sex/gender differences may be explained, in part, by power differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Galinsky
- Management Division, Columbia University, New York City, NY 10027, USA
| | - Aurora Turek
- Organizational Behavior Unit, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02163, USA
| | - Grusha Agarwal
- Organizational Behaviour & Human Resource Management Department, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1P5, Canada
| | - Eric M Anicich
- Management & Organization Department, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Derek D Rucker
- Marketing Department, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Hannah R Bowles
- Organizational Behavior Unit, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02163, USA
| | - Nira Liberman
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Chloe Levin
- Management Division, Columbia University, New York City, NY 10027, USA
| | - Joe C Magee
- Management & Organizations Department, New York University, New York City, NY 10012, USA
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2
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Does the sense of power influence reputational concern? Tests with episodic and semantic power priming. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2023. [DOI: 10.32872/spb.7779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Reputational concern shapes various social behaviours, since having a negative reputation often results in receiving negative social consequences such as ostracism and punishment. As such, individuals are motivated to avoid displaying socially disapproved behaviour. Previous studies have found that individuals with power (i.e., those who can asymmetrically influence others) tend to show various behaviours that would damage their reputation (e.g., aggression and exploitation). Taken together, we hypothesised that power would be associated with the extent to which individuals are concerned about their reputation. More specifically, we hypothesised that those who have a high and low sense of power would experience reduced and increased reputational concern, respectively. To test the relationship, we conducted three preregistered studies with commonly used power priming methods: episodic priming (Studies 1 and 3) and semantic power priming (Study 2). In Studies 1 and 2, the power priming methods failed to significantly influence the sense of power or reputational concern. In Study 3, we sought to overcome potential methodological issues with online episodic priming, and a modified high power episodic priming was successful. Yet, we did not find evidence for the hypothesised relationship between the experimentally induced sense of power and reputational concern. Our three studies offer valuable implications not only for further research on the relationship between reputational concern and power but also for the effectiveness of power priming methods.
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3
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The social alignment theory of power: Predicting associative and dissociative behavior in hierarchies. RESEARCH IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.riob.2022.100178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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4
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Hou Q, Meng L. I am entitled to it! Social power and context modulate disadvantageous inequity aversion. Int J Psychophysiol 2022; 181:150-159. [PMID: 36154950 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Previous research consistently indicated that social power influences one's fairness consideration. However, it is unclear how social power and context jointly affect inequity aversion and whether these processes would be manifested in brain activities. In this study, participants were randomly assigned into either high or low power condition and then took part in a modified ultimatum game (UG) as responders in both gain and loss contexts, with their event-related potentials (ERPs) recorded. Behavioral results showed that powerful participants were more likely to reject unfair offers in both contexts compared with powerless ones. In addition, powerful participants showed a more negative feedback-related negativity (FRN) loss-win difference wave (d-FRN) upon presentation of proposed offers compared with powerless participants only in the gain context. Interestingly, in a later time window, differences of P300 responses to proposed offers were modulated by social power in both gain and loss contexts. These results suggested that powerful people were more sensitive to fairness levels and FRN may manifest fairness consideration in a gain context, but not in a loss context. Meanwhile, P300 is sensitive to fairness considerations in both gain and loss contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinghui Hou
- School of Business and Management, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Applied Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China
| | - Liang Meng
- School of Business and Management, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China; Institute of Organizational Behavior and Organizational Neuroscience, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China.
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5
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For Powerholders ‘More is More’: Power Shapes Judgments of Logically Equivalent Comparative Statements. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.5334/irsp.598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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6
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Scholl A, Sassenberg K. Opening up new avenues for research on social power. JOURNAL OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jasp.12858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Annika Scholl
- Social Processes Lab Leibniz‐Institut fuer Wissensmedien (IWM) Tuebingen Germany
| | - Kai Sassenberg
- Social Processes Lab Leibniz‐Institut fuer Wissensmedien (IWM) Tuebingen Germany
- Faculty of Science University of Tuebingen Tuebingen Germany
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del Valle CHC. Guilt and Shame of What Might Have Been in Optimistic Offender Drivers. Front Psychol 2021; 12:668138. [PMID: 34690856 PMCID: PMC8529183 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Habitual offender drivers are required to recover points lost on their driving license by attending reeducation courses, an experience that may, upon reflection of the incident in question, induce feelings of guilt or shame for the infractions they committed. A simulated driving task studied optimistic offender drivers to analyze the extent to which the controllability of the situational context influenced their use of internal and external factors in counterfactual thoughts and emotions such as guilt and shame. The study involved 160 drivers, of whom 54 were categorized as repeat offender drivers while 106 drivers attended courses for advanced professional driving licenses. The participants drove along a route in a driving simulator, which had been previously adjusted for the difficulty to generate a perception of high or low control. Based on the outcome obtained by the participants in this stage, each driver had to report which resources they required to improve their outcomes. Different factor ANOVAs were used to analyze our findings. The results indicated that optimistic offenders, unlike other groups (i.e., optimistic non-offender and pessimistic non-offender), thought that their results could have been better if external factors had been present (i.e., upward counterfactuals), both under conditions of high and low control. They believed their results would have been worse had it not been for their internal resources (i.e., downward counterfactuals), especially under conditions of low control. Concerning emotions of guilt and shame, offender optimists had the lowest values in both conditions compared with the other groups. We may contend that optimistic offender drivers thought they could have obtained better outcomes if external factors had been involved. In the low control condition, they justified that if it were not for such internal skills, their results could have been worse. When they generated such thoughts, the emotions of guilt and shame were minimal.
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Broomhall AG, Phillips WJ. Collective harmony as a moderator of the association between other-referent upward counterfactual thinking and depression. COGENT PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/23311908.2020.1714833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Wendy J. Phillips
- School of Psychology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
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9
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Scholl A, Sassenberg K, Zapf B, Pummerer L. Out of sight, out of mind: Power-holders feel responsible when anticipating face-to-face, but not digital contact with others. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2020.106472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Scholl A. Responsible power-holders: when and for what the powerful may assume responsibility. Curr Opin Psychol 2020; 33:28-32. [PMID: 31349199 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Being in power means that one's actions impact others' situation. Accordingly, power can be seen as opportunity to 'make things happen', which often leads to selfish behavior among the powerful. Yet, power-holders at times also assume responsibility towards others, treating those with low power with more care. Multiple findings support these two sides of power. The present paper adds that power-holders may also take responsibility for the tasks at hand (taking care of organizational success and tasks associated with their role). As such, many findings that power facilitates goal-directedness can be interpreted either in a way that the powerful 'selfishly' make use of opportunities-or rather that they assume task responsibility and make sure to reach (task) goals. Doing so allows to connect power and leadership, gaining a deeper understanding of what power-holders may feel responsible for and how their (social and task) responsibility may contribute to the functioning of hierarchies.
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11
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Counterfactual Thinking About In-Group Versus Out-Group Others. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-017-9709-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Fast NJ, Schroeder J. Power and decision making: new directions for research in the age of artificial intelligence. Curr Opin Psychol 2019; 33:172-176. [PMID: 31473586 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.07.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Throughout history, the experience of power has occurred within the context of human-human interactions. Such power can influence decision making through at least two primary mechanisms: (1) increased goal-orientation, and (2) increased activation of social role expectations. Importantly, new advances in artificial intelligence (AI) are creating the potential to experience power in human-AI interactions. To the extent that some forms of AI can be made to seem like low-power humans (e.g. autonomous digital assistants), people may feel powerful when interacting with such entities. However, it is unclear whether feeling power over AI will lead to the same psychological consequences as feeling power over humans. In this article, we review findings on power and decision making and then consider how they may be meaningfully extended by considering interactions with artificially intelligent digital assistants. We conclude with a call for new theorizing and research on power in the age of artificial intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathanael J Fast
- University of Southern California, 701 Exposition Blvd - Hoffman Hall 431, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1424 MC: 1424, United States.
| | - Juliana Schroeder
- University of California, Berkeley 2220 Piedmont Ave, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
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Fleischmann A, Lammers J. Power and moral thinking. Curr Opin Psychol 2019; 33:23-27. [PMID: 31340194 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
This review synthesizes research on how feelings of power affect the processing of moral information. Although power is typically viewed as a potentially corruptive force that reduces our morality, we propose that power amplifies moral thinking - but does so in different ways that potentially run in opposite directions. Building on the Moral Orientation Scale framework [1•], we propose that power increases the tendency to deliberate about moral questions, increases the tendency to integrate feelings and cognitions, and increases the adherence to principles and rules. Feelings of power do not corrupt, but lead to a more rich, mature, and multifaceted form of morality.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joris Lammers
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Germany.
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Scholl A, Landkammer F, Sassenberg K. When those who know do share: Group goals facilitate information sharing, but social power does not undermine it. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0213795. [PMID: 30856234 PMCID: PMC6411119 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Good team decisions require that team members share information with each other. Yet, members often tend to selfishly withhold important information. Does this tendency depend on their power within the team? Power-holders frequently act more selfishly (than the powerless)—accordingly, they might be tempted to withhold information. We predicted that given a task goal to ‘solve a task’, power-holders would selfishly share less information than the powerless. However, a group goal to ‘solve the task together’ would compensate for this selfishness, heightening particularly power-holders’ information sharing. In parallel, an individual goal to ‘solve the task alone’ may heighten selfishness and lower information sharing (even) among the powerless. We report five experiments (N = 1305), comprising all studies conducted in their original order. Analyses yielded weak to no evidence for these predictions; the findings rather supported the beneficial role of a group goal to ensure information sharing for both the powerful and the powerless.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Scholl
- Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tuebingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Kai Sassenberg
- Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tuebingen, Germany
- University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
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15
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Bohns VK, Newark DA. Power and perceived influence: I caused your behavior, but I'm not responsible for it. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Lammers J, Burgmer P. Power increases the self-serving bias in the attribution of collective successes and failures. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joris Lammers
- Department of Psychology; University of Cologne; Köln Germany
| | - Pascal Burgmer
- Department of Psychology; University of Cologne; Köln Germany
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17
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Scholl A, de Wit F, Ellemers N, Fetterman AK, Sassenberg K, Scheepers D. The Burden of Power: Construing Power as Responsibility (Rather Than as Opportunity) Alters Threat-Challenge Responses. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2018; 44:1024-1038. [PMID: 29544390 DOI: 10.1177/0146167218757452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Power usually lowers stress responses. In stressful situations, having high (vs. low) power heightens challenge and lowers threat. Yet, even power-holders may experience threat when becoming aware of the responsibility that accompanies their power. Power-holders can construe (i.e., understand) a high-power position primarily as opportunity to "make things happen" or as responsibility to "take care of things." Power-holders construing power as responsibility (rather than opportunity) may be more likely to experience demands-such as taking care of important decisions under their control-as outweighing their resources, resulting in less challenge and more threat. Four experiments with subjective and cardiovascular threat-challenge indicators support this. Going beyond prior work on structural aspects (e.g., power instability) that induce stress, we show that merely the way how power-holders construe their power can evoke stress. Specifically, we find that power construed as responsibility (vs. opportunity) is more likely to imply a "burden" for the power-holder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Scholl
- 1 Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Kai Sassenberg
- 1 Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany.,5 University of Tübingen, Germany
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18
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Fleischmann A, Lammers J, Conway P, Galinsky AD. Paradoxical Effects of Power on Moral Thinking: Why Power Both Increases and Decreases Deontological and Utilitarian Moral Decisions. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550617744022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The current research explores the role of power in moral decision-making. Some work suggests that power increases utilitarianism; other work suggests power increases deontological judgments. Conversely, we propose that power can both increase and decrease both deontological and utilitarian decisions by building on two recent insights in moral psychology. First, we utilize the moral orientation scale to assess four thinking styles that jointly predict moral dilemma decisions. Second, we employ process dissociation to assess deontological and utilitarian judgments as orthogonal rather than opposite constructs. We conducted two preregistered confirmatory studies that replicated exploratory findings. In Study 1, power increased three moral thinking styles: integration, deliberation, and rule orientation. In Study 2, these decision-making styles simultaneously mediated the effects of power on utilitarian and deontological responses in opposing ways, leading to null effects overall. These results reconcile previous findings and demonstrate the complex yet systematic effects power has on moral decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joris Lammers
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Köln, Germany
| | - Paul Conway
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Adam D. Galinsky
- Columbia Business School, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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Scholl A, Sassenberg K, Ellemers N, Scheepers D, de Wit F. Highly identified power-holders feel responsible: The interplay between social identification and social power within groups. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 57:112-129. [PMID: 28983928 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Power relations affect dynamics within groups. Power-holders' decisions not only determine their personal outcomes, but also the outcomes of others in the group that they control. Yet, power-holders often tend to overlook this responsibility to take care of collective interests. The present research investigated how social identification - with the group to which both the powerful and the powerless belong - alters perceived responsibility among power-holders (and the powerless). Combining research on social power and social identity, we argue that power-holders perceive more responsibility than the powerless when strongly (rather than when weakly) identifying with the group. A study among leaders and an experiment supported this, highlighting that although power-holders are often primarily concerned about personal outcomes, they do feel responsible for considering others' interests when these others are included in the (social) self.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Scholl
- Social Processes Lab, Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kai Sassenberg
- Social Processes Lab, Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany.,University of Tübingen, Germany
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Hershcovis MS, Neville L, Reich TC, Christie AM, Cortina LM, Shan JV. Witnessing wrongdoing: The effects of observer power on incivility intervention in the workplace. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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21
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Haselhuhn MP, Wong EM, Ormiston ME. With great power comes shared responsibility: Psychological power and the delegation of authority. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.11.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Abstract
Abstract. To directly examine why an individual’s capacity to influence others by providing valued resources (i.e., power) could decrease the concerns about negative evaluation from others (i.e., the fear of negative evaluation, FNE) in daily life, two studies were conducted. Results found that perceived power (Study 1) was associated with lower FNE, and manipulating power levels (Study 2) caused less FNE. Furthermore, results indicate that personal control belief mediated this link. These findings provide empirical evidence of the underlying mechanism of the effect of power on reducing FNE. The current research contributes significantly because it sheds light on how power transferred from a person’s “external world” to their “internal world” (i.e., personal control belief) can influence their cognition and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Cai
- Research Centre of Brain Function and Psychological Science, Shenzhen University, PR China
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, PR China
| | - Song Wu
- College of Psychology and Sociology, Shenzhen University, PR China
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Heller S, Ullrich J. Does Power Increase Self-Control? Episodic Priming May Not Provide the Answer. COLLABRA-PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1525/collabra.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Powerful people (e.g., political and business leaders) should be able to control their impulses and act in line with long-term rather than short-term interests. However, theories of power suggest different answers to the question whether the basic experience of feeling powerful decreases (e.g., Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003) or increases self-control performance (e.g., Magee & Smith, 2013). We conducted a pre-registered direct replication of the only experiment testing the effects of power on self-control (Joshi & Fast, 2013, Study 3). In contrast to the original results, social power, operationalized by episodic priming, did not affect temporal discounting. A possible explanation is the fact that the power priming failed to elevate participants’ sense of power. Thus, the null findings challenge the power priming paradigm rather than the two theories from which opposite predictions were derived. In order to understand how power affects self-control, future research may need to rely on other manipulations.
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The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking: New Evidence, New Challenges, New Insights. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.aesp.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Abstract
Sociocognitive research has demonstrated that power affects how people feel, think, and act. In this article, I review literature from social psychology, neuroscience, management, and animal research and propose an integrated framework of power as an intensifier of goal-related approach motivation. A growing literature shows that power energizes thought, speech, and action and orients individuals toward salient goals linked to power roles, predispositions, tasks, and opportunities. Power magnifies self-expression linked to active parts of the self (the active self), enhancing confidence, self-regulation, and prioritization of efforts toward advancing focal goals. The effects of power on cognitive processes, goal preferences, performance, and corruption are discussed, and its potentially detrimental effects on social attention, perspective taking, and objectification of subordinates are examined. Several inconsistencies in the literature are explained by viewing power holders as more flexible and dynamic than is usually assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Guinote
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London WC1H 0AP, United Kingdom; .,Leadership Knowledge Center, Nova School of Business and Economics, Lisbon, Portugal 1099-032
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Landkammer F, Sassenberg K. Der Einfluss von Gruppenmitgliedschaften auf den Informationsaustausch mit digitalen Kommunikationsmedien. PSYCHOLOGISCHE RUNDSCHAU 2016. [DOI: 10.1026/0033-3042/a000303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Zusammenfassung. Digitale Medien sind zum zentralen Mittel des Informationsaustausches in Lern- und Arbeitskontexten geworden. Durch die Reduktion sozialer Hinweisreize während computervermittelter Kommunikation (cvK) kommt der Wahrnehmung sozialer Beziehungen davor eine besondere Bedeutung zu. Dieser Beitrag fasst Forschung zum computervermittelten Informationsaustausch zusammen und legt dabei zwei Schwerpunkte. Zum einen liefert er einen Überblick über Forschung zu sozialem Einfluss (d. h. Informationsrezeption) in cvK. Diese zeigt, dass cvK zu einer stärkeren Orientierung an vor der Kommunikation salienten Selbstaspekten (z. B. gemeinsame Gruppenmitgliedschaften) führt: Ist eine gemeinsame soziale Identität salient, kommt es zu mehr sozialem Einfluss, werden keine (positiven) sozialen Beziehungen wahrgenommen, kommt es zu weniger sozialem Einfluss sowie anderen egozentrischen Tendenzen. Zum anderen wird Forschung zusammengefasst, die belegt, dass die Salienz einer sozialen Identität in cvK die aus negativen Erwartungen, defensiven Selbstregulationsstrategien und sozialer Macht resultierenden egozentrischen Tendenzen kompensieren kann. Die gleichzeitige Berücksichtigung individueller und sozialer Aspekte des Selbst ist somit wesentlich, um Vorhersagen zum medienvermittelten Informationsaustausch treffen zu können.
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Epstude K, Scholl A, Roese NJ. Prefactual Thoughts: Mental Simulations about What Might Happen. REVIEW OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1037/gpr0000064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Thought about the future can take many forms, from goal planning to intentions and from fantasies to magical thinking. The term prefactual has guided some past research, yet its potential impact has been hampered by inconsistency in its definition. Here we define prefactual thought as a conditional (if-then) proposition about an action-outcome linkage that may (or may not) take place in the future, such as “If I take action X, it will lead to outcome Y.” A prefactual embraces a causal belief that an action (if taken) will result in the outcome with a high degree of certainty. A form of mental simulation, prefactuals often derive from counterfactuals (which focus on the past) and feed into intentions (which center on the future). This article provides an overview of extant findings, draws connections to goal pursuit and affect regulation, and clarifies the value of the prefactual construct for conceptualizations of prospection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Epstude
- Department of Psychology, University of Groningen
| | - Annika Scholl
- Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Neal J. Roese
- Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University
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Matschke C, Fehr J. Internal Motivation Buffers the Negative Effect of Identity Incompatibility on Newcomers’ Social Identification and Well-Being. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1027/1864-9335/a000250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. Newcomers who enter a new group usually possess a number of established social identities. It has been demonstrated that incompatibility between established and new identities decreases social identification with the new group and well-being. We propose that internal motivation to become a group member helps newcomers to identify with their group despite incompatibility. Therefore, it was predicted that only newcomers low (but not high) in internal motivation to become a group member were affected by incompatibility. One experiment with university newcomers and two field studies with exchange students and university newcomers supported these predictions. The results highlight the fact that internal motivation is a strong resource when newcomers face obstacles, in the form of incompatibility between established and new identities.
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Scholl A, Sassenberg K. Better Know When (Not) to Think Twice. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2014; 41:159-70. [DOI: 10.1177/0146167214559720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Before approaching situations, individuals frequently imagine “what would happen, if . . . .” Such prefactual thought can promote confidence and facilitate behavior preparation when the upcoming situation can benefit from forethought, but it also delays action. The present research tested how social power predicts prefactual thought when its benefits are clear versus ambiguous. Power enhances flexible behavior adaptation and action tendencies—presumably without much forethought. We therefore proposed that power diminishes prefactual thought, unless the situation suggests that such thought is adaptive (i.e., could benefit performance). Power-holders indeed generated less prefactuals than the powerless (Experiments 1 and 2), but only if benefits for performance were ambiguous rather than clear (Experiment 3). These findings indicate that social context factors related to confidence affect prefactual thought, and that power-holders’ flexible adaptation to the situation sometimes elicits inaction (i.e., prefactual thought) rather than spontaneous action.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kai Sassenberg
- Knowledge Media Research Center, Tübingen, Germany
- University of Tübingen, Germany
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Scholl A, Sassenberg K. “While You Still Think, I Already Type”: Experienced Social Power Reduces Deliberation During E-Mail Communication. CYBERPSYCHOLOGY BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL NETWORKING 2014; 17:692-6. [DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2014.0293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Annika Scholl
- Social Processes Lab, Knowledge Media Research Center, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kai Sassenberg
- Social Processes Lab, Knowledge Media Research Center, Tübingen, Germany
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