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Bogdan PC, Dolcos F, Moore M, Kuznietsov I, Culpepper SA, Dolcos S. Social Expectations are Primarily Rooted in Reciprocity: An Investigation of Fairness, Cooperation, and Trustworthiness. Cogn Sci 2023; 47:e13326. [PMID: 37548443 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.13326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Social expectations guide people's evaluations of others' behaviors, but the origins of these expectations remain unclear. It is traditionally thought that people's expectations depend on their past observations of others' behavior, and people harshly judge atypical behavior. Here, we considered that social expectations are also influenced by a drive for reciprocity, and people evaluate others' actions by reflecting on their own decisions. To compare these views, we performed four studies. Study 1 used an Ultimatum Game task where participants alternated Responder and Proposer roles. Modeling participants' expectations suggested they evaluated the fairness of received offers via comparisons to their own offers. Study 2 replicated these findings and showed that observing selfish behavior (lowball offers) only promoted acceptance of selfishness if observers started acting selfishly themselves. Study 3 generalized the findings, demonstrating that they also arise in the Public Goods Game, emerge cross-culturally, and apply to antisocial punishment whereby selfish players punish generosity. Finally, Study 4 introduced the Trust Game and showed that participants trusted players who reciprocated their behavior, even if it was selfish, as much as they trusted generous players. Overall, this research shows that social expectations and evaluations are rooted in drives for reciprocity. This carries theoretical implications, speaking to a parallel in the mechanisms driving both decision-making and social evaluations, along with practical importance for understanding and promoting cooperation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul C Bogdan
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Florin Dolcos
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Matthew Moore
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
| | - Illia Kuznietsov
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
- Department of Human and Animal Physiology, Lesya Ukrainka Volyn National University
| | - Steven A Culpepper
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
- Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
| | - Sanda Dolcos
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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Weiss-Sidi M, Riemer H. Help others-be happy? The effect of altruistic behavior on happiness across cultures. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1156661. [PMID: 37425146 PMCID: PMC10326385 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1156661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Research has established that altruistic behavior increases happiness. We examined this phenomenon across cultures, differentiating between individualistic and collectivist cultures. We propose that cultural variations in the notion of altruism lead to different effects of helping on the helper's happiness. For individualists, altruism is linked to self-interest ("impure" altruism), and helping others results in increased happiness for the helper. For collectivists, altruism is focused on the recipient ("pure" altruism), and helping others is less likely to enhance the helper's happiness. Four studies support our predictions. Study 1 measured the dispositions toward altruism among people with various cultural orientations. Consistent with our predictions, the findings showed that individualism (collectivism) was positively associated with tendencies reflecting more "impure" ("pure") altruism. Two experimental studies then examined the moderating role of cultural orientation on the effect of spending money on oneself versus others (Study 2) or of doing a kind action (making tea for oneself versus others; Study 3). Both experimental studies demonstrated that altruistic behavior had a positive effect on happiness for individualists but not for collectivists. Finally, Study 4, which utilized data from the World Values Survey to examine the altruism-happiness link in various countries, displayed a stronger link between altruistic behavior and happiness in individualistic (vs. collectivist) cultures. Altogether, this research sheds light on cultural differences in the display of altruism, revealing different motivations for and consequences of altruistic behaviors.
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Kawamura Y, Sasaki S, Kusumi T. Cultural similarities and differences in lay theories of altruism: Replication of Carlson and Zaki (2018) in a Japanese sample. ASIAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ajsp.12502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Kawamura
- Department of Sustainable System Sciences Osaka Prefecture University Osaka Japan
| | - Shusaku Sasaki
- Faculty of Economics Tohoku Gakuin University Sendai Japan
| | - Takashi Kusumi
- Graduate School of Education Kyoto University Kyoto Japan
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Abstract
This paper introduces a machine learning approach to quantify altruism from the linguistic style of textual documents. We apply our method to a central question in (social) entrepreneurship: How does altruism impact entrepreneurial success? Specifically, we examine the effects of altruism on crowdfunding outcomes in Initial Coin Offerings (ICOs). The main result suggests that altruism and ICO firm valuation are negatively related. We, then, explore several channels to shed some light on whether the negative altruism-valuation relation is causal. Our findings suggest that it is not altruism that causes lower firm valuation; rather, low-quality entrepreneurs select into altruistic projects, while the marginal effect of altruism on high-quality entrepreneurs is actually positive. Altruism increases the funding amount in ICOs in the presence of high-quality projects, low asymmetric information, and strong corporate governance.
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Basu S. Framing an altruistic action in periodic (versus aggregate) terms reduces people's moral evaluation of the act and the actor. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Gerber MM, Cuadrado C, Figueiredo A, Crispi F, Jiménez‐Moya G, Andrade V. Taking Care of Each Other: How Can We Increase Compliance with Personal Protective Measures During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Chile? POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021; 42:863-880. [PMID: 34548716 PMCID: PMC8447165 DOI: 10.1111/pops.12770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 04/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, personal protective measures (e.g., social distancing, handwashing, and mask wearing) have been adopted as a cornerstone to limit the spread of the disease. Yet, the effectiveness of these measures depends on people's levels of adherence. In this article, we apply social-psychological research to the study of compliance with personal protective measures during the COVID-19 pandemic in Chile. We consider three possible models underlying adherence: (1) sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors, (2) instrumental factors, and (3) normative factors. We draw on data from a longitudinal nonrepresentative panel study (Study 1, n = 32,304) and a cross-sectional representative survey (Study 2, n = 1,078) to explore the impact of these different factors on personal protective measures compliance. Findings show the strongest support for the role of instrumental and normative factors, in that people who comply with protective measures report to a greater extent that relatives and friends comply too and tend to perceive high risk of COVID-19. We finish by proposing policy recommendations to promote effective strategies to contain the spread of the virus.
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Ye M, Zino L, Mlakar Ž, Bolderdijk JW, Risselada H, Fennis BM, Cao M. Collective patterns of social diffusion are shaped by individual inertia and trend-seeking. Nat Commun 2021; 12:5698. [PMID: 34588442 PMCID: PMC8481279 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25953-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Social conventions change when individuals collectively adopt an alternative over the status quo, in a process known as social diffusion. Our repeated trials of a multi-round experiment provided data that helped motivate the proposal of an agent-based model of social diffusion that incorporates inertia and trend-seeking, two behavioural mechanisms that are well documented in the social psychology literature. The former causes people to stick with their current decision, the latter creates sensitivity to population-level changes. We show that such inclusion resolves the contradictions of existing models, allowing to reproduce patterns of social diffusion which are consistent with our data and existing empirical observations at both the individual and population level. The model reveals how the emergent population-level diffusion pattern is critically shaped by the two individual-level mechanisms; trend-seeking guarantees the diffusion is explosive after the diffusion process takes off, but inertia can greatly delay the time to take-off.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengbin Ye
- School of Electrical Engineering, Computing and Mathematical Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, Australia.
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
| | - Lorenzo Zino
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Žan Mlakar
- Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | | | - Hans Risselada
- Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Bob M Fennis
- Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Ming Cao
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
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Bolderdijk JW, Cornelissen G. "How do you know someone's vegan?" They won't always tell you. An empirical test of the do-gooder's dilemma. Appetite 2021; 168:105719. [PMID: 34597742 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2021.105719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A growing number of people (privately) endorse the benefits associated with adopting a meat-free diet. Yet, the societal transition to a more plant-based diet is taking place rather slowly. Why do people's private meat-free preferences fail to materialize in their daily food choices? One potential explanation is that vegetarians and vegans, at this time still a minority group, are worried about eliciting stigma and thus may not feel comfortable expressing their meat-free preferences during social interactions with meat-eaters. Their self-silencing could reinforce the notion that adopting a meat-free diet is nothing more than a niche phenomenon, and in turn discourage others from eliminating meat from their diet as well, thus perpetuating the non-vegetarian norm. Adapting the classic conformity paradigm by Asch, we found that vegetarian and vegan participants were hesitant to express their meat-free preferences. Vegan and vegetarian participants avoided signing a petition that promoted veg*an food options after a majority of confederates had declined to do so. When the experimenter endorsed veg*an food options, however, participants went against the majority, and did sign the petition. Together, these findings point to a pivotal role for exemplars and institutions: by signaling that there are allies who endorse a meat-free diet, they may liberate vegetarians and vegans to publicly express their deviant, meat-free preferences, and thus speed up wider societal change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Willem Bolderdijk
- Department of Marketing, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Groningen, Nettelbosje 2, 9747 AE, Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Gert Cornelissen
- Department of Economics and Business, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, C. Ramon Trias Fargas 25-27, 08005, Barcelona, Spain; UPF Barcelona School of Management, Barcelona, Spain.
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Raihani NJ, Power EA. No good deed goes unpunished: the social costs of prosocial behaviour. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2021; 3:e40. [PMID: 37588551 PMCID: PMC10427331 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2021.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Performing costly helpful behaviours can allow individuals to improve their reputation. Those who gain a good reputation are often preferred as interaction partners and are consequently better able to access support through cooperative relationships with others. However, investing in prosocial displays can sometimes yield social costs: excessively generous individuals risk losing their good reputation, and even being vilified, ostracised or antisocially punished. As a consequence, people frequently try to downplay their prosocial actions or hide them from others. In this review, we explore when and why investments in prosocial behaviour are likely to yield social costs. We propose two key features of interactions that make it more likely that generous individuals will incur social costs when: (a) observers infer that helpful behaviour is motivated by strategic or selfish motives; and (b) observers infer that helpful behaviour is detrimental to them. We describe how the cognition required to consider ulterior motives emerges over development and how these tendencies vary across cultures - and discuss how the potential for helpful actions to result in social costs might place boundaries on prosocial behaviour as well as limiting the contexts in which it might occur. We end by outlining the key avenues and priorities for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nichola J Raihani
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - Eleanor A Power
- Department of Methodology, London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, UK
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Bolderdijk JW, Jans L. Minority influence in climate change mitigation. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 42:25-30. [PMID: 33721580 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
While the majority of people care about environmental quality, they keep engaging in carbon-intensive practices that exacerbate climate change. Can we expect humans to collectively change by themselves, from the bottom up? Social change is often initiated by minorities - individuals who challenge the status quo. The dominant literature paints a rather pessimistic picture about the ability of minorities to instigate change in the environmental domain: environmental activists, vegans, and other minority members often elicit social sanctions, thereby ironically reinforcing the majority's commitment to current, environmentally harmful norms. Recent findings, however, point towards more optimism: pro-environmental minorities can pave the way towards 'tipping points' and spontaneous social change. Policymakers can speed up this process by offering top-down support for minorities - by giving them 'voice'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Willem Bolderdijk
- Department of Marketing, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Groningen, Nettelbosje 2, 9747 AE Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Lise Jans
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, University of Groningen, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS, The Netherlands
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