Korean Red Ginseng water extract arrests growth of xenografted lymphoma cells

Assessing systemic, developmental, and reproductive toxicity and estrogenicity of Korean red ginseng extract G1899 in juvenile Sprague-Dawley Rats

Background

Korean red ginseng (KRG) is a product from ginseng roots, which is enriched with ginsenosides and has been utilized for a long time as an adaptogen to alleviate various physiological or disease conditions. While KRG is generally considered safe, conducting a thorough toxicological assessment of the spray-dried powder G1899 during the juvenile period is essential to establish its safety profile. This study aimed to assess the safety of G1899 during the juvenile period using Sprague-Dawley rats.

Methods

Two studies were conducted separately: a juvenile toxicity study and a uterotrophic bioassay. To assess the potential toxicity at systemic, postnatal developmental, and reproductive levels, G1899 was orally gavaged once a day in post-weaning juvenile Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats at 0, 1250, 2500, or 5000 mg/kg/day. Estrogenicity was assessed by orally gavaging G1899 in immature female SD rats at 0, 2500, or 5000 mg/kg/day on postnatal days (PND) 19-21, followed by a uterotrophic bioassay. These studies were conducted in accordance with the Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) regulations and regulatory test guidelines.

Results

Regarding juvenile toxicity, no abnormalities related to the G1899 treatment were observed in any group during the experiment. Moreover, no uterotrophic responses were observed in the dosed female group. Based on these results, the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of G1899 was determined to be at least 5000 mg/kg/day for general systemic function, developmental/reproductive function, and estrogenic activity.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that G1899 is not toxic to juveniles at doses of up to 5000 mg/kg/day.

Prospective Cohort Study of Ginseng Consumption in Association with Cancer Risk: Shanghai Women's Health Study

BACKGROUND

Ginseng has been commonly used in Asian countries to promote longevity and health for >2000 years. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies, coupled with limited epidemiologic studies, have suggested that regular ginseng consumption may be related to lower cancer risk.

OBJECTIVES

We evaluated the association of ginseng consumption with risk of total and 15 site-specific cancers in a large cohort study conducted among Chinese women. Given the previous literature on ginseng consumption and cancer risk, we hypothesized that ginseng consumption might be associated with varying risks of cancer.

METHODS

This study included 65,732 female participants (mean age: 52.2 years) of the Shanghai Women's Health Study, an ongoing prospective cohort study. Baseline enrollment occurred between 1997 and 2000, and follow-up concluded on 31 December 2016. Ginseng use and covariates were assessed via an in-person interview conducted at the baseline recruitment. The cohort was followed for cancer incidence. Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate HRs and 95% CIs for ginseng-cancer associations after adjusting for confounders.

RESULTS

During a mean 14.7 years of follow-up, 5067 incident cancer cases were identified. Overall, regular ginseng use was mostly not associated with risk of any site-specific cancer, or all cancers combined. Short-term (<3 years) ginseng use was found to be significantly associated with increased risk of liver cancer (HR = 1.71; 95% CI: 1.04, 2.79; P = 0.035), whereas long-term (≥3 years) ginseng use was found to be associated with increased risk of thyroid cancer (HR = 1.40; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.91; P = 0.036). Long-term ginseng use was found to be significantly associated with decreased risk of lymphatic and hematopoietic tissue malignancy (HR = 0.67; 95% CI: 0.46, 0.98; P = 0.039) and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (HR = 0.57; 95% CI: 0.34, 0.97; P = 0.039).

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides suggestive evidence that ginseng consumption may be associated with risk of certain cancers.

Screening of Adapalene Microsponges Fabrication Parameters with Insight on the In vitro Biological Effectiveness

PURPOSE

The objective of the present study was to scrutinize the microsponges (MS) as a carrier system using Adapalene (ADA) as a model drug.

METHODS

Data modelling was implemented using Plackett-Burman design to identify the main variables affecting the formulation of ADA-MS. The adopted method of preparation for MS was quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method. The nominated independent variables were volume of organic phase, sonication time, stirring speed, drug percent, polymer type, emulsifier concentration, and method of organic phase addition. As for the dependent variables, they included entrapment efficiency (E.E.%), production yield (P.Y.%), particle size (P.S.) and morphology. Furthermore, selected ADA loaded microsponges (ADA-MS) were in vitro assayed for their biological activities via cytotoxicity, UVA irradiation and cell viability, and antimicrobial activity.

RESULTS

The study indicated that the drug percent, polymer type and surfactant concentration have the key significant effect on E.E.% and P.Y.%, while, the drug percent, stirring speed and volume of organic phase have had a significant effect on P.S. and their morphology. Furthermore, ADA-MS had a momentous cytotoxic effect on A431 and M10 cell-lines with exceptional enrichment when the polymer Eudragit RS100 was used. Also, the ADA-MS increased the cell viability after UVA irradiation on HFB-4 cell-line by 14% to 43%, especially when using Ethyl Cellulose as a polymer. Lastly, the antimicrobial activity of ADA against Propionibacterium acnes was boosted when incorporated into MS.

CONCLUSION

The Plackett-Burman design proved its impact in discerning preparation variables affecting the quality of ADA-MS formulation, with heightening of the in vitro biological activities of ADA. Thus, MS was presumed to be an auspicious carrier system for ADA.

Korean Red Ginseng exerts anti-inflammatory and autophagy-promoting activities in aged mice

BACKGROUND

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a traditional herb that has several beneficial properties including anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and autophagy regulatory effects. However, the mechanisms of these effects are not well understood. In this report, the underlying mechanisms of anti-inflammatory and autophagy-promoting effects were investigated in aged mice treated with KRG-water extract (WE) over a long period.

METHODS

The mechanisms of anti-inflammatory and autophagy-promoting activities of KRG-WE were evaluated in kidney, lung, liver, stomach, and colon of aged mice using semi-quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

KRG-WE significantly suppressed the mRNA expression levels of inflammation-related genes such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and IL-6 in kidney, lung, liver, stomach, and colon of the aged mice. Furthermore, KRG-WE downregulated the expression of transcription factors and their protein levels associated with inflammation in lung and kidney of aged mice. KRG-WE also increased the expression of autophagy-related genes and their protein levels in colon, liver, and stomach.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that KRG can suppress inflammatory responses and recover autophagy activity in aged mice.

Restorative effects of Rg3-enriched Korean red ginseng and Persicaria tinctoria extract on oxazolone-induced ulcerative colitis in mice

Background

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is the large intestine disease that results in chronic inflammation and ulcers in the colon. Rg3-enriched Korean Red Ginseng extract (Rg3-RGE) is known for its pharmacological activities. Persicaria tinctoria (PT) is also used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases. The aim of this study is to investigate the attenuating effects of Rg3-RGE with PT on oxazolone (OXA)-induced UC in mice.

Methods

A total of six groups of mice including control group, OXA (as model group, 1.5%) group, sulfasalazine (75 mg/kg) group, Rg3-RGE (20 mg/kg) group, PT (300 mg/kg) group, and Rg3-RGE (10 mg/kg) with PT (150 mg/kg) group. Data on the colon length, body weight, disease activity index (DAI), histological changes, nitric oxide (NO) assay, Real-time PCR of inflammatory factors, ELISA of inflammatory factors, Western blot, and flow cytometry analysis were obtained.

Results

Overall, the combination treatment of Rg3-RGE and PT significantly improved the colon length and body weight and decreased the DAI in mice compared with the treatment with OXA. Additionally, the histological injury was also reduced by the combination treatment. Moreover, the NO production level and inflammatory mediators and cytokines were significantly downregulated in the Rg3-RGE with the PT group compared with the model group. Also, NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) were suppressed in the combination treatment group compared with the OXA group. Furthermore, the number of immune cell subtypes of CD4⁺ T-helper cells, CD19⁺ B-cells, and CD4⁺ and CD25⁺ regulatory T-cells (Tregs) was improved in the Rg3-RGE with the PT group compared with the OXA group.

Conclusion

Overall, the mixture of Rg3-RGE and PT is an effective therapeutic treatment for UC.

Curcubinoyl flavonoids from wild ginseng adventitious root cultures

Wild ginseng (Panax ginseng) adventitious root cultures were prepared by elicitation using methyl jasmonate and investigated further to find new secondary metabolites. Chromatographic fractionation of wild ginseng adventitious root cultures led to the isolation of eleven compounds. The chemical structures of isolated compounds were identified as four known flavanone derivatives (1–4), one new curcubinoyl derivative, jasmogin A (5) and six new curcubinoyl-flavanone conjugates, jasmoflagins A-F (6–11) by extensive spectroscopic analysis. Newly isolated curcubinoyl derivatives showed inhibitory activity against lipopolysaccharide-stimulated nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Therefore, our present study suggested that elicitor stimulated plant cell cultures might contribute to the production of new metabolites.

Developmental and reproductive toxicity assessment in rats with KGC-HJ3, Korean Red Ginseng with Angelica gigas and Deer antlers

BACKGROUND

Korean Red Ginseng has been widely used in traditional oriental medicine for a prolonged period, and its pharmacological effects have been extensively investigated. In addition, Angelica gigas and deer antlers were also used as a tonic medicine with Korean Red Ginseng as the oriental herbal therapy.

METHODS

This study was conducted to evaluate the potential toxicological effect of KGC-HJ3, Korean Red Ginseng with angelica gigas and deer antlers, on reproductive and developmental functions including fertility, early embryonic development, maternal function, and embryo-fetal development. KGC-HJ3 was administered by oral gavage to Sprague-Dawley rats (22 animals per sex per group) at dose levels of 0 mg/kg (control), 500 mg/kg, 1000 mg/kg, and 2000 mg/kg to evaluate the potential toxicological effect on fertility and early embryonic development. In addition, KGC-HJ3 was also administered by oral gavage to mating-proven Sprague-Dawley rats (22 females per group) during the major organogenesis period at dose levels of 0 mg/kg (control), 500 mg/kg, 1000 mg/kg, and 2000 mg/kg to evaluate the potential toxicological effect on maternal function and embryo-fetal development.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

No test item-related changes in parameters for fertility, early embryonic development, maternal function, and embryo-fetal development were observed during the study period. On the basis of these results, it was concluded that KGC-HJ3 did not have toxicological potential on developmental and reproductive functions. Therefore, no observed adverse effect levels of KGC-HJ3 for fertility, early embryonic development, maternal function, and embryo-fetal development is considered to be at least 2000 mg/kg/day.

Artemisia asiatica ethanol extract exhibits anti-photoaging activity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Artemisia asiatica Nakai is a traditional herbal plant that has long been used in anti-inflammatory, anti-infective and skin protective remedies.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, traditionally known skin-protective activity of Artemisia asiatica Nakai was examined with its ethanol extract (Aa-EE) under various photoaging conditions using skin-originated cells, and the underlying mechanism was also examined using various types of cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Effects of Aa-EE on cell viability, photocytotoxicity, and expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, and moisturizing factors were measured in B16F10, HEK293, NIH3T3, and HaCaT cells under untreated and ultraviolet B (UVB)-irradiation conditions. Anti-melanogenic effect of Aa-EE was also examined by measuring both melanin content in B16F10 cells and tyrosinase activity. Anti-photoaging mechanism of Aa-EE was explored by determining the activation levels of signaling molecules by immunoblotting analysis.

RESULTS

Aa-EE protected HaCaT cells from UVB irradiation-induced death. Aa-EE increased the expression of a type 1 pro-collagen gene and decreased the expression of matrix metalloproteinases, and COX-2 in NIH3T3 cells induced by UVB. Aa-EE increased the expression of transglutamase-1, hyaluronic acid synthase (HAS)-2, and HAS-3 in HaCaT cells and decreased the production of melanin in α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone-stimulated B16F10 cells by suppressing tyrosinase activity and the expression of tyrosinase, microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, tyrosinase-related protein (TRP)-1 and TRP-2.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that Aa-EE could be skin-protective remedy with anti-photoaging, anti-apoptotic, skin remodeling, moisturizing, and anti-melanogenesis properties.

TANK-binding kinase 1 and Janus kinase 2 play important roles in the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 expression after toll-like receptor 4 activation

Inflammation is a response that protects the body from pathogens. Through several inflammatory signaling pathways mediated by various families of transcription factors, such as nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), activator protein-1 (AP-1), interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs), various inflammatory cytokines and chemokines are induced and inflammatory responses are boosted. Simultaneously, inhibitory systems are activated and provide negative feedback. A typical mechanism by which this process occurs is that inflammatory signaling molecules upregulate mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP1) expression. Here, we investigated how kinases regulate MKP1 expression in lipopolysaccharide-triggered cascades. We found that p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitors decreased MKP1 expression. Using specific inhibitors, gene knockouts, and gene knockdowns, we also found that tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor family member-associated nuclear factor κB activator (TANK)-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) are involved in the induction of MKP1 expression. By analyzing JAK2-induced activation of STATs, STAT3-specific inhibitors, promoter binding sites, and STAT3^-/- cells, we found that STAT3 is directly linked to TBK1-mediated and JAK2-mediated induction of MKP1 expression. Our data suggest that MKP1 expression can be differentially regulated by p38, JNK, and the TBK1-JAK2-STAT3 pathway after activation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). These data also imply crosstalk between the AP-1 pathway and the IRF3 and STAT3 pathways.

Hydroquinone Exhibits In Vitro and In Vivo Anti-Cancer Activity in Cancer Cells and Mice

Hydroquinone (HQ, 1,4-benzenediol) is a hydroxylated benzene metabolite with various biological activities, including anti-oxidative, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory functions. However, the anti-cancer activity of HQ is not well understood. In this study, the in vitro and in vivo anti-cancer activity of HQ was investigated in various cancer cells and tumor-bearing mouse models. HQ significantly induced the death of A431, SYF, B16F10, and MDA-MB-231 cells and also showed a synergistic effect on A431 cell death with other anti-cancer agents, such as adenosine-2′,3′-dialdehyde and buthionine sulfoximine. In addition, HQ suppressed angiogenesis in fertilized chicken embryos. Moreover, HQ prevented lung metastasis of melanoma cells in mice in a dose-dependent manner without toxicity and adverse effects. HQ (10 mg/kg) also suppressed the generation of colon and reduced the thickness of colon tissues in azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate-injected mice. This study strongly suggests that HQ possesses in vitro and in vivo anti-cancer activity and provides evidence that HQ could be developed as an effective and safe anti-cancer drug.

Tabetri™ (Tabebuia avellanedae Ethanol Extract) Ameliorates Atopic Dermatitis Symptoms in Mice

Tabebuia avellanedae has been traditionally used as an herbal remedy to alleviate various diseases. However, the plant's pharmacological activity in allergic and inflammatory diseases and its underlying mechanism are not fully understood. Therefore, we investigated the pharmacological activity of Tabetri (T. avellanedae ethanol extract (Ta-EE)) in the pathogenesis of AD. Its underlying mechanism was explored using an AD mouse model and splenocytes isolated from this model. Ta-EE ameliorated the AD symptoms without any toxicity and protected the skin of 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene- (DNCB-) induced AD mice from damage and epidermal thickness. Ta-EE reduced the secreted levels of allergic and proinflammatory cytokines, including histamine, immunoglobulin E (IgE), interleukin- (IL-) 4, and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) in the DNCB-induced AD mice. Ta-EE suppressed the mRNA expression of T helper 2-specific cytokines, IL-4 and IL-5, and the proinflammatory cytokine IFN-γ in the atopic dermatitis skin lesions of AD mice. Moreover, Ta-EE suppressed the mRNA expression of IL-4, IL-5, IFN-γ, and another proinflammatory cytokine, IL-12, in the Con A-stimulated splenocytes. It also suppressed IL-12 and IFN-γ in the LPS-stimulated splenocytes. Taken together, these results suggest that Ta-EE protects against the development of AD through the inhibition of mRNA expression of T helper 2-specific cytokines and other proinflammatory cytokines.

Src Is a Prime Target Inhibited by Celtis choseniana Methanol Extract in Its Anti-Inflammatory Action

Celtis choseniana is the traditional plant used at Korea as a herbal medicine to ameliorate inflammatory responses. Although Celtis choseniana has been traditionally used as a herbal medicine at Korea, no systemic research has been conducted on its anti-inflammatory activity. Therefore, the present study explored an anti-inflammatory effect and its underlying molecular mechanism using Celtis choseniana methanol extract (Cc-ME) in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity of Cc-ME was evaluated using RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), pam3CSK4 (Pam3), or poly(I:C). In vivo anti-inflammatory activity of Cc-ME was investigated using acute inflammatory disease mouse models, such as LPS-induced peritonitis and HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis. The molecular mechanism of Cc-ME-mediated anti-inflammatory activity was examined by Western blot analysis and immunoprecipitation using whole cell and nuclear fraction prepared from the LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and HEK293 cells. Cc-ME inhibited NO production and mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX-2), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in the RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages induced by LPS, pam3, or poly(I:C) without cytotoxicity. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed that Cc-ME contained anti-inflammatory flavonoids quercetin, luteolin, and kaempferol. Among those, the content of luteolin, which showed an inhibitory effect on NO production, was highest. Cc-ME suppressed the NF-κB signaling pathway by targeting Src and interrupting molecular interactions between Src and p85, its downstream kinase. Moreover, Cc-ME ameliorated the morphological finding of peritonitis and gastritis in the mouse disease models. Therefore, these results suggest that Cc-ME exerted in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-stimulated macrophages and mouse models of acute inflammatory diseases. This anti-inflammatory activity of Cc-ME was dominantly mediated by targeting Src in NF-κB signaling pathway during macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses.

Momordica charantia Inhibits Inflammatory Responses in Murine Macrophages via Suppression of TAK1

Momordica charantia known as bitter melon is a representative medicinal plant reported to exhibit numerous pharmacological activities such as antibacterial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antitumor, and hypoglycemic actions. Although this plant has high ethnopharmacological value for treating inflammatory diseases, the molecular mechanisms by which it inhibits the inflammatory response are not fully understood. In this study, we aim to identify the anti-inflammatory mechanism of this plant. To this end, we studied the effects of its methanol extract (Mc-ME) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. Specifically, we evaluated nitric oxide (NO) production, mRNA expression of inflammatory genes, luciferase reporter gene activity, and putative molecular targets. Mc-ME blocked NO production in a dose-dependent manner in RAW264.7 cells; importantly, no cytotoxicity was observed. Moreover, the mRNA expression levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 were decreased by Mc-ME treatment in a dose-dependent manner. Luciferase assays and nuclear lysate immunoblotting analyses strongly indicated that Mc-ME decreases the levels of p65 [a nuclear factor (NF)-[Formula: see text]B subunit] and c-Fos [an activator protein (AP)-1 subunit]. Whole lysate immunoblotting assays, luciferase assays, and overexpression experiments suggested that transforming growth factor [Formula: see text]-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) is targeted by Mc-ME, thereby suppressing NF-[Formula: see text]B and AP-1 activity via downregulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) and AKT. These results strongly suggest that Mc-ME exerts its anti-inflammatory activity by reducing the action of TAK1, which also affects the activation of NF-[Formula: see text]B and AP-1.

Src is the primary target of aripiprazole, an atypical antipsychotic drug, in its anti-tumor action

Aripiprazole (ARP) is an atypical anti-psychotic drug widely used to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. The pharmacological effects of ARP on cancer cells are still poorly understood. In this study, anti-cancer effects of ARP on various malignant tumor cells and its molecular mechanism were further carefully examined by using cell proliferation assay, xenograft mouse model, immunoblotting analysis, migration assay, luciferase reporter gene assay, kinase assay, and overexpression strategy. Treatment with ARP induced cytotoxicity in U251 glioma cells, MKN-1 gastric adenosquamous carcinoma cells, and CT26 colon carcinoma cells. ARP suppressed cell proliferation of LN428, MDA-MB-231, and HEK293 cells. Pro-apoptotic factors active caspase-3, -8, and -9, as well as p53, were upregulated, whereas the protein and mRNA levels of anti-apoptotic factor B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) decreased. In agreement with the in vitro results, ARP compound also significantly suppressed the growth of tumor masses formed by injecting CT26 colon cancer cells into mice. ARP treatment also effectively decreased the migratory ability of U251 glioma cells by downregulating metalloproteinase-9. Levels of phosphorylated Src, phosphorylated phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), and phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) were significantly decreased following ARP treatment. ARP compound reduced the kinase activity of Src. Our studies suggest that Src may be an important target molecule linked to the antitumor effects of ARP.

Anti-inflammatory effect of torilidis fructus ethanol extract through inhibition of Src

CONTEXT

Torilidis fructus, fruits of Torilis japonica Decadolle (Umbelliferae), is a medicinal herb traditionally used as a pesticide, an astrictive, or a medicine for various inflammatory diseases.

OBJECTIVES

Due to the lack of pharmacological studies on this herbal medicine, we explored the inhibitory activity of torilidis fructus on the macrophage-mediated inflammatory response using its ethanol extract (Tf-EE).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The Griess assay and prostaglandin (PGE₂) ELISA assay were conducted with Tf-EE (0-75 µg/mL) and LPS (1 µg/mL) treated RAW264.7 cells in cultured media. Tf-EE pretreated RAW264.7 cells were incubated with LPS for 6 h and semi-quantitative PCR was performed. Reporter gene assays, overexpression of target enzymes and immunoblotting were performed on macrophages to determine the molecular targets of Tf-EE.

RESULTS

Tf-EE markedly suppressed the inflammatory response of macrophages, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) and PGE₂ production with IC₅₀ values of 35.66 and 62.47 µg/mL, respectively. It was also found that Tf-EE reduced the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 by 80%. Nuclear translocation and activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB (p65 and p50) were declined by 60% and 30% respectively, and their regulatory events including the phosphorylation of AKT, IκBα, Src, and the formation of complexes between Src and p-p85 were also recognized to be diminished.

CONCLUSIONS

The signalling events managed by Src and p85 complex seemed to be critically involved in Tf-EE-mediated anti-inflammatory response. This might suggest that Tf-EE exhibited anti-inflammatory effects through Src-targeted inhibition of NF-κB.

Tabetri™ (Tabebuia avellanedae Ethanol Extract) Ameliorates Osteoarthritis Symptoms Induced by Monoiodoacetate through Its Anti-Inflammatory and Chondroprotective Activities

Although osteoarthritis (OA), a degenerative joint disease characterized by the degradation of joint articular cartilage and subchondral bones, is generally regarded as a degenerative rather than inflammatory disease, recent studies have indicated the involvement of inflammation in OA pathogenesis. Tabebuia avellanedae has long been used to treat various diseases; however, its role in inflammatory response and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, the pharmacological effects of Tabetri (Tabebuia avellanedae ethanol extract (Ta-EE)) on OA pathogenesis induced by monoiodoacetate (MIA) and the underlying mechanisms were investigated using experiments with a rat model and in vitro cellular models. In the animal model, Ta-EE significantly ameliorated OA symptoms and reduced the serum levels of inflammatory mediators and proinflammatory cytokines without any toxicity. The anti-inflammatory activity of Ta-EE was further confirmed in a macrophage-like cell line (RAW264.7). Ta-EE dramatically suppressed the production and mRNA expressions of inflammatory mediators and proinflammatory cytokines in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells without any cytotoxicity. Finally, the chondroprotective effect of Ta-EE was examined in a chondrosarcoma cell line (SW1353). Ta-EE markedly suppressed the mRNA expression of matrix metalloproteinase genes. The anti-inflammatory and chondroprotective activities of Ta-EE were attributed to the targeting of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activator protein-1 (AP-1) signaling pathways in macrophages and chondrocytes.

Hydroquinone suppresses IFN-β expression by targeting AKT/IRF3 pathway

Previous studies have demonstrated the role of hydroquinone (HQ), a hydroxylated benzene metabolite, in modulating various immune responses; however, its role in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses is not fully understood. In this study, the role of HQ in inflammatory responses and the underlying molecular mechanism were explored in macrophages. HQ down-regulated the expression of interferon (IFN)-β mRNA in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells without any cytotoxicity and suppressed interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-3-mediated luciferase activity induced by TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β (TRIF) and TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1). A mechanism study revealed that HQ inhibited IRF-3 phosphorylation induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), TRIF, and AKT by suppressing phosphorylation of AKT, an upstream kinase of the IRF-3 signaling pathway. IRF-3 phosphorylation is highly induced by wild-type AKT and poorly induced by an AKT mutant, AKT C310A, which is mutated at an inhibitory target site of HQ. We also showed that HQ inhibited IRF-3 phosphorylation by targeting all three AKT isoforms (AKT1, AKT2, and AKT3) in RAW264.7 cells and suppressed IRF-3-mediated luciferase activities induced by AKT in HEK293 cells. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that HQ inhibits the production of a type I IFN, IFN-β, by targeting AKTs in the IRF-3 signaling pathway during macrophage-mediated inflammation.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng extract on colorectal lung metastasis through inhibiting the epithelial-mesenchymal transition via transforming growth factor-β1/Smad-signaling-mediated Snail/E-cadherin expression

Background

In colorectal cancer (CRC), 40-60% of patients develop metastasis. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a pivotal and intricate process that increases the metastatic potential of CRC. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Korean Red Ginseng extract (RGE) on colorectal metastasis through inhibition of EMT and the metastatic abilities of CRC cells.

Methods

To investigate the effect of RGE on the metastatic phenotypes of CRC cells, CT26 and HT29 cells were evaluated by using an adhesion assay, a wound-healing assay, an invasion assay, zymography, and real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Western-blot analysis was conducted to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of RGE, which showed an inhibitory effect on the transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-induced EMT in HT29 cells. Additionally, the antimetastatic effect of RGE was evaluated in a mouse model of lung metastasis injected with CT26 cells.

Results

RGE decreased the adhesion and migration ability of the CT26 cells and TGF-β1-treated HT29 cells. The invasion ability was also reduced by RGE treatment through the inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression and activity. Moreover, RGE suppressed the TGF-β1-induced EMT via TGF-β1/Smad-signaling-mediated Snail/E-cadherin expression in HT29 cells and lung tissue in CT26 tumor-bearing mice.

Conclusion

Our results demonstrated that RGE inhibited colorectal lung metastasis through a reduction in metastatic phenotypes, such as migration, invasion, and the EMT of CRC cells.

Src and Syk contribute to the anti-inflammatory activities of Achyranthes aspera ethanolic extract

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) plays pivotal roles in inflammation. Src and Syk are two tyrosine kinases that act upstream of NF-κB signaling. Although Achyranthes aspera L. (A. aspera) has been used as a traditional medicine to treat fevers and inflammatory ailments and heal wounds, the molecular mechanisms of its anti-inflammatory actions are not yet fully understood.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory effect of A. aspera ethanol extract (Aa-EE). To determine the mechanism by which Aa-EE dampens the inflammatory response, nitric oxide (NO) production and the mRNA expression levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were examined by Griess assay and RT-PCR. Luciferase assays and immunoblotting were also conducted to examine how Aa-EE regulates the NF-κB pathway.

RESULTS

Aa-EE reduced NO production up to 60% without any cytotoxicity. This extract was found to downregulate the mRNA expression levels of inflammatory genes. Aa-EE blocked NF-κB promoter activity induced by both TNF-α and adaptor molecule MyD88 (about 70% and 40%, respectively). Moreover, nuclear translocation of p65 and IκBα phosphorylation were also inhibited. Furthermore, Aa-EE inactivated two upstream signaling molecules, the Src and Syk kinases. In accordance with these data, the kinase activities of Src and Syk were decreased by 50% and 80%, respectively. The anti-inflammatory action of Aa-EE was also confirmed in a gastritis model.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that Aa-EE targets NF-κB to exert its anti-inflammatory properties by suppressing Src and Syk. Therefore, our study raises the possibility that this extract can be developed as a novel natural anti-inflammatory remedy.

Anticancer Efficacy of Cordyceps militaris Ethanol Extract in a Xenografted Leukemia Model

Cordyceps militaris is used widely as a traditional medicine in East Asia. Although a few studies have attempted to elucidate the anticancer activities of C. militaris, the precise mechanism of C. militaris therapeutic effects is not fully understood. We examined the anticancer activities of C. militaris ethanolic extract (Cm-EE) and its cellular and molecular mechanisms. For this purpose, a xenograft mouse model bearing murine T cell lymphoma (RMA) cell-derived cancers was established to investigate in vivo anticancer mechanisms. MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay, immunoblotting analysis, and flow cytometric assay were employed to check in vitro cytotoxicity, molecular targets, and proapoptotic action of Cm-EE. Interestingly, cancer sizes and mass were reduced in a C. militaris-administered group. Levels of the phosphorylated forms of p85 and AKT were clearly decreased in the group administered with Cm-EE. This result indicated that levels of phosphoglycogen synthase kinase 3β (p-GSK3β) and cleaved caspase-3 were increased with orally administered Cm-EE. In addition, Cm-EE directly inhibited the viability of cultured RMA cells and C6 glioma cells. The number of proapoptotic cells was significantly increased in a Cm-EE treated group compared with a control group. Our results suggested that C. militaris might be able to inhibit cancer growth through regulation of p85/AKT-dependent or GSK3β-related caspase-3-dependent apoptosis.

AKT-targeted anti-inflammatory activity of Panax ginseng calyx ethanolic extract

Background

Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng) plays an anti-inflammatory role in a variety of inflammatory diseases such as gastritis, hepatitis, and colitis. However, inflammation-regulatory activity of the calyx of the P. ginseng berry has not been thoroughly evaluated. To understand whether the calyx portion of the P. ginseng berry is able to ameliorate inflammatory processes, an ethanolic extract of P. ginseng berry calyx (Pg-C-EE) was prepared, and lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages and HEK293 cells transfected with inflammation-regulatory proteins were used to test the anti-inflammatory action of Pg-C-EE.

Methods

The ginsenoside contents of Pg-C-EE were analyzed by HPLC. Suppressive activity of Pg-C-EE on NO production, inflammatory gene expression, transcriptional activation, and inflammation signaling events were examined using the Griess assay, reverse transcription-polymerization chain reaction, luciferase activity reporter gene assay, and immunoblotting analysis.

Results

Pg-C-EE reduced NO production and diminished mRNA expression of inflammatory genes such as cyclooxygenase-2, inducible NO synthase, and tumor necrosis factor-α in a dose-dependent manner. This extract suppressed luciferase activity induced only by nuclear factor-κB. Interestingly, immunoblotting analysis results demonstrated that Pg-C-EE reduced the activities of protein kinase B (AKT)1 and AKT2.

Conclusion

These results suggest that Pg-C-EE may have nuclear-factor-κB-targeted anti-inflammatory properties through suppression of AKT. The calyx of the P. ginseng berry is an underused part of the ginseng plant, and development of calyx-derived extracts may be useful for treatment of inflammatory diseases.

JS-III-49, a hydroquinone derivative, exerts anti-inflammatory activity by targeting Akt and p38

Since previous studies have reported that hydroquinone (HQ) exerted immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory activity, various HQ derivatives have been synthesized and their biological activities investigated. In this study, we explored the anti-inflammatory activity of JS-III-49, a novel HQ derivative, in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses. JS-III-49 suppressed the production of the inflammatory mediators nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) and down-regulated the mRNA expression of the inflammatory enzymes cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) as well as the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-1b without cytotoxicity in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. JS-III-49 inhibited nuclear translocation of the NF-kB transcription factors p65 and p50 by directly targeting Akt, an upstream kinase of the NF-kB pathway, in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. However, JS-III-49 did not directly inhibit the kinase activities of Src and Syk, which are upstream kinases of Akt, in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Moreover, JS-III-49 suppressed the nuclear translocation of c-Fos, one of the components of AP-1, by specifically targeting p38, an upstream mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in the AP-1 pathway in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. These results suggest that JS-III-49 plays an anti-inflammatory role in LPS-stimulated macrophages by targeting Akt and p38 in the NF-kB and AP-1 pathways, respectively.

AKT-targeted anti-inflammatory activity of the methanol extract of Chrysanthemum indicum var. albescens

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Wild chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum indicum) is one of well-known medicinal plants traditionally used in Korea and China. As a variant of wild chrysanthemum, white wild chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum indicum var. albescens) is also ethnopharmacologically applied to treat various symptoms such as inflammatory diseases.

AIM OF STUDY

Although the anti-inflammatory activity of Chrysanthemum indicum has been reported, the anti-inflammatory activity and underlying molecular mechanism of white wild chrysanthemum are poorly understood.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of Chrysanthemum indicum var. albescens methanol extract (Civ-ME) on the production of inflammatory mediators, expression of pro-inflammatory genes, cell viability, and the activities of intracellular signaling molecules and transcription factors were investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.

RESULTS

Civ-ME suppressed the production of both nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) without cytotoxicity in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Civ-ME was found to reduce the mRNA levels of inflammatory genes such as inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and reduced NF-κB-mediated transcriptional activation. Civ-ME inhibited the nuclear translocation of NF-κB (p65 and p50), and its upstream signaling composed of IκBα and IKKα/β. An NF-κB luciferase reporter gene assay and an in vitro kinase assay confirmed that AKT1 and AKT2 might be direct pharmacological targets of Civ-ME. In addition, luteolin was identified by HPLC analysis as the main active pharmacological components of Civ-ME.

CONCLUSION

Civ-ME exerts an anti-inflammatory effect by targeting AKT1 and AKT2 in the NF-κB signaling pathway in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses.

Syk-Mediated Suppression of Inflammatory Responses by Cordyceps bassiana

The fruit body of artificially cultivated Cordyceps bassiana has been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. Although it has been suggested that the fruit body has neutraceutic and pharmaceutic biomaterial potential, the exact anti-inflammatory molecular mechanism has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we demonstrated the immunopharmacologic activity of Cordyceps bassiana under in vitro conditions and investigated its anti-inflammatory mechanism. Water extract (Cm-WE) of the fruit body of artificially cultivated Cordyceps bassiana without polysaccharide fractions reduced the expression of the proinflammatory genes cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, interleukin (IL)-12, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and promoted the expression of the anti-inflammatory gene IL-10 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 cells. In addition, this fraction suppressed proliferation and interferon (IFN)-[Formula: see text] production in splenic T lymphocytes. Cm-WE blocked the activation of nuclear factor (NF)-[Formula: see text]B and activator protein (AP)-1 and their upstream inflammatory signaling cascades, including Syk, MEK, and JNK. Using kinase assays, Syk was identified as the target enzyme most strongly inhibited by Cm-WE. These results strongly suggest that Cm-WE suppresses inflammatory responses by inhibiting Syk kinase activity, with potential implications for novel neutraceutic and pharmaceutic biomaterials.