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Rudelli C, Galuppi R, Cabbri R, Dalmonte T, Fontanesi L, Andreani G, Isani G. Field Application of an Innovative Approach to Assess Honeybee Health and Nutritional Status. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:2183. [PMID: 39123709 PMCID: PMC11311059 DOI: 10.3390/ani14152183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Environment, forage quality, management practices, pathogens, and pesticides influence honeybee responses to stressors. This study proposes an innovative approach to assess colony health and performance using molecular diagnostic tools by correlating hemolymph proteins with common measures of colony strength, prevalent honeybee pathogens (Varroa destructor and Nosema spp.), and essential trace elements (iron, zinc and copper). Colonies were selected from four apiaries located in different environmental and foraging conditions in the province of Bologna (Italy). Hemolymph samples were taken from June to October 2019. The Varroa infestation of the colonies was estimated by assessing the natural mortality of the mites, while the bees were tested for Nosema spp. spores using a microscopic method. Hemolymph proteins were quantified and separated using SDS-PAGE, and colony performance was assessed by determining adult bees, total brood, honey, and pollen reserves. The biomarkers measured proved to be useful for monitoring changes in performance and trophic conditions during summer and early autumn. Significant correlations were found between hemolymph proteins and colony performance measures. A positive correlation between pollen reserves, vitellogenin, and hexamerin 70a highlights the importance of these proteins for successful overwintering. In October, Varroa infestation was negatively correlated with total proteins, vitellogenin, apolipophorin II, transferrin, and hexamerin 70a, with negative implications for overwintering; furthermore, Varroa infestation was also negatively correlated with iron content, potentially affecting iron homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Rudelli
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell’Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy; (C.R.); (R.G.); (R.C.); (T.D.); (G.A.)
| | - Roberta Galuppi
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell’Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy; (C.R.); (R.G.); (R.C.); (T.D.); (G.A.)
| | - Riccardo Cabbri
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell’Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy; (C.R.); (R.G.); (R.C.); (T.D.); (G.A.)
| | - Thomas Dalmonte
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell’Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy; (C.R.); (R.G.); (R.C.); (T.D.); (G.A.)
| | - Luca Fontanesi
- Animal and Food Genomics Group, Division of Animal Sciences, Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Viale Giuseppe Fanin 46, 40127 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Giulia Andreani
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell’Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy; (C.R.); (R.G.); (R.C.); (T.D.); (G.A.)
| | - Gloria Isani
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell’Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy; (C.R.); (R.G.); (R.C.); (T.D.); (G.A.)
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Tersigni J, Tamim El Jarkass H, James EB, Reinke AW. Interactions between microsporidia and other members of the microbiome. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2024:e13025. [PMID: 38561869 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.13025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
The microbiome is the collection of microbes that are associated with a host. Microsporidia are intracellular eukaryotic parasites that can infect most types of animals. In the last decade, there has been much progress to define the relationship between microsporidia and the microbiome. In this review, we cover an increasing number of reports suggesting that microsporidia are common components of the microbiome in both invertebrates and vertebrates. These microsporidia infections can range from mutualistic to pathogenic, causing several physiological phenotypes, including death. Infection with microsporidia often causes a disruption in the normal microbiome, with both increases and decreases of bacterial, fungal, viral, and protozoan species being observed. This impact on the microbiome can occur through upregulation and downregulation of innate immunity as well as morphological changes to tissues that impact interactions with these microbes. Other microbes, particularly bacteria, can inhibit microsporidia and have been exploited to control microsporidia infections. These bacteria can function through regulating immunity, secreting anti-microsporidia compounds, and, in engineered versions, expressing double-stranded RNA targeting microsporidia genes. We end this review by discussing potential future directions to further understand the complex interactions between microsporidia and the other members of the microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Tersigni
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Edward B James
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Aaron W Reinke
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Babin A, Schurr F, Delannoy S, Fach P, Huyen Ton Nu Nguyet M, Bougeard S, de Miranda JR, Rundlöf M, Wintermantel D, Albrecht M, Attridge E, Bottero I, Cini E, Costa C, De la Rúa P, Di Prisco G, Dominik C, Dzul D, Hodge S, Klein AM, Knapp J, Knauer AC, Mänd M, Martínez-López V, Medrzycki P, Pereira-Peixoto MH, Potts SG, Raimets R, Schweiger O, Senapathi D, Serrano J, Stout JC, Tamburini G, Brown MJF, Laurent M, Rivière MP, Chauzat MP, Dubois E. Distribution of infectious and parasitic agents among three sentinel bee species across European agricultural landscapes. Sci Rep 2024; 14:3524. [PMID: 38347035 PMCID: PMC10861508 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53357-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious and parasitic agents (IPAs) and their associated diseases are major environmental stressors that jeopardize bee health, both alone and in interaction with other stressors. Their impact on pollinator communities can be assessed by studying multiple sentinel bee species. Here, we analysed the field exposure of three sentinel managed bee species (Apis mellifera, Bombus terrestris and Osmia bicornis) to 11 IPAs (six RNA viruses, two bacteria, three microsporidia). The sentinel bees were deployed at 128 sites in eight European countries adjacent to either oilseed rape fields or apple orchards during crop bloom. Adult bees of each species were sampled before their placement and after crop bloom. The IPAs were detected and quantified using a harmonised, high-throughput and semi-automatized qPCR workflow. We describe differences among bee species in IPA profiles (richness, diversity, detection frequencies, loads and their change upon field exposure, and exposure risk), with no clear patterns related to the country or focal crop. Our results suggest that the most frequent IPAs in adult bees are more appropriate for assessing the bees' IPA exposure risk. We also report positive correlations of IPA loads supporting the potential IPA transmission among sentinels, suggesting careful consideration should be taken when introducing managed pollinators in ecologically sensitive environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Babin
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey bee Pathology, 06902, Sophia Antipolis, France.
| | - Frank Schurr
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey bee Pathology, 06902, Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Sabine Delannoy
- IdentyPath Genomics Platform, Food Safety Laboratory, ANSES, 94701, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Patrick Fach
- IdentyPath Genomics Platform, Food Safety Laboratory, ANSES, 94701, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | | | - Stéphanie Bougeard
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, Epidemiology and Welfare, France
| | - Joachim R de Miranda
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 75007, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Maj Rundlöf
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Dimitry Wintermantel
- Chair of Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology, University of Freiburg, Tennenbacher Straße 4, 79106, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Albrecht
- Agroecology and Environment, Agroscope, Reckenholzstrasse 191, 8046, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eleanor Attridge
- Federation of Irish Beekeepers' Associations, Tullamore, Ireland
| | - Irene Bottero
- Botany, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Elena Cini
- Centre for Agri-Environmental Research, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Cecilia Costa
- CREA Research Centre for Agriculture and Environment, Via di Corticella 133, 40128, Bologna, Italy
| | - Pilar De la Rúa
- Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Gennaro Di Prisco
- CREA Research Centre for Agriculture and Environment, Via di Corticella 133, 40128, Bologna, Italy
- Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, The Italian National Research Council, Piazzale E. Ferni 1, 80055, Portici, Napoli, Italy
| | - Christophe Dominik
- UFZ-Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Community Ecology, 06120, Halle, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Puschstraße 4, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Daniel Dzul
- Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Simon Hodge
- Botany, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Alexandra-Maria Klein
- Chair of Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology, University of Freiburg, Tennenbacher Straße 4, 79106, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jessica Knapp
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Botany, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Anina C Knauer
- Agroecology and Environment, Agroscope, Reckenholzstrasse 191, 8046, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marika Mänd
- Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Vicente Martínez-López
- Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Bioscience Building, L69 7ZB, Liverpool, UK
| | - Piotr Medrzycki
- CREA Research Centre for Agriculture and Environment, Via di Corticella 133, 40128, Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Helena Pereira-Peixoto
- Chair of Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology, University of Freiburg, Tennenbacher Straße 4, 79106, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Simon G Potts
- Centre for Agri-Environmental Research, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Risto Raimets
- Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Oliver Schweiger
- UFZ-Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Community Ecology, 06120, Halle, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Puschstraße 4, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Deepa Senapathi
- Centre for Agri-Environmental Research, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - José Serrano
- Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Jane C Stout
- Botany, School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Giovanni Tamburini
- Chair of Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology, University of Freiburg, Tennenbacher Straße 4, 79106, Freiburg, Germany
- University of Bari, Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences (DiSSPA-Entomology and Zoology), Bari, Italy
| | - Mark J F Brown
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution & Behaviour, Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences and the Environment, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, UK
| | - Marion Laurent
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey bee Pathology, 06902, Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Rivière
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey bee Pathology, 06902, Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Chauzat
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey bee Pathology, 06902, Sophia Antipolis, France
- Paris-Est University, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, 94701, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Eric Dubois
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey bee Pathology, 06902, Sophia Antipolis, France.
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Deutsch KR, Graham JR, Boncristiani HF, Bustamante T, Mortensen AN, Schmehl DR, Wedde AE, Lopez DL, Evans JD, Ellis JD. Widespread distribution of honey bee-associated pathogens in native bees and wasps: Trends in pathogen prevalence and co-occurrence. J Invertebr Pathol 2023; 200:107973. [PMID: 37479057 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2023.107973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Pollinators have experienced significant declines in the past decade, in part due to emerging infectious diseases. Historically, studies have primarily focused on pathogens in the Western honey bee, Apis mellifera. However, recent work has demonstrated that these pathogens are shared by other pollinators and can negatively affect their health. Here, we surveyed honey bees and 15 native bee and wasp species for 13 pathogens traditionally associated with honey bees. The native bee and wasp species included 11 species not previously screened for pathogens. We found at least one honey bee-associated pathogen in 53% of native bee and wasp samples. The most widely distributed and commonly detected pathogens were the microsporidian Nosema ceranae, the bacterium Melissococcus plutonius, and the viruses deformed wing virus and black queen cell virus. The prevalence of viruses was generally higher in honey bees than in native bees and wasps. However, the prevalence of M. plutonius and the brood fungus Ascosphaera apis was significantly higher in some native bee species than in honey bees. The data also reveal novel trends in the association between co-occurring pathogens in honey bees and native bees and wasps at the pathogen community level. These results can inform the assessment of risks that native pollinator species face from pathogen stress, and indicate that many non-viral pathogens, notably M. plutonius and N. ceranae, are far more widely distributed and commonly found in native bees and wasps than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason R Graham
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Planet Bee Foundation, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Humberto F Boncristiani
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Inside The Hive Media, Consulting Inc., Odenton, MD 21113, USA
| | - Tomas Bustamante
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Independent Collaborator, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Ashley N Mortensen
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Bisley Road, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand
| | - Daniel R Schmehl
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Bayer CropScience LP, 700 Chesterfield Pwky. W., Chesterfield, MO 63017, USA
| | - Ashlyn E Wedde
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Driscoll's Global R&D, Watsonville, CA, USA
| | - Dawn L Lopez
- Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Jay D Evans
- Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - James D Ellis
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Gaubert J, Giovenazzo P, Derome N. Individual and social defenses in Apis mellifera: a playground to fight against synergistic stressor interactions. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1172859. [PMID: 37485064 PMCID: PMC10360197 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1172859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The honeybee is an important species for the agri-food and pharmaceutical industries through bee products and crop pollination services. However, honeybee health is a major concern, because beekeepers in many countries are experiencing significant colony losses. This phenomenon has been linked to the exposure of bees to multiple stresses in their environment. Indeed, several biotic and abiotic stressors interact with bees in a synergistic or antagonistic way. Synergistic stressors often act through a disruption of their defense systems (immune response or detoxification). Antagonistic interactions are most often caused by interactions between biotic stressors or disruptive activation of bee defenses. Honeybees have developed behavioral defense strategies and produce antimicrobial compounds to prevent exposure to various pathogens and chemicals. Expanding our knowledge about these processes could be used to develop strategies to shield bees from exposure. This review aims to describe current knowledge about the exposure of honeybees to multiple stresses and the defense mechanisms they have developed to protect themselves. The effect of multi-stress exposure is mainly due to a disruption of the immune response, detoxification, or an excessive defense response by the bee itself. In addition, bees have developed defenses against stressors, some behavioral, others involving the production of antimicrobials, or exploiting beneficial external factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joy Gaubert
- Laboratoire Derome, Département de Biologie, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
- Laboratoire Giovenazzo, Département de Biologie, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Pierre Giovenazzo
- Laboratoire Derome, Département de Biologie, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Nicolas Derome
- Laboratoire Derome, Département de Biologie, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
- Laboratoire Giovenazzo, Département de Biologie, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
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Huyen Ton Nu Nguyet M, Bougeard S, Babin A, Dubois E, Druesne C, Rivière M, Laurent M, Chauzat M. Building composite indices in the age of big data - Application to honey bee exposure to infectious and parasitic agents. Heliyon 2023; 9:e15244. [PMID: 37123927 PMCID: PMC10133659 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Pollinator insects play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and agricultural production worldwide. Yet they are subject to various infectious and parasitic agents (IPAs). To better assess their exposure to IPAs, discriminative and quantitative molecular methods have been developed. These tools produce large datasets that need to be summarised so as to be interpreted. In this paper, we described the calculation of three types of composite indices (numerical, ordinal, nominal) to characterize the honey bee exposure to IPAs in 128 European sites. Our summarizing methods are based on component-based factorial analyses. The indices summarised the dataset of eight IPAs quantified at two sampling times, into synthetic values providing different yet complementary information. Because our dataset included two sampling times, we used Multiple Factor Analysis (MFA) to synthetize the information. More precisely, the numerical and ordinal indices were generated from the first component of MFA, whereas the nominal index used the first main components of MFA combined with a clustering analysis (Hierarchical Clustering on components). The numerical index was easy to calculate and to be used in further statistical analyses. However, it contained only about 20% of the original information. Containing the same amount of original information, the ordinal index was much easier to interpret. These two indices summarised information in a unidimensional manner. Instead, the nominal index summarised information in a multidimensional manner, which retained much more information (94%). In the practical example, the three indices showed an antagonistic relationship between N. ceranae and DWV-B. These indices represented a toolbox where scientists could pick one composite index according to the aim pursued. Indices could be used in further statistical analyses but could also be used by policy makers and public instances to characterize a given sanitary situation at a site level for instance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S. Bougeard
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, Epidemiology and Welfare of Pork, France
| | - A. Babin
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey Bee Pathology, France
| | - E. Dubois
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey Bee Pathology, France
| | - C. Druesne
- ANSES, Research Funding & Scientific Watch Department, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - M.P. Rivière
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey Bee Pathology, France
| | - M. Laurent
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey Bee Pathology, France
| | - M.P. Chauzat
- Paris-Est University, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Maisons-Alfort, France
- ANSES, Sophia Antipolis Laboratory, Unit of Honey Bee Pathology, France
- Corresponding author. ANSES, Animal Health Laboratory (LSAn), 14, rue Pierre et Marie Curie F-94701, Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France.
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Xiong X, Geden CJ, Bergstralh DT, White RL, Werren JH, Wang X. New insights into the genome and transmission of the microsporidian pathogen Nosema muscidifuracis. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1152586. [PMID: 37125197 PMCID: PMC10133504 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1152586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Nosema is a diverse genus of unicellular microsporidian parasites of insects and other arthropods. Nosema muscidifuracis infects parasitoid wasp species of Muscidifurax zaraptor and M. raptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), causing ~50% reduction in longevity and ~90% reduction in fecundity. Methods and Results Here, we report the first assembly of the N. muscidifuracis genome (14,397,169 bp in 28 contigs) of high continuity (contig N50 544.3 Kb) and completeness (BUSCO score 97.0%). A total of 2,782 protein-coding genes were annotated, with 66.2% of the genes having two copies and 24.0% of genes having three copies. These duplicated genes are highly similar, with a sequence identity of 99.3%. The complex pattern suggests extensive gene duplications and rearrangements across the genome. We annotated 57 rDNA loci, which are highly GC-rich (37%) in a GC-poor genome (25% genome average). Nosema-specific qPCR primer sets were designed based on 18S rDNA annotation as a diagnostic tool to determine its titer in host samples. We discovered high Nosema titers in Nosema-cured M. raptor and M. zaraptor using heat treatment in 2017 and 2019, suggesting that the remedy did not completely eliminate the Nosema infection. Cytogenetic analyses revealed heavy infections of N. muscidifuracis within the ovaries of M. raptor and M. zaraptor, consistent with the titer determined by qPCR and suggesting a heritable component of infection and per ovum vertical transmission. Discussion The parasitoids-Nosema system is laboratory tractable and, therefore, can serve as a model to inform future genome manipulations of Nosema-host system for investigations of Nosemosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Xiong
- Fundamental Research Center, Shanghai YangZhi Rehabilitation Hospital, Shanghai Sunshine Rehabilitation Center, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Christopher J. Geden
- Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Dan T. Bergstralh
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Roxie L. White
- Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - John H. Werren
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Xu Wang
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Auburn University, AL, United States
- Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Center for Advanced Science, Innovation and Commerce, Auburn, AL, United States
- HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, Huntsville, AL, United States
- *Correspondence: Xu Wang,
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Molecular Detection and Differentiation of Arthropod, Fungal, Protozoan, Bacterial and Viral Pathogens of Honeybees. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9050221. [PMID: 35622749 PMCID: PMC9145064 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9050221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The honeybee Apis mellifera is highly appreciated worldwide because of its products, but also as it is a pollinator of crops and wild plants. The beehive is vulnerable to infections due to arthropods, fungi, protozoa, bacteria and/or viruses that manage to by-pass the individual and social immune mechanisms of bees. Due to the close proximity of bees in the beehive and their foraging habits, infections easily spread within and between beehives. Moreover, international trade of bees has caused the global spread of infections, several of which result in significant losses for apiculture. Only in a few cases can infections be diagnosed with the naked eye, by direct observation of the pathogen in the case of some arthropods, or by pathogen-associated distinctive traits. Development of molecular methods based on the amplification and analysis of one or more genes or genomic segments has brought significant progress to the study of bee pathogens, allowing for: (i) the precise and sensitive identification of the infectious agent; (ii) the analysis of co-infections; (iii) the description of novel species; (iv) associations between geno- and pheno-types and (v) population structure studies. Sequencing of bee pathogen genomes has allowed for the identification of new molecular targets and the development of specific genotypification strategies.
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Jabal-Uriel C, Albarracín VN, Calatayud J, Higes M, Martín-Hernández R. Age and Season Effect the Timing of Adult Worker Honeybee Infection by Nosema ceranae. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 11:823050. [PMID: 35155274 PMCID: PMC8836290 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.823050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The microsporidia Nosema ceranae is an intracellular parasite of honeybees’ midgut, highly prevalent in Apis mellifera colonies for which important epidemiological information is still unknown. Our research aimed at understanding how age and season influence the onset of infection in honeybees and its development in the colony environment. Adult worker honeybees of less than 24h were marked and introduced into 6 different colonies in assays carried out in spring and autumn. Bees of known age were individually analyzed by PCR for Nosema spp. infection and those resulting positive were studied to determine the load by Real Time-qPCR. The age of onset and development of infection in each season was studied on a total of 2401 bees and the probability and the load of infection for both periods was established with two statistical models. First N. ceranae infected honeybees were detected at day 5 post emergence (p.e.; spring) and at day 4 p.e. (autumn) and in-hive prevalence increased from that point onwards, reaching the highest mean infection on day 18 p.e. (spring). The probability of infection increased significantly with age in both periods although the age variable better correlated in spring. The N. ceranae load tended to increase with age in both periods, although the age-load relationship was clearer in spring than in autumn. Therefore, age and season play an important role on the probability and the development of N. ceranae infection in honeybees, bringing important information to understand how it spreads within a colony.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Jabal-Uriel
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental (CIAPA), Instituto Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario y Forestal (IRIAF), Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, Marchamalo, Spain
| | - Verónica N. Albarracín
- Facultad de Agronomía y Zootecnia de la Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Joaquín Calatayud
- Departamento de Biología, Geología, Física y Química inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mariano Higes
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental (CIAPA), Instituto Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario y Forestal (IRIAF), Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, Marchamalo, Spain
| | - Raquel Martín-Hernández
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental (CIAPA), Instituto Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario y Forestal (IRIAF), Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, Marchamalo, Spain
- Instituto de Recursos Humanos para la Ciencia y la Tecnología (INCRECYT – ESF/EC-FSE), Fundación Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Castilla – La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
- *Correspondence: Raquel Martín-Hernández,
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Alonso-Prados E, González-Porto AV, Bernal JL, Bernal J, Martín-Hernández R, Higes M. A Case Report of Chronic Stress in Honey Bee Colonies Induced by Pathogens and Acaricide Residues. Pathogens 2021; 10:955. [PMID: 34451419 PMCID: PMC8398566 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10080955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In this case report, we analyze the possible causes of the poor health status of a professional Apis mellifera iberiensis apiary located in Gajanejos (Guadalajara, Spain). Several factors that potentially favor colony collapse were identified, including Nosema ceranae infection, alone or in combination with other factors (e.g., BQCV and DWV infection), and the accumulation of acaricides commonly used to control Varroa destructor in the beebread (coumaphos and tau-fluvalinate). Based on the levels of residues, the average toxic unit estimated for the apiary suggests a possible increase in vulnerability to infection by N. ceranae due to the presence of high levels of acaricides and the unusual climatic conditions of the year of the collapse event. These data highlight the importance of evaluating these factors in future monitoring programs, as well as the need to adopt adequate preventive measures as part of national and international welfare programs aimed at guaranteeing the health and fitness of bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Alonso-Prados
- Unidad de Productos Fitosanitarios, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA, CSIC), 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Amelia-Virginia González-Porto
- Laboratorio de Mieles y Productos de las Colmenas Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental, IRIAF, Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, 19180 Marchamalo, Spain;
| | - José Luis Bernal
- Analytical Chemistry Group, Instituto Universitario Centro de Innovación en Química y Materiales Avanzados (I.U.CINQUIMA), Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain; (J.L.B.); (J.B.)
| | - José Bernal
- Analytical Chemistry Group, Instituto Universitario Centro de Innovación en Química y Materiales Avanzados (I.U.CINQUIMA), Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain; (J.L.B.); (J.B.)
| | - Raquel Martín-Hernández
- Instituto de Recursos Humanos para la Ciencia y la Tecnología (INCRECYT-FEDER), Fundación Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Castilla—La Mancha, 02006 Albacete, Spain;
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental, IRIAF, Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, 19180 Marchamalo, Spain
| | - Mariano Higes
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental, IRIAF, Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, 19180 Marchamalo, Spain
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11
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Rodríguez-García C, Heerman MC, Cook SC, Evans JD, DeGrandi-Hoffman G, Banmeke O, Zhang Y, Huang S, Hamilton M, Chen YP. Transferrin-mediated iron sequestration suggests a novel therapeutic strategy for controlling Nosema disease in the honey bee, Apis mellifera. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009270. [PMID: 33600478 PMCID: PMC7891791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Nosemosis C, a Nosema disease caused by microsporidia parasite Nosema ceranae, is a significant disease burden of the European honey bee Apis mellifera which is one of the most economically important insect pollinators. Nevertheless, there is no effective treatment currently available for Nosema disease and the disease mechanisms underlying the pathological effects of N. ceranae infection in honey bees are poorly understood. Iron is an essential nutrient for growth and survival of hosts and pathogens alike. The iron tug-of-war between host and pathogen is a central battlefield at the host-pathogen interface which determines the outcome of an infection, however, has not been explored in honey bees. To fill the gap, we conducted a study to investigate the impact of N. ceranae infection on iron homeostasis in honey bees. The expression of transferrin, an iron binding and transporting protein that is one of the key players of iron homeostasis, in response to N. ceranae infection was analysed. Furthermore, the functional roles of transferrin in iron homeostasis and honey bee host immunity were characterized using an RNA interference (RNAi)-based method. The results showed that N. ceranae infection causes iron deficiency and upregulation of the A. mellifera transferrin (AmTsf) mRNA in honey bees, implying that higher expression of AmTsf allows N. ceranae to scavenge more iron from the host for its proliferation and survival. The suppressed expression levels of AmTsf via RNAi could lead to reduced N. ceranae transcription activity, alleviated iron loss, enhanced immunity, and improved survival of the infected bees. The intriguing multifunctionality of transferrin illustrated in this study is a significant contribution to the existing body of literature concerning iron homeostasis in insects. The uncovered functional role of transferrin on iron homeostasis, pathogen growth and honey bee's ability to mount immune responses may hold the key for the development of novel strategies to treat or prevent diseases in honey bees.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthew C. Heerman
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Steven C. Cook
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jay D. Evans
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Olubukola Banmeke
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yi Zhang
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
- Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Shaokang Huang
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
- College of Animal Sciences (Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China
| | - Michele Hamilton
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yan Ping Chen
- USDA-ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
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12
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Jara L, Ruiz C, Martín-Hernández R, Muñoz I, Higes M, Serrano J, De la Rúa P. The Effect of Migratory Beekeeping on the Infestation Rate of Parasites in Honey Bee ( Apis mellifera) Colonies and on Their Genetic Variability. Microorganisms 2020; 9:microorganisms9010022. [PMID: 33374609 PMCID: PMC7822443 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9010022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Migratory beekeeping is a widely extended practice aimed at increasing the yield of products and pollination services of honey bee colonies. However, it represents a stress factor, as it facilitates the dissemination of diseases and may compromise the genetic identity of the colonies involved. To analyze the extent of these effects, pathogens infestation rate and genetic composition were monitored in a field experiment comparing stationary and migratory colonies sharing the same environmental conditions but differing in management (stationary vs. migratory) and genetic background. We studied the pathogens infestation rate (Varroa destructor, Nosema spp., and Deformed Wing Virus (DWV)) at four different times: before migratory operation, two weeks later, at the end of the migratory period, and two weeks after the return of the migratory hives. An increased incidence of V. destructor and Nosema ceranae and a lower DWV viral load were found in migratory colonies. Temporary changes in genetic diversity were detected regardless of colony type, suggesting that stressors other than management affect the genetic diversity of the colonies. Our study demonstrates that migratory practices have variable effects on the health and genetic diversity of honey bee colonies, which should be taken into account for the development of sustainable beekeeping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Jara
- Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (L.J.); (C.R.); (I.M.); (J.S.)
| | - Carlos Ruiz
- Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (L.J.); (C.R.); (I.M.); (J.S.)
- Departamento de Biología Animal, Edafología y Geología, Universidad de La Laguna, 38206 La Laguna, Spain
| | - Raquel Martín-Hernández
- IRIAF, Instituto Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario y Forestal, Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental (CIAPA), Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, 19180 Marchamalo, Spain; (R.M.-H.); (M.H.)
- Instituto de Recursos Humanos para la Ciencia y la Tecnología (INCRECYT, ESF), Fundación Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Albacete, 02006 Albacete, Spain
| | - Irene Muñoz
- Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (L.J.); (C.R.); (I.M.); (J.S.)
| | - Mariano Higes
- IRIAF, Instituto Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario y Forestal, Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental (CIAPA), Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, 19180 Marchamalo, Spain; (R.M.-H.); (M.H.)
| | - José Serrano
- Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (L.J.); (C.R.); (I.M.); (J.S.)
| | - Pilar De la Rúa
- Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (L.J.); (C.R.); (I.M.); (J.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-868-884-908
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13
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Factors Associated with Honey Bee Colony Losses: A Mini-Review. Vet Sci 2020; 7:vetsci7040166. [PMID: 33143134 PMCID: PMC7712510 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci7040166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The Western honey bee (Apis mellifera L., Hymenoptera: Apidae) is a species of crucial economic, agricultural and environmental importance. In the last ten years, some regions of the world have suffered from a significant reduction of honey bee colonies. In fact, honey bee losses are not an unusual phenomenon, but in many countries worldwide there has been a notable decrease in honey bee colonies. The cases in the USA, in many European countries, and in the Middle East have received considerable attention, mostly due to the absence of an easily identifiable cause. It has been difficult to determine the main factors leading to colony losses because of honey bees’ diverse social behavior. Moreover, in their daily routine, they make contact with many agents of the environment and are exposed to a plethora of human activities and their consequences. Nevertheless, various factors have been considered to be contributing to honey bee losses, and recent investigations have established some of the most important ones, in particular, pests and diseases, bee management, including bee keeping practices and breeding, the change in climatic conditions, agricultural practices, and the use of pesticides. The global picture highlights the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor as a major factor in colony loss. Last but not least, microsporidian parasites, mainly Nosema ceranae, also contribute to the problem. Thus, it is obvious that there are many factors affecting honey bee colony losses globally. Increased monitoring and scientific research should throw new light on the factors involved in recent honey bee colony losses. The present review focuses on the main factors which have been found to have an impact on the increase in honey bee colony losses.
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14
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Branchiccela B, Castelli L, Corona M, Díaz-Cetti S, Invernizzi C, Martínez de la Escalera G, Mendoza Y, Santos E, Silva C, Zunino P, Antúnez K. Impact of nutritional stress on the honeybee colony health. Sci Rep 2019; 9:10156. [PMID: 31300738 PMCID: PMC6626013 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-46453-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Honeybees Apis mellifera are important pollinators of wild plants and commercial crops. For more than a decade, high percentages of honeybee colony losses have been reported worldwide. Nutritional stress due to habitat depletion, infection by different pests and pathogens and pesticide exposure has been proposed as the major causes. In this study we analyzed how nutritional stress affects colony strength and health. Two groups of colonies were set in a Eucalyptus grandis plantation at the beginning of the flowering period (autumn), replicating a natural scenario with a nutritionally poor food source. While both groups of colonies had access to the pollen available in this plantation, one was supplemented with a polyfloral pollen patty during the entire flowering period. In the short-term, colonies under nutritional stress (which consumed mainly E. grandis pollen) showed higher infection level with Nosema spp. and lower brood and adult bee population, compared to supplemented colonies. On the other hand, these supplemented colonies showed higher infection level with RNA viruses although infection levels were low compared to countries were viral infections have negative impacts. Nutritional stress also had long-term colony effects, because bee population did not recover in spring, as in supplemented colonies did. In conclusion, nutritional stress and Nosema spp. infection had a severe impact on colony strength with consequences in both short and long-term.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Branchiccela
- Departamento de Microbiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Av. Italia 3318, CP 11,600, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - L Castelli
- Departamento de Microbiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Av. Italia 3318, CP 11,600, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - M Corona
- Bee Research Laboratory United Stated Department of Agriculture, United States of America, Center Road 306, CP 20,705, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - S Díaz-Cetti
- Sección Apicultura, Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria, Route 50 km 11, CP 39173, Colonia, Uruguay
| | - C Invernizzi
- Sección Etología, Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Iguá 4225, CP 11400, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - G Martínez de la Escalera
- Departamento de Microbiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Av. Italia 3318, CP 11,600, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Y Mendoza
- Sección Apicultura, Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria, Route 50 km 11, CP 39173, Colonia, Uruguay
| | - E Santos
- Sección Etología, Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Iguá 4225, CP 11400, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - C Silva
- Sección Apicultura, Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria, Route 50 km 11, CP 39173, Colonia, Uruguay
| | - P Zunino
- Departamento de Microbiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Av. Italia 3318, CP 11,600, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - K Antúnez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Av. Italia 3318, CP 11,600, Montevideo, Uruguay.
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Abstract
Deformed wing virus (DWV) has become the most well-known, widespread, and intensively studied insect pathogen in the world. Although DWV was previously present in honeybee populations, the arrival and global spread of a new vector, the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor, has dramatically altered DWV epidemiology. DWV is now the most prevalent virus in honeybees, with a minimum average of 55% of colonies/apiaries infected across 32 countries. Additionally, DWV has been detected in 65 arthropod species spanning eight insect orders and three orders of Arachnida. Here, we describe the significant progress that has been made in elucidating the capsid structure of the virus, understanding its ever-expanding host range, and tracking the constantly evolving DWV genome and formation of recombinants. The construction of molecular clones, working with DWV in cell lines, and the development of immunohistochemistry methods will all help the community to move forward. Identifying the tissues in which DWV variants are replicating and understanding the impact of DWV in non-honeybee hosts are major new goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Martin
- School of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Manchester M5 4WT, United Kingdom;
| | - Laura E Brettell
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Richmond, New South Wales 2751, Australia;
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16
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Glavinic U, Tesovnik T, Stevanovic J, Zorc M, Cizelj I, Stanimirovic Z, Narat M. Response of adult honey bees treated in larval stage with prochloraz to infection with Nosema ceranae. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6325. [PMID: 30775168 PMCID: PMC6371917 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Among numerous factors that contribute to honey bee colony losses and problems in beekeeping, pesticides and Nosema ceranae have been often reported. In contrast to insecticides, whose effects on bees have been widely studied, fungicides did not attract considerable attention. Prochloraz, an imidazole fungicide widely used in agriculture, was detected in honey and pollen stored inside hives and has been already proven to alter immune gene expression of honey bees at different developmental stages. The aim of this study was to simulate the realistic conditions of migratory beekeeping, where colonies, both uninfected and infected with N. ceranae, are frequently transported to the vicinity of crop fields treated with prochloraz. We investigated the combined effect of prochloraz and N. ceranae on honey bees that faced fungicide during the larval stage through food consumption and microsporidium infection afterwards. The most pronounced changes in gene expression were observed in newly emerged Nosema-free bees originating from colonies previously contaminated with prochloraz. As exclusively upregulation was registered, prochloraz alone most likely acts as a challenge that induces activation of immune pathways in newly emerged bees. The combination of both stressors (prochloraz and Nosema infection) exerted the greatest effect on six-day-old honey bees. Among ten genes with significantly altered expression, half were upregulated and half downregulated. N. ceranae as a sole stressor had the weakest effects on immune gene expression modulation with only three genes significantly dysregulated. In conclusion, food contaminated with prochloraz consumed in larval stage could present a threat to the development of immunity and detoxification mechanisms in honey bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uros Glavinic
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Tanja Tesovnik
- Department of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jevrosima Stevanovic
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Minja Zorc
- Department of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ivanka Cizelj
- Department of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Zoran Stanimirovic
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Mojca Narat
- Department of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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17
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Larem A, Fritsch E, Undorf-Spahn K, Kleespies RG, Jehle JA. Interaction of Phthorimaea operculella granulovirus with a Nosema sp. microsporidium in larvae of Phthorimaea operculella. J Invertebr Pathol 2018; 160:76-86. [PMID: 30550745 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2018.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Revised: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
An antagonistic effect of a microsporidium (Nosema sp.) infection on the virulence of Phthorimaea operculella granulovirus (PhopGV) was recorded in potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella) larvae with mixed infections. When the P. operculella colony was infected at a high rate (42.8-100%) with the microsporidium, it was less susceptible to the isolate PhopGV-GR1.1. A virus concentration 1.89 × 105 higher was necessary to cause the same level of mortality produced in the P. operculella colony when it was uninfected or had a low level of infection with the microsporidium (0-30%). This antagonistic effect was driven by a Nosema isolate (termed Nosema sp. Phop) that was purified from microsporidian-infected P. operculella individuals. The purified microsporidium was characterised by morphological features, including size, filament coils and different developmental stages using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). On the molecular level, the partial cistron rDNA information of the small ribosomal subunit (SSU), internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and the large ribosomal subunit (LSU) were identified. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the newly described microsporidium belongs to the "true Nosema" clade. Partial sequence information of the RNA polymerase II largest subunit (RPB1) suggested that Nosema bombycis is the closest relative (98% identity). The morphological and phylogenetic characteristics suggest that it is an isolate of N. bombycis. Interactions of microsporidia and betabaculoviruses are rarely described in the literature, although mixed infections of different pathogens seem to be rather common events, ranging from antagonistic to mutualistic interactions. The observed antagonistic relationship between the Nosema sp. and PhopGV-GR1.1 showed that pathogen interactions need to be considered when single pathogens are applied to insect populations in the context of biological control of insect pests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Larem
- Institute for Biological Control, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Julius Kühn Institute, Heinrichstraße 243, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - Eva Fritsch
- Institute for Biological Control, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Julius Kühn Institute, Heinrichstraße 243, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - Karin Undorf-Spahn
- Institute for Biological Control, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Julius Kühn Institute, Heinrichstraße 243, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - Regina G Kleespies
- Institute for Biological Control, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Julius Kühn Institute, Heinrichstraße 243, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - Johannes A Jehle
- Institute for Biological Control, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Julius Kühn Institute, Heinrichstraße 243, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.
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18
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Martín-Hernández R, Bartolomé C, Chejanovsky N, Le Conte Y, Dalmon A, Dussaubat C, García-Palencia P, Meana A, Pinto MA, Soroker V, Higes M. Nosema ceranaeinApis mellifera: a 12 years postdetectionperspective. Environ Microbiol 2018; 20:1302-1329. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Martín-Hernández
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola. Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental de Marchamalo, (CIAPA-IRIAF), Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha; Marchamalo Spain
- Instituto de Recursos Humanos para la Ciencia y la Tecnología (INCRECYT-FEDER), Fundación Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Castilla - La Mancha; Spain
| | - Carolina Bartolomé
- Medicina Xenómica, CIMUS, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Xenómica Comparada de Parásitos Humanos, IDIS, 15782 Santiago de Compostela; Galicia Spain
| | - Nor Chejanovsky
- Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center; Rishon LeZion Israel
| | - Yves Le Conte
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement; F-84000 Avignon France
| | - Anne Dalmon
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement; F-84000 Avignon France
| | | | | | - Aranzazu Meana
- Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid; Spain
| | - M. Alice Pinto
- Mountain Research Centre (CIMO), Polytechnic Institute of Bragança; 5300-253 Bragança Portugal
| | - Victoria Soroker
- Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center; Rishon LeZion Israel
| | - Mariano Higes
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola. Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental de Marchamalo, (CIAPA-IRIAF), Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha; Marchamalo Spain
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19
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Traver BE, Feazel-Orr HK, Catalfamo KM, Brewster CC, Fell RD. Seasonal Effects and the Impact of In-Hive Pesticide Treatments on Parasite, Pathogens, and Health of Honey Bees. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 111:517-527. [PMID: 29471479 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toy026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Honey bee, Apis mellifera (L.; Hymenoptera: Apidae), populations are in decline and their losses pose a serious threat for crop pollination and food production. The specific causes of these losses are believed to be multifactorial. Pesticides, parasites and pathogens, and nutritional deficiencies have been implicated in the losses due to their ability to exert energetic stress on bees. While our understanding of the role of these factors in honey bee colony losses has improved, there is still a lack of knowledge of how they impact the immune system of the honey bee. In this study, honey bee colonies were exposed to Fumagilin-B, Apistan (tau-fluvalinate), and chlorothalonil at field realistic levels. No significant effects of the antibiotic and two pesticides were observed on the levels of varroa mite, Nosema ceranae (Fries; Microsporidia: Nosematidae), black queen cell virus, deformed wing virus, or immunity as measured by phenoloxidase and glucose oxidase activity. Any effects on the parasites, pathogens, and immunity we observed appear to be due mainly to seasonal changes within the honey bee colonies. The results suggest that Fumagilin-B, Apistan, and chlorothalonil do not significantly impact the health of honey bee colonies, based on the factors analyzed and the concentration of chemicals tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenna E Traver
- Department of Biology, Penn State Schuylkill, Schuylkill Haven, PA
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20
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Tritschler M, Vollmann JJ, Yañez O, Chejanovsky N, Crailsheim K, Neumann P. Protein nutrition governs within-host race of honey bee pathogens. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14988. [PMID: 29118416 PMCID: PMC5678143 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15358-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple infections are common in honey bees, Apis mellifera, but the possible role of nutrition in this regard is poorly understood. Microsporidian infections, which are promoted by protein-fed, can negatively correlate with virus infections, but the role of protein nutrition for the microsporidian-virus interface is unknown. Here, we challenged naturally deformed wing virus - B (DWV-B) infected adult honey bee workers fed with or without pollen ( = protein) in hoarding cages, with the microsporidian Nosema ceranae. Bee mortality was recorded for 14 days and N. ceranae spore loads and DWV-B titers were quantified. Amongst the groups inoculated with N. ceranae, more spores were counted in protein-fed bees. However, N. ceranae infected bees without protein-diet had reduced longevity compared to all other groups. N. ceranae infection had no effect on protein-fed bee's longevity, whereas bees supplied only with sugar-water showed reduced survival. Our data also support that protein-feeding can have a significant negative impact on virus infections in insects. The negative correlation between N. ceranae spore loads and DWV-B titers was stronger expressed in protein-fed hosts. Proteins not only enhance survival of infected hosts, but also significantly shape the microsporidian-virus interface, probably due to increased spore production and enhanced host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Tritschler
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Freiburg (CVUA), Bienengesundheit, 79108, Freiburg i. Br., Germany
| | | | - Orlando Yañez
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Nor Chejanovsky
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Plant Protection, The Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon LeTsiyon, Israel
| | | | - Peter Neumann
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
- Swiss Bee Research Centre, Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland.
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21
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Desai SD, Currie RW. Effects of Wintering Environment and Parasite-Pathogen Interactions on Honey Bee Colony Loss in North Temperate Regions. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0159615. [PMID: 27448049 PMCID: PMC4957765 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Extreme winter losses of honey bee colonies are a major threat to beekeeping but the combinations of factors underlying colony loss remain debatable. We monitored colonies in two environments (colonies wintered indoors or outdoors) and characterized the effects of two parasitic mites, seven viruses, and Nosema on honey bee colony mortality and population loss over winter. Samples were collected from two locations within hives in fall, mid-winter and spring of 2009/2010. Although fall parasite and pathogen loads were similar in outdoor and indoor-wintered colonies, the outdoor-wintered colonies had greater relative reductions in bee population score over winter. Seasonal patterns in deformed wing virus (DWV), black queen cell virus (BQCV), and Nosema level also differed with the wintering environment. DWV and Nosema levels decreased over winter for indoor-wintered colonies but BQCV did not. Both BQCV and Nosema concentration increased over winter in outdoor-wintered colonies. The mean abundance of Varroa decreased and concentration of Sacbrood virus (SBV), Kashmir bee virus (KBV), and Chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV) increased over winter but seasonal patterns were not affected by wintering method. For most viruses, either entrance or brood area samples were reasonable predictors of colony virus load but there were significant season*sample location interactions for Nosema and BQCV, indicating that care must be taken when selecting samples from a single location. For Nosema spp., the fall entrance samples were better predictors of future infestation levels than were fall brood area samples. For indoor-wintered colonies, Israeli acute paralysis virus IAPV concentration was negatively correlated with spring population size. For outdoor-wintered hives, spring Varroa abundance and DWV concentration were positively correlated with bee loss and negatively correlated with spring population size. Multivariate analyses for fall collected samples indicated higher DWV was associated with colony death as did high SBV for spring-collected samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh D. Desai
- Department of Entomology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3T 2N2, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Robert W. Currie
- Department of Entomology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3T 2N2, Canada
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22
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Porrini C, Mutinelli F, Bortolotti L, Granato A, Laurenson L, Roberts K, Gallina A, Silvester N, Medrzycki P, Renzi T, Sgolastra F, Lodesani M. The Status of Honey Bee Health in Italy: Results from the Nationwide Bee Monitoring Network. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155411. [PMID: 27182604 PMCID: PMC4868308 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In Italy a nation-wide monitoring network was established in 2009 in response to significant honey bee colony mortality reported during 2008. The network comprised of approximately 100 apiaries located across Italy. Colonies were sampled four times per year, in order to assess the health status and to collect samples for pathogen, chemical and pollen analyses. The prevalence of Nosema ceranae ranged, on average, from 47-69% in 2009 and from 30-60% in 2010, with strong seasonal variation. Virus prevalence was higher in 2010 than in 2009. The most widespread viruses were BQCV, DWV and SBV. The most frequent pesticides in all hive contents were organophosphates and pyrethroids such as coumaphos and tau-fluvalinate. Beeswax was the most frequently contaminated hive product, with 40% of samples positive and 13% having multiple residues, while 27% of bee-bread and 12% of honey bee samples were contaminated. Colony losses in 2009/10 were on average 19%, with no major differences between regions of Italy. In 2009, the presence of DWV in autumn was positively correlated with colony losses. Similarly, hive mortality was higher in BQCV infected colonies in the first and second visits of the year. In 2010, colony losses were significantly related to the presence of pesticides in honey bees during the second sampling period. Honey bee exposure to poisons in spring could have a negative impact at the colony level, contributing to increase colony mortality during the beekeeping season. In both 2009 and 2010, colony mortality rates were positively related to the percentage of agricultural land surrounding apiaries, supporting the importance of land use for honey bee health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Porrini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie (DipSA), Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Franco Mutinelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, NRL for beekeeping, Legnaro (Padova), Italy
| | - Laura Bortolotti
- CRA-API, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Bologna, Italy
| | - Anna Granato
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, NRL for beekeeping, Legnaro (Padova), Italy
| | | | | | - Albino Gallina
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, NRL for beekeeping, Legnaro (Padova), Italy
| | - Nicholas Silvester
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, NRL for beekeeping, Legnaro (Padova), Italy
| | - Piotr Medrzycki
- CRA-API, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Bologna, Italy
| | - Teresa Renzi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie (DipSA), Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Fabio Sgolastra
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie (DipSA), Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Lodesani
- CRA-API, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Bologna, Italy
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23
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Schwarz RS, Huang Q, Evans JD. Hologenome theory and the honey bee pathosphere. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2015; 10:1-7. [PMID: 29587997 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2015.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Revised: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/10/2015] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent research has provided improved genome-level views of diversity across global honey bee populations, the gut microbiota residing within them, and the expanding pathosphere challenging honey bees. Different combinations of bee/microbiota/pathosphere genome complexes may explain regional variation in apiculture productivity and mortality. To understand this, we must consider management and research approaches in light of a hologenome paradigm: that honey bee fitness is determined by the composite bee and microbiota genomes. Only by considering the hologenome can we truly interpret and address impacts from the pathosphere, pesticides, toxins, nutrition, climate and other stressors affecting bee health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan S Schwarz
- Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center - East, Bldg. 306, US Department of Agriculture, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
| | - Qiang Huang
- Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center - East, Bldg. 306, US Department of Agriculture, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Jay D Evans
- Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center - East, Bldg. 306, US Department of Agriculture, 10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
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24
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Antúnez K, Anido M, Branchiccela B, Harriet J, Campa J, Invernizzi C, Santos E, Higes M, Martín-Hernández R, Zunino P. Seasonal Variation of Honeybee Pathogens and its Association with Pollen Diversity in Uruguay. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2015; 70:522-533. [PMID: 25794593 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-015-0594-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Honeybees are susceptible to a wide range of pathogens, which have been related to the occurrence of colony loss episodes reported mainly in north hemisphere countries. Their ability to resist those infections is compromised if they are malnourished or exposed to pesticides. The aim of the present study was to carry out an epidemiological study in Uruguay, South America, in order to evaluate the dynamics and interaction of honeybee pathogens and evaluate their association with the presence of external stress factors such as restricted pollen diversity and presence of agrochemicals. We monitored 40 colonies in two apiaries over 24 months, regularly quantifying colony strength, parasite and pathogen status, and pollen diversity. Chlorinated pesticides, phosphorus, pyrethroid, fipronil, or sulfas were not found in stored pollen in any colony or season. Varroa destructor was widespread in March (end of summer-beginning of autumn), decreasing after acaricide treatments. Viruses ABPV, DWV, and SBV presented a similar trend, while IAPV and KBV were not detected. Nosema ceranae was detected along the year while Nosema apis was detected only in one sample. Fifteen percent of the colonies died, being associated to high V. destructor mite load in March and high N. ceranae spore loads in September. Although similar results have been reported in north hemisphere countries, this is the first study of these characteristics in Uruguay, highlighting the regional importance. On the other side, colonies with pollen of diverse botanical origins showed reduced viral infection levels, suggesting that an adequate nutrition is important for the development of healthy colonies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Antúnez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Avda. Italia 3318, Montevideo, Uruguay,
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25
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Zheng HQ, Gong HR, Huang SK, Sohr A, Hu FL, Chen YP. Evidence of the synergistic interaction of honey bee pathogens Nosema ceranae and Deformed wing virus. Vet Microbiol 2015; 177:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Revised: 01/31/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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26
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Within-host competition among the honey bees pathogens Nosema ceranae and Deformed wing virus is asymmetric and to the disadvantage of the virus. J Invertebr Pathol 2014; 124:31-4. [PMID: 25450738 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2014.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Revised: 10/05/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Two pathogens co-infecting a common host can either interact positively (facilitation), negatively (competition) or act independently. A correlative study has suggested that two pathogens of the honey bee, Nosema ceranae and Deformed wing virus (DWV), interact negatively within a host (Costa et al., 2011). To test this hypothesis, we sequentially co-infected honey bees with these pathogens in a reciprocally crossed experimental design. Prior establishment in the host ventriculus by N. ceranae inhibited DWV while prior infection by DWV did not impact N. ceranae, highlighting an asymmetry in the competitive interaction between these emerging pathogens.
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27
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Williams GR, Shutler D, Burgher-MacLellan KL, Rogers REL. Infra-population and -community dynamics of the parasites Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae, and consequences for honey bee (Apis mellifera) hosts. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99465. [PMID: 24987989 PMCID: PMC4079283 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Nosema spp. fungal gut parasites are among myriad possible explanations for contemporary increased mortality of western honey bees (Apis mellifera, hereafter honey bee) in many regions of the world. Invasive Nosema ceranae is particularly worrisome because some evidence suggests it has greater virulence than its congener N. apis. N. ceranae appears to have recently switched hosts from Asian honey bees (Apis cerana) and now has a nearly global distribution in honey bees, apparently displacing N. apis. We examined parasite reproduction and effects of N. apis, N. ceranae, and mixed Nosema infections on honey bee hosts in laboratory experiments. Both infection intensity and honey bee mortality were significantly greater for N. ceranae than for N. apis or mixed infections; mixed infection resulted in mortality similar to N. apis parasitism and reduced spore intensity, possibly due to inter-specific competition. This is the first long-term laboratory study to demonstrate lethal consequences of N. apis and N. ceranae and mixed Nosema parasitism in honey bees, and suggests that differences in reproduction and intra-host competition may explain apparent heterogeneous exclusion of the historic parasite by the invasive species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey R. Williams
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Agroscope, Swiss Bee Research Centre, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Dave Shutler
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Karen L. Burgher-MacLellan
- Atlantic Food and Horticulture Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Kentville, Nova Scotia, Canada
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28
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Shutler D, Head K, Burgher-MacLellan KL, Colwell MJ, Levitt AL, Ostiguy N, Williams GR. Honey bee Apis mellifera parasites in the absence of Nosema ceranae fungi and Varroa destructor mites. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98599. [PMID: 24955834 PMCID: PMC4067279 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Few areas of the world have western honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies that are free of invasive parasites Nosema ceranae (fungi) and Varroa destructor (mites). Particularly detrimental is V. destructor; in addition to feeding on host haemolymph, these mites are important vectors of several viruses that are further implicated as contributors to honey bee mortality around the world. Thus, the biogeography and attendant consequences of viral communities in the absence of V. destructor are of significant interest. The island of Newfoundland, Province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, is free of V. destructor; the absence of N. ceranae has not been confirmed. Of 55 Newfoundland colonies inspected visually for their strength and six signs of disease, only K-wing had prevalence above 5% (40/55 colonies = 72.7%). Similar to an earlier study, screenings again confirmed the absence of V. destructor, small hive beetles Aethina tumida (Murray), tracheal mites Acarapis woodi (Rennie), and Tropilaelaps spp. ectoparasitic mites. Of a subset of 23 colonies screened molecularly for viruses, none had Israeli acute paralysis virus, Kashmir bee virus, or sacbrood virus. Sixteen of 23 colonies (70.0%) were positive for black queen cell virus, and 21 (91.3%) had some evidence for deformed wing virus. No N. ceranae was detected in molecular screens of 55 colonies, although it is possible extremely low intensity infections exist; the more familiar N. apis was found in 53 colonies (96.4%). Under these conditions, K-wing was associated (positively) with colony strength; however, viruses and N. apis were not. Furthermore, black queen cell virus was positively and negatively associated with K-wing and deformed wing virus, respectively. Newfoundland honey bee colonies are thus free of several invasive parasites that plague operations in other parts of the world, and they provide a unique research arena to study independent pathology of the parasites that are present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dave Shutler
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Krista Head
- Agri-Foods Branch, Forestry and Agri-Foods Agency, Department of Natural Resources, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Corner Brook, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
| | - Karen L. Burgher-MacLellan
- Atlantic Food and Horticulture Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Kentville, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Megan J. Colwell
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Abby L. Levitt
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Nancy Ostiguy
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Geoffrey R. Williams
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Agroscope, Swiss Bee Research Centre, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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29
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Retschnig G, Williams GR, Mehmann MM, Yañez O, de Miranda JR, Neumann P. Sex-specific differences in pathogen susceptibility in honey bees (Apis mellifera). PLoS One 2014; 9:e85261. [PMID: 24465518 PMCID: PMC3894969 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex-related differences in susceptibility to pathogens are a common phenomenon in animals. In the eusocial Hymenoptera the two female castes, workers and queens, are diploid and males are haploid. The haploid susceptibility hypothesis predicts that haploid males are more susceptible to pathogen infections compared to females. Here we test this hypothesis using adult male (drone) and female (worker) honey bees (Apis mellifera), inoculated with the gut endoparasite Nosema ceranae and/or black queen cell virus (BQCV). These pathogens were chosen due to previously reported synergistic interactions between Nosema apis and BQCV. Our data do not support synergistic interactions between N. ceranae and BQCV and also suggest that BQCV has limited effect on both drone and worker health, regardless of the infection level. However, the data clearly show that, despite lower levels of N. ceranae spores in drones than in workers, Nosema-infected drones had both a higher mortality and a lower body mass than non-infected drones, across all treatment groups, while the mortality and body mass of worker bees were largely unaffected by N. ceranae infection, suggesting that drones are more susceptible to this pathogen than workers. In conclusion, the data reveal considerable sex-specific differences in pathogen susceptibility in honey bees and highlight the importance of ultimate measures for determining susceptibility, such as mortality and body quality, rather than mere infection levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Retschnig
- Swiss Bee Research Centre, Research Station Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux ALP-HARAS, Bern, Switzerland ; Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Geoffrey R Williams
- Swiss Bee Research Centre, Research Station Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux ALP-HARAS, Bern, Switzerland ; Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Marion M Mehmann
- Swiss Bee Research Centre, Research Station Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux ALP-HARAS, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Orlando Yañez
- Swiss Bee Research Centre, Research Station Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux ALP-HARAS, Bern, Switzerland ; Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Joachim R de Miranda
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Peter Neumann
- Swiss Bee Research Centre, Research Station Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux ALP-HARAS, Bern, Switzerland ; Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Social Insect Research Group, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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30
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Chronic bee paralysis virus and Nosema ceranae experimental co-infection of winter honey bee workers (Apis mellifera L.). Viruses 2013; 5:2282-97. [PMID: 24056674 PMCID: PMC3798902 DOI: 10.3390/v5092282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Revised: 09/14/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV) is an important viral disease of adult bees which induces significant losses in honey bee colonies. Despite comprehensive research, only limited data is available from experimental infection for this virus. In the present study winter worker bees were experimentally infected in three different experiments. Bees were first inoculated per os (p/o) or per cuticle (p/c) with CBPV field strain M92/2010 in order to evaluate the virus replication in individual bees. In addition, potential synergistic effects of co-infection with CBPV and Nosema ceranae (N. ceranae) on bees were investigated. In total 558 individual bees were inoculated in small cages and data were analyzed using quantitative real time RT-PCR (RT-qPCR). Our results revealed successful replication of CBPV after p/o inoculation, while it was less effective when bees were inoculated p/c. Dead bees harbored about 1,000 times higher copy numbers of the virus than live bees. Co-infection of workers with CBPV and N. ceranae using either method of virus inoculation (p/c or p/o) showed increased replication ability for CBPV. In the third experiment the effect of inoculation on bee mortality was evaluated. The highest level of bee mortality was observed in a group of bees inoculated with CBPV p/o, followed by a group of workers simultaneously inoculated with CBPV and N. ceranae p/o, followed by the group inoculated with CBPV p/c and the group with only N. ceranae p/o. The experimental infection with CBPV showed important differences after p/o or p/c inoculation in winter bees, while simultaneous infection with CBPV and N. ceranae suggesting a synergistic effect after inoculation.
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31
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Wang H, Xie J, Shreeve TG, Ma J, Pallett DW, King LA, Possee RD. Sequence recombination and conservation of Varroa destructor virus-1 and deformed wing virus in field collected honey bees (Apis mellifera). PLoS One 2013; 8:e74508. [PMID: 24058580 PMCID: PMC3776811 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 08/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We sequenced small (s) RNAs from field collected honeybees (Apis mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombuspascuorum) using the Illumina technology. The sRNA reads were assembled and resulting contigs were used to search for virus homologues in GenBank. Matches with Varroadestructor virus-1 (VDV1) and Deformed wing virus (DWV) genomic sequences were obtained for A. mellifera but not B. pascuorum. Further analyses suggested that the prevalent virus population was composed of VDV-1 and a chimera of 5’-DWV-VDV1-DWV-3’. The recombination junctions in the chimera genomes were confirmed by using RT-PCR, cDNA cloning and Sanger sequencing. We then focused on conserved short fragments (CSF, size > 25 nt) in the virus genomes by using GenBank sequences and the deep sequencing data obtained in this study. The majority of CSF sites confirmed conservation at both between-species (GenBank sequences) and within-population (dataset of this study) levels. However, conserved nucleotide positions in the GenBank sequences might be variable at the within-population level. High mutation rates (Pi>10%) were observed at a number of sites using the deep sequencing data, suggesting that sequence conservation might not always be maintained at the population level. Virus-host interactions and strategies for developing RNAi treatments against VDV1/DWV infections are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wang
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Natural Environmental Research Council, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Jiazheng Xie
- Beijing Genome Institute, Yantian District, Shenzhen, China
| | - Tim G. Shreeve
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brooks University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jinmin Ma
- Beijing Genome Institute, Yantian District, Shenzhen, China
| | - Denise W. Pallett
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Natural Environmental Research Council, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Linda A. King
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brooks University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Robert D. Possee
- Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Natural Environmental Research Council, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
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Martin SJ, Hardy J, Villalobos E, Martín-Hernández R, Nikaido S, Higes M. Do the honeybee pathogens Nosema ceranae and deformed wing virus act synergistically? ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2013; 5:506-10. [PMID: 23864563 PMCID: PMC3806273 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.12052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The honeybee pathogens Nosema ceranae and deformed wing virus (DWV) cause the collapse of honeybee colonies. Therefore, it is plausible that these two pathogens act synergistically to increase colony losses, since N.ceranae causes damage to the mid-gut epithelial ventricular cells and actively suppresses the honeybees' immune response, either of which could increase the virulence of viral pathogens within the bee. To test this hypothesis we exploited 322 Hawaiian honeybee colonies for which DWV prevalence and load is known. We determined via PCR that N.ceranae was present in 89-95% of these colonies, with no Nosema apis being detected. We found no significant difference in spore counts in colonies infected with DWV and those in which DWV was not detected, either on any of the four islands or across the entire honeybee population. Furthermore, no significant correlation between DWV loads (ΔCT levels) and N.ceranae spore counts was found, so these two pathogens are not acting synergistically. Although the Hawaiian honeybees have the highest known prevalence of N.ceranae in the world, with average number of spores been 2.7 million per bee, no acute Nosema related problems i.e. large-scale colony deaths, have been reported by Hawaiian beekeepers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Martin
- School of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Greater Manchester, M5 4WT, UK.
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McDonnell CM, Alaux C, Parrinello H, Desvignes JP, Crauser D, Durbesson E, Beslay D, Le Conte Y. Ecto- and endoparasite induce similar chemical and brain neurogenomic responses in the honey bee (Apis mellifera). BMC Ecol 2013; 13:25. [PMID: 23866001 PMCID: PMC3725162 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6785-13-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Exclusion from a social group is an effective way to avoid parasite transmission. This type of social removal has also been proposed as a form of collective defense, or social immunity, in eusocial insect groups. If parasitic modification of host behavior is widespread in social insects, the underlying physiological and neuronal mechanisms remain to be investigated. We studied this phenomenon in honey bees parasitized by the mite Varroa destructor or microsporidia Nosema ceranae, which make bees leave the hive precociously. We characterized the chemical, behavioral and neurogenomic changes in parasitized bees, and compared the effects of both parasites. Results Analysis of cuticular hydrocarbon (CHC) profiles by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrophotometry (GC-MS) showed changes in honey bees parasitized by either Nosema ceranae or Varroa destructor after 5 days of infestation. Levels of 10-HDA, an antiseptic important for social immunity, did not change in response to parasitism. Behavioral analysis of N. ceranae- or V. destructor- parasitized bees revealed no significant differences in their behavioral acts or social interactions with nestmates. Digital gene expression (DGE) analysis of parasitized honey bee brains demonstrated that, despite the difference in developmental stage at which the bee is parasitized, Nosema and Varroa-infested bees shared more gene changes with each other than with honey bee brain expression gene sets for forager or nurse castes. Conclusions Parasitism by Nosema or Varroa induces changes to both the CHC profiles on the surface of the bee and transcriptomic profiles in the brain, but within the social context of the hive, does not result in observable effects on her behavior or behavior towards her. While parasitized bees are reported to leave the hive as foragers, their brain transcription profiles suggest that their behavior is not driven by the same molecular pathways that induce foraging behavior.
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34
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Genome sequencing and comparative genomics of honey bee microsporidia, Nosema apis reveal novel insights into host-parasite interactions. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:451. [PMID: 23829473 PMCID: PMC3726280 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The microsporidia parasite Nosema contributes to the steep global decline of honey bees that are critical pollinators of food crops. There are two species of Nosema that have been found to infect honey bees, Nosema apis and N. ceranae. Genome sequencing of N. apis and comparative genome analysis with N. ceranae, a fully sequenced microsporidia species, reveal novel insights into host-parasite interactions underlying the parasite infections. Results We applied the whole-genome shotgun sequencing approach to sequence and assemble the genome of N. apis which has an estimated size of 8.5 Mbp. We predicted 2,771 protein- coding genes and predicted the function of each putative protein using the Gene Ontology. The comparative genomic analysis led to identification of 1,356 orthologs that are conserved between the two Nosema species and genes that are unique characteristics of the individual species, thereby providing a list of virulence factors and new genetic tools for studying host-parasite interactions. We also identified a highly abundant motif in the upstream promoter regions of N. apis genes. This motif is also conserved in N. ceranae and other microsporidia species and likely plays a role in gene regulation across the microsporidia. Conclusions The availability of the N. apis genome sequence is a significant addition to the rapidly expanding body of microsprodian genomic data which has been improving our understanding of eukaryotic genome diversity and evolution in a broad sense. The predicted virulent genes and transcriptional regulatory elements are potential targets for innovative therapeutics to break down the life cycle of the parasite.
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Higes M, Meana A, Bartolomé C, Botías C, Martín-Hernández R. Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia), a controversial 21st century honey bee pathogen. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2013; 5:17-29. [PMID: 23757127 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.12024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2012] [Revised: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The worldwide beekeeping sector has been facing a grave threat, with losses up to 100-1000 times greater than those previously reported. Despite the scale of this honey bee mortality, the causes underlying this phenomenon remain unclear, yet they are thought to be multifactorial processes. Nosema ceranae, a microsporidium recently detected in the European bee all over the world, has been implicated in the global phenomenon of colony loss, although its role remains controversial. A review of the current knowledge about this pathogen is presented focussing on discussion related with divergent results, trying to analyse the differences specially based on different methodologies applied and divisive aspects on pathology while considering a biological or veterinarian point of view. For authors, the disease produced by N. ceranae infection cannot be considered a regional problem but rather a global one, as indicated by the wide prevalence of this parasite in multiple hosts. Not only does this type of nosemosis causes a clear pathology on honeybees at both the individual and colony levels, but it also has significant effects on the production of honeybee products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariano Higes
- Centro Apícola Regional CAR, Dirección General de la Producción Agropecuaria, Consejería de Agricultura, Junta de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain.
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Dussaubat C, Brunet JL, Higes M, Colbourne JK, Lopez J, Choi JH, Martín-Hernández R, Botías C, Cousin M, McDonnell C, Bonnet M, Belzunces LP, Moritz RFA, Le Conte Y, Alaux C. Gut pathology and responses to the microsporidium Nosema ceranae in the honey bee Apis mellifera. PLoS One 2012; 7:e37017. [PMID: 22623972 PMCID: PMC3356400 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The microsporidium Nosema ceranae is a newly prevalent parasite of the European honey bee (Apis mellifera). Although this parasite is presently spreading across the world into its novel host, the mechanisms by it which affects the bees and how bees respond are not well understood. We therefore performed an extensive characterization of the parasite effects at the molecular level by using genetic and biochemical tools. The transcriptome modifications at the midgut level were characterized seven days post-infection with tiling microarrays. Then we tested the bee midgut response to infection by measuring activity of antioxidant and detoxification enzymes (superoxide dismutases, glutathione peroxidases, glutathione reductase, and glutathione-S-transferase). At the gene-expression level, the bee midgut responded to N. ceranae infection by an increase in oxidative stress concurrent with the generation of antioxidant enzymes, defense and protective response specifically observed in the gut of mammals and insects. However, at the enzymatic level, the protective response was not confirmed, with only glutathione-S-transferase exhibiting a higher activity in infected bees. The oxidative stress was associated with a higher transcription of sugar transporter in the gut. Finally, a dramatic effect of the microsporidia infection was the inhibition of genes involved in the homeostasis and renewal of intestinal tissues (Wnt signaling pathway), a phenomenon that was confirmed at the histological level. This tissue degeneration and prevention of gut epithelium renewal may explain early bee death. In conclusion, our integrated approach not only gives new insights into the pathological effects of N. ceranae and the bee gut response, but also demonstrate that the honey bee gut is an interesting model system for studying host defense responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Dussaubat
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, Site Agroparc, Avignon, France
| | - Jean-Luc Brunet
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, Site Agroparc, Avignon, France
| | - Mariano Higes
- Bee Pathology Laboratory, Centro Apícola Regional, JCCM, Marchamalo, Spain
| | - John K. Colbourne
- The Centre for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Jacqueline Lopez
- The Centre for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Jeong-Hyeon Choi
- The Centre for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | | | - Cristina Botías
- Bee Pathology Laboratory, Centro Apícola Regional, JCCM, Marchamalo, Spain
| | - Marianne Cousin
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, Site Agroparc, Avignon, France
| | - Cynthia McDonnell
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, Site Agroparc, Avignon, France
| | - Marc Bonnet
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, Site Agroparc, Avignon, France
| | - Luc P. Belzunces
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, Site Agroparc, Avignon, France
| | - Robin F. A. Moritz
- Institut für Biologie, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Yves Le Conte
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, Site Agroparc, Avignon, France
| | - Cédric Alaux
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, Site Agroparc, Avignon, France
- * E-mail:
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