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Elder J, Wilson L, Calanchini J. Estimating the Reliability and Stability of Cognitive Processes Contributing to Responses on the Implicit Association Test. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2024; 50:1451-1470. [PMID: 37204215 PMCID: PMC11367805 DOI: 10.1177/01461672231171256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Implicit measures were initially assumed to assess stable individual differences, but other perspectives posit that they reflect context-dependent processes. This pre-registered research investigates whether the processes contributing to responses on the race Implicit Association Test are temporally stable and reliably measured using multinomial processing tree modeling. We applied two models-the Quad model and the Process Dissociation Procedure-to six datasets (N = 2,036), each collected over two occasions, examined the within-measurement reliability and between-measurement stability of model parameters, and meta-analyzed the results. Parameters reflecting accuracy-oriented processes demonstrate adequate stability and reliability, which suggests these processes are relatively stable within individuals. Parameters reflecting evaluative associations demonstrate poor stability but modest reliability, which suggests that associations are either context-dependent or stable but noisily measured. These findings suggest that processes contributing to racial bias on implicit measures differ in temporal stability, which has practical implications for predicting behavior using the Implicit Association Test.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Liz Wilson
- University of California, Riverside, USA
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2
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Chenot Q, Hamery C, Truninger M, Langer N, De Boissezon X, Scannella S. Investigating the relationship between resting-state EEG microstates and executive functions: A null finding. Cortex 2024; 178:1-17. [PMID: 38954985 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2024.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Recent advances in cognitive neurosciences suggest that intrinsic brain networks dynamics are associated with cognitive functioning. Despite this emerging perspective, limited research exists to validate this hypothesis. This Registered Report aimed to specifically test the relationship between intrinsic brain spatio-temporal dynamics and executive functions. Resting-state EEG microstates were used to assess brain spatio-temporal dynamics, while a comprehensive battery of nine cognitive function tasks was employed to evaluate executive functions in 140 participants. We hypothesized that microstates (class C and D) metrics would correlate with an executive functions composite score. Contrary to expectations, our hypotheses were not supported by the data. We however observed a small, non-significant trend with a negative correlation between microstate D occurrences and executive functions scores (r = -.18, 95% CI [-.33, -.01]) which however did not meet the adjusted threshold for significance. In light of the inconclusive or minor effect sizes observed, the assertion that intrinsic brain networks dynamics - as measured by resting-state EEG microstate metrics - are a reliable signature of executive functioning remains unsupported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Chenot
- Fédération ENAC ISAE-SUPAERO ONERA, Université de Toulouse, France.
| | - Caroline Hamery
- Fédération ENAC ISAE-SUPAERO ONERA, Université de Toulouse, France
| | - Moritz Truninger
- Methods of Plasticity Research, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Langer
- Methods of Plasticity Research, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Xavier De Boissezon
- UMR 1214-Inserm, UPS-ToNIC, Toulouse NeuroImaging Center, Université de Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Pavillon Baudot, Toulouse, France; Department of Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine, Pôle Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse CHU, Toulouse, France
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3
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Roth L, Jordan V, Schwarz S, Willmes K, Nuerk HC, van Dijck JP, Cipora K. Don't SNARC me now! Intraindividual variability of cognitive phenomena - Insights from the Ironman paradigm. Cognition 2024; 248:105781. [PMID: 38663115 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Two implicit generalizations are often made from group-level studies in cognitive experimental psychology and their common statistical analysis in the general linear model: (1) Group-level phenomena are assumed to be present in every participant with variations between participants being often treated as random error in data analyses; (2) phenomena are assumed to be stable over time. In this preregistered study, we investigated the validity of these generalizations in the commonly used parity judgment task. In the proposed Ironman paradigm, the intraindividual presence and stability of three popular numerical cognition effects were tested in 10 participants on 30 days: the SNARC (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes, i.e., faster left-/right-sided responses to small/large magnitude numbers, respectively; Dehaene, Bossini, & Giraux, 1993), MARC (Linguistic Markedness of Response Codes; i.e., faster left-/right-sided responses to odd/even numbers, respectively; Nuerk, Iversen, & Willmes, 2004), and Odd (i.e., faster responses to even numbers; Hines, 1990) effects. We replicated the group-level effects; however, they were reliably present in only four to five (SNARC), six (MARC) or five (Odd) of 10 participants. Fluctuations seemed unsystematic, although the SNARC effect decreased over time along with reaction times. No correlation between the SNARC and MARC effects and sleep duration, tiredness, daytime, and consumption of stimulants were detected in most participants. These results challenge the frequent generalizations from group-level phenomena to individual participants and from single sessions to typical behavior. The innovative Ironman paradigm combined with bootstrap analyses permits unique insights into the intraindividual presence and stability of cognitive phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilly Roth
- Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Verena Jordan
- Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen, Germany.
| | | | - Klaus Willmes
- Department of Neurology, University Clinic, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Hans-Christoph Nuerk
- Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen, Germany; LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Germany; German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Germany.
| | - Jean-Philippe van Dijck
- Department of Applied Psychology, Thomas More University, Antwerp, Belgium; Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Krzysztof Cipora
- Centre for Mathematical Cognition, Loughborough University, United Kingdom.
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Tai YH, Nwachukwu PTT, LePage BA, Fang WT. Examining customer intentions to purchase intelligent robotic products and services in Taiwan using the theory of planned behaviour. BMC Psychol 2024; 12:351. [PMID: 38879510 PMCID: PMC11179284 DOI: 10.1186/s40359-024-01683-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/19/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The literature for assessing online and offline shopping behaviours that are linked to intelligent robotic goods and services is inadequate. In this study, we applied the Theory of Planned Behaviour model for guidance regarding how consumer behaviour affects their purchase intentions for intelligent robotic goods and services. METHODS Data from 408 respondents were gathered through an online questionnaire binned into Online and Overall Shoppers, and analysed using SPSS, AMOS, and Covariance-Based Structural Equation Modelling software to evaluate the appropriateness of the measurements and to confirm data reliability, convergence, divergence, and validity. These tools were also used to track and test hypothesized relationships between the variables and model constructs used in this study. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The overarching outcomes from the data analyses indicated the Ease of Usage, Brand Perception, and Product Pricing variables causally impacted the TPB model constructs, namely Attitude, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behaviour Control for the two populations tested with respect to their intention to purchase intelligent robotic goods and services. The reliability measurements for Ease of Usage, Brand Perception, and Product Pricing are discussed. The results are important for companies and future investors because opportunities to study the complex relationships that ultimately drive consumer behaviour and their intention to purchase intelligent robotic goods and services are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Hung Tai
- London Graduate School, University of Chichester, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 6PE, UK
- Douglas Business School, Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong, P.R. China
| | - Precious Toby T Nwachukwu
- Department of Educational Management and Policy Studies, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Graduate Institute of Sustainability Management and Environmental Education, College of Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ben A LePage
- Graduate Institute of Sustainability Management and Environmental Education, College of Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Academy of Natural Sciences, 1900 Benjamin Franklin Parkway, Philadelphia, PA, 19103, USA
| | - Wei-Ta Fang
- Graduate Institute of Sustainability Management and Environmental Education, College of Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Unsworth N, Miller AL, Strayer DL. Individual differences in attention control: A meta-analysis and re-analysis of latent variable studies. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02516-1. [PMID: 38769271 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02516-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
A meta-analysis and re-analysis of prior latent variable studies was conducted in order to assess whether there is evidence for individual differences in broad attention control abilities. Data from 90 independent samples and over 23,000 participants suggested that most (84.4%) prior studies find evidence for a coherent attention control factor with average factor loadings of .51. This latent attention control factor was related to other cognitive ability factors including working memory, shifting, fluid intelligence, long-term memory, reading comprehension, and processing speed, as well as to self-reports of task-unrelated thoughts and task specific motivation. Further re-analyses and meta-analyses suggest that the results remained largely unchanged when considering various possible measurement issues. Examining the factor structure of attention control suggested evidence for sub-components of attention control (restraining, constraining and sustaining attention) which could be accounted for a by a higher-order factor. Additional re-analyses suggested that attention control represents a broad ability within models of cognitive abilities. Overall, these results provide evidence for attention control abilities as an important individual differences construct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nash Unsworth
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 97403, USA.
| | - Ashley L Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Deanna L Strayer
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 97403, USA
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Littman R, Hochman S, Kalanthroff E. Reliable affordances: A generative modeling approach for test-retest reliability of the affordances task. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:1984-1993. [PMID: 37127802 PMCID: PMC10150680 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02131-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The affordances task serves as an important tool for the assessment of cognition and visuomotor functioning, and yet its test-retest reliability has not been established. In the affordances task, participants attend to a goal-directed task (e.g., classifying manipulable objects such as cups and pots) while suppressing their stimulus-driven, irrelevant reactions afforded by these objects (e.g., grasping their handles). This results in cognitive conflicts manifesting at the task level and the response level. In the current study, we assessed the reliability of the affordances task for the first time. While doing so, we referred to the "reliability paradox," according to which behavioral tasks that produce highly replicable group-level effects often yield low test-retest reliability due to the inadequacy of traditional correlation methods in capturing individual differences between participants. Alongside the simple test-retest correlations, we employed a Bayesian generative model that was recently demonstrated to result in a more precise estimation of test-retest reliability. Two hundred and ninety-five participants completed an online version of the affordances task twice, with a one-week gap. Performance on the online version replicated results obtained under in-lab administrations of the task. While the simple correlation method resulted in weak test-retest measures of the different effects, the generative model yielded a good reliability assessment. The current results support the utility of the affordances task as a reliable behavioral tool for the assessment of group-level and individual differences in cognitive and visuomotor functioning. The results further support the employment of generative modeling in the study of individual differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Littman
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, 91905, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Shachar Hochman
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, 91905, Jerusalem, Israel.
- Department of Psychology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
- School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK.
| | - Eyal Kalanthroff
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, 91905, Jerusalem, Israel
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Zainal NH, Jacobson NC. Reliability (or lack thereof) of smartphone ecological momentary assessment of visual dot probe attention bias toward threat indices. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2024; 82:101918. [PMID: 37907019 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2023.101918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Cognitive bias theories posit that generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) are entwined with attention bias toward threats, commonly indexed by faster response time (RT) on threat-congruent (vs. threat-incongruent) trials on the visual dot probe. Moreover, although smartphone ecological momentary assessment (EMA) of the visual dot probe has been developed, their psychometric properties are understudied. This study thus aimed to assess the reliability of 8 smartphone-delivered visual dot probe attention bias and related indices in persons with and without GAD and SAD. METHODS Community-dwelling adults (n = 819; GAD: 64%; SAD: 49%; Mixed GAD and SAD: 37%; Non-GAD/SAD Controls: 24%) completed a five-trial smartphone-delivered visual dot probe for a median of 60 trials (12 sessions x 5 trials/session) and an average of 100 trials (20 sessions x 5 trials/session). RESULTS As hypothesized, Global Attention Bias Index, Disengagement Effect, and Facilitation Bias had low-reliability estimates. However, retest-reliability and internal reliability were good for Trial-Level Bias Scores (TLBS) (Bias Toward Treat: intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) = 0.626-0.644; split-half r = 0.640-0.670; Attention Bias Variability: ICCs = 0.507-0.567; split-half r = 0.520-0.580) and (In)congruent RTs. Poor retest-reliability and internal reliability estimates were consistently observed for all traditional attention bias and related indices but not TLBS. LIMITATIONS Our visual dot probe EMA should have administered ≥320 trials to match best-practice guidelines based on similar laboratory studies. CONCLUSIONS Future research should strive to examine attention bias paradigms beyond the dot-probe task that evidenced meaningful test-retest reliability properties in laboratory and real-world naturalistic settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Hani Zainal
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Health Care Policy, USA; National University of Singapore, Department of Psychology, Singapore.
| | - Nicholas C Jacobson
- Center for Technology and Behavioral Health, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, USA
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Draheim C, Tshukara JS, Engle RW. Replication and extension of the toolbox approach to measuring attention control. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:2135-2157. [PMID: 37253957 PMCID: PMC10228888 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02140-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
There is an increasing consensus among researchers that traditional attention tasks do not validly index the attentional mechanisms that they are often used to assess. We recently tested and validated several existing, modified, and new tasks and found that accuracy-based and adaptive tasks were more reliable and valid measures of attention control than traditional ones, which typically rely on speeded responding and/or contrast comparisons in the form of difference scores (Draheim et al. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(2), 242-275, 2021). With these improved measures, we found that attention control fully mediated the working memory capacity-fluid intelligence relationship, a novel finding that we argued has significant theoretical implications. The present study was both a follow-up and extension to this "toolbox approach" to measuring attention control. Here, we tested updated versions of several attention control tasks in a new dataset (N = 301) and found, with one exception, that these tasks remain strong indicators of attention control. The present study also replicated two important findings: (1) that attention control accounted for nearly all the variance in the relationship between working memory capacity and fluid intelligence, and (2) that the strong association found between attention control and other cognitive measures is not because the attention control tasks place strong demands on processing speed. These findings show that attention control can be measured as a reliable and valid individual differences construct, and that attention control shares substantial variance with other executive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason S Tshukara
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Randall W Engle
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Snijder JP, Tang R, Bugg JM, Conway ARA, Braver TS. On the psychometric evaluation of cognitive control tasks: An Investigation with the Dual Mechanisms of Cognitive Control (DMCC) battery. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:1604-1639. [PMID: 37040066 PMCID: PMC10088767 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02111-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
The domain of cognitive control has been a major focus of experimental, neuroscience, and individual differences research. Currently, however, no theory of cognitive control successfully unifies both experimental and individual differences findings. Some perspectives deny that there even exists a unified psychometric cognitive control construct to be measured at all. These shortcomings of the current literature may reflect the fact that current cognitive control paradigms are optimized for the detection of within-subject experimental effects rather than individual differences. In the current study, we examine the psychometric properties of the Dual Mechanisms of Cognitive Control (DMCC) task battery, which was designed in accordance with a theoretical framework that postulates common sources of within-subject and individual differences variation. We evaluated both internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and for the latter, utilized both classical test theory measures (i.e., split-half methods, intraclass correlation) and newer hierarchical Bayesian estimation of generative models. Although traditional psychometric measures suggested poor reliability, the hierarchical Bayesian models indicated a different pattern, with good to excellent test-retest reliability in almost all tasks and conditions examined. Moreover, within-task, between-condition correlations were generally increased when using the Bayesian model-derived estimates, and these higher correlations appeared to be directly linked to the higher reliability of the measures. In contrast, between-task correlations remained low regardless of theoretical manipulations or estimation approach. Together, these findings highlight the advantages of Bayesian estimation methods, while also pointing to the important role of reliability in the search for a unified theory of cognitive control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Paul Snijder
- Department of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Rongxiang Tang
- Department of Psychology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Julie M Bugg
- Department of Psychology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Andrew R A Conway
- Division of Behavioral & Organizational Sciences, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA, USA
| | - Todd S Braver
- Department of Psychology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Kim AJ, Grégoire L, Anderson BA. Reliably Measuring Learning-Dependent Distractor Suppression with Eye Tracking. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.23.581757. [PMID: 38464286 PMCID: PMC10925086 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.23.581757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
In the field of psychological science, behavioral performance in computer-based cognitive tasks often exhibits poor reliability. The absence of reliable measures of cognitive processes contributes to non-reproducibility in the field and impedes investigation of individual differences. Specifically in visual search paradigms, response time-based measures have shown poor test-retest reliability and internal consistency across attention capture and distractor suppression, but one study has demonstrated the potential for oculomotor measures to exhibit superior reliability. Therefore, in this study, we investigated three datasets to compare the reliability of learning-dependent distractor suppression measured via distractor fixations (oculomotor capture) and latency to fixate the target (fixation times). Our findings reveal superior split-half reliability of oculomotor capture compared to that of fixation times regardless of the critical distractor comparison, with the reliability of oculomotor capture in most cases falling within the range that is acceptable for the investigation of individual differences. We additionally find that older adults have superior oculomotor reliability compared with young adults, potentially addressing a significant limitation in the aging literature of high variability in response time measures due to slower responses. Our findings highlight the utility of measuring eye movements in the pursuit of reliable indicators of distractor processing and the need to further test and develop additional measures in other sensory domains to maximize statistical power, reliability, and reproducibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy J Kim
- University of Southern California, School of Gerontology
| | - Laurent Grégoire
- Texas A&M University, Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences
| | - Brian A Anderson
- Texas A&M University, Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences
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Yangüez M, Raine L, Chanal J, Bavelier D, Hillman CH. Aerobic fitness and academic achievement: Disentangling the indirect role of executive functions and intelligence. PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT AND EXERCISE 2024; 70:102514. [PMID: 37683338 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Research in children points to aerobic fitness as a source of individual differences in academic achievement. By examining the indirect effects of executive functions (EF) and intelligence on the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic achievement, the present study provides novel insight about the cognitive mechanisms underlying this relationship. 218 children (8-10 years) completed the following assessments: (i) a VO2max test to assess aerobic fitness; (ii) four tasks tapping components of EF (i.e., inhibition and cognitive flexibility); (iii) sub-tests of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test to assess fluid and crystallized intelligence; and (iv) sub-tests of arithmetic, spelling, and reading achievement (WRAT 3rd edition). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to examine the indirect role of EF and intelligence on the relationship between aerobic fitness and sub-domains of academic achievement. Covariate analyses included age, pubertal timing, and socio-economic status. Preliminary analysis via linear regression showed a direct effect of aerobic fitness on arithmetic achievement, whereas no effect was observed on spelling and reading achievement. Importantly, multiple mediation SEM revealed the direct effect of aerobic fitness on arithmetic achievement disappeared after accounting for the indirect effects of EF, whereas intelligence did not contribute significantly on this complex mediation process. Moreover, among EF components, cognitive flexibility, was the main driver of the relationship between aerobic fitness and arithmetic achievement. Unpacking which components of EF and intelligence affect the link between aerobic fitness and academic achievement, holds the promise of better understanding the heterogeneity still present in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Yangüez
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Campus Biotech, University of Geneva, Switzerland.
| | | | - Julien Chanal
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Distance Learning University, Brig, Switzerland.
| | - Daphne Bavelier
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Campus Biotech, University of Geneva, Switzerland.
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12
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Iglesias-Sarmiento V, Carriedo N, Rodríguez-Villagra OA, Pérez L. Executive functioning skills and (low) math achievement in primary and secondary school. J Exp Child Psychol 2023; 235:105715. [PMID: 37307647 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Schoolchildren with better executive functioning skills achieve better mathematics results. It is less clear how inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory combine to predict mathematics achievement and difficulty throughout primary and secondary school. This study aimed to find the best combination of executive function measures for predicting mathematical achievement in Grades 2, 6, and 10 and to test whether this combination predicts the probability of having mathematical difficulties across school grades even when fluid intelligence and processing speed were included in the models. A total of 426 students-141 2nd graders (72 girls), 143 6th graders (72 girls), and 142 10th graders (79 girls)-were cross-sectionally assessed with 12 executive tasks, one standardized mathematical task, and a standardized test of intelligence. Bayesian regression analyses found various combinations of executive predictors of mathematical achievement for each school grade spanning Grade 2 to measures of cognitive inhibition (negative priming) and cognitive flexibility (verbal fluency); Grade 6 to measures of inhibition: resistance to distractor interference (receptive attention), cognitive flexibility (local-global), and working memory (counting span); and Grade 10 to measures of inhibition: resistance to distractor interference (receptive attention) and prepotent response inhibition (stop signal) and working memory (reading span). Logistic regression showed that the executive models derived from the Bayesian analyses had a similar ability to classify students with mathematical difficulty and their peers with typical achievement to broader cognitive models that included fluid intelligence and processing speed. Measures of processing speed, cognitive flexibility (local-global), and prepotent response inhibition (stop signal) were the main risk factors in Grades 2, 6, and 10, respectively. Cognitive flexibility (verbal fluency) in Grade 2 and fluid intelligence, which was more stable in all three grades, acted as protective factors against mathematical difficulty. These findings inform practical considerations for establishing preventive and intervention proposals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentín Iglesias-Sarmiento
- Department of Evolutionary Psychology and Communication, University of Vigo, Campus Universitario de Ourense, 32004, Vigo, Spain
| | - Nuria Carriedo
- Departamento de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, National Distance Education University (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Odir A Rodríguez-Villagra
- Institute for Psychological Research, University of Costa Rica, San José, 11501-2060, Costa Rica; Neuroscience Research Center, University of Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica
| | - Leire Pérez
- Department of Evolutionary Psychology and Communication, University of Vigo, Campus Universitario de Ourense, 32004, Vigo, Spain
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Wray C, Kowalski AJ, Mpondo F, Ochaeta L, Belleza D, DiGirolamo A, Waford R, Richter L, Lee N, Scerif G, Stein A, Stein AD. Contrasting speed and accuracy approaches to measure executive functions in three low-and middle-income countries. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0290238. [PMID: 37651434 PMCID: PMC10470922 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Executive functions (EF) can be measured by tests assessing accuracy, reaction times and by computing scores which combine these two components. Interpretation issues can arise from the use of different scoring methods across studies. Given that EF measures and their scoring methods are predominantly developed and validated in high income countries, little is known about the generalisability of such methods cross- culturally. The current paper compares two different established scoring approaches for measures of inhibition and cognitive flexibility: difference scores (which utilise reaction time only) and computed scores (combining accuracy and reaction time). We utilised data collected in adulthood from three low- and middle-income birth cohorts (Guatemala, Philippines, South Africa). Non-normal distributions were observed for both scoring methods in all three samples; however, this was more pronounced for the difference score method. Differing distribution patterns were observed across the three cohorts, which was especially evident in the Guatemala cohort, highlighting potential issues with using these methods across diverse populations. The data suggest that the computed scores may be a reliable measure of EF. However, the different ways of scoring and interpreting EF instruments need to be considered carefully for each population before use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Wray
- Department of Psychiatry, the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alysse J. Kowalski
- Nutrition and Health Sciences Program, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Feziwe Mpondo
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Human Development at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Laura Ochaeta
- Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama, Guatemala City, Guatemala
| | - Delia Belleza
- Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of San Carlos, Cebu, Philippines
| | - Ann DiGirolamo
- Georgia Health Policy Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Rachel Waford
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Linda Richter
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Human Development at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Nanette Lee
- USC-Office of Population Studies Foundation, Inc., University of San Carlos, Cebu, the Philippines
| | - Gaia Scerif
- Department of Experimental Psychology, the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Stein
- Department of Psychiatry, the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- African Health Research Institute, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa
- MRC/Wits Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Aryeh D. Stein
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
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14
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Recker L, Poth CH. Test-retest reliability of eye tracking measures in a computerized Trail Making Test. J Vis 2023; 23:15. [PMID: 37594452 PMCID: PMC10445213 DOI: 10.1167/jov.23.8.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The Trail Making Test (TMT) is a frequently applied neuropsychological test that evaluates participants' executive functions based on their time to connect a sequence of numbers (TMT-A) or alternating numbers and letters (TMT-B). Test performance is associated with various cognitive functions ranging from visuomotor speed to working memory capabilities. However, although the test can screen for impaired executive functioning in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders, it provides only little information about which specific cognitive impairments underlie performance detriments. To resolve this lack of specificity, recent cognitive research combined the TMT with eye tracking so that eye movements could help uncover reasons for performance impairments. However, using eye-tracking-based test scores to examine differences between persons, and ultimately apply the scores for diagnostics, presupposes that the reliability of the scores is established. Therefore, we investigated the test-retest reliabilities of scores in an eye-tracking version of the TMT recently introduced by Recker et al. (2022). We examined two healthy samples performing an initial test and then a retest 3 days (n = 31) or 10 to 30 days (n = 34) later. Results reveal that, although reliabilities of classic completion times were overall good, comparable with earlier versions, reliabilities of eye-tracking-based scores ranged from excellent (e.g., durations of fixations) to poor (e.g., number of fixations guiding manual responses). These findings indicate that some eye-tracking measures offer a strong basis for assessing interindividual differences beyond classic behavioral measures when examining processes related to information accumulation processes but are less suitable to diagnose differences in eye-hand coordination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Recker
- Neuro-Cognitive Psychology and Center for Cognitive Interaction Technology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
- https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8465-9643
- https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/fakultaeten/psychologie/abteilung/arbeitseinheiten/01/people/scientificstaff/recker/
| | - Christian H Poth
- Neuro-Cognitive Psychology and Center for Cognitive Interaction Technology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
- https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1621-4911
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15
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Zorowitz S, Niv Y. Improving the Reliability of Cognitive Task Measures: A Narrative Review. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2023; 8:789-797. [PMID: 36842498 PMCID: PMC10440239 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2023.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/28/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive tasks are capable of providing researchers with crucial insights into the relationship between cognitive processing and psychiatric phenomena. However, many recent studies have found that task measures exhibit poor reliability, which hampers their usefulness for individual differences research. Here, we provide a narrative review of approaches to improve the reliability of cognitive task measures. Specifically, we introduce a taxonomy of experiment design and analysis strategies for improving task reliability. Where appropriate, we highlight studies that are exemplary for improving the reliability of specific task measures. We hope that this article can serve as a helpful guide for experimenters who wish to design a new task, or improve an existing one, to achieve sufficient reliability for use in individual differences research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Zorowitz
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey.
| | - Yael Niv
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey; Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey.
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16
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Garcia-Marques T, Fernandes A. How Does the Presence of Others Influence Control Inhibition? Contradictory Evidence Using an Antisaccade and Stop Signal Task. Psychol Rep 2023:332941231153328. [PMID: 36656260 DOI: 10.1177/00332941231153328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Inhibitory control (IC) is defined as the (in)ability to change, suppress, or delay a response that is no longer required under the current circumstances. This ability was previously argued to increase in social contexts, based on Stroop's performance, showing that participants performed the Stroop task better in others' presence than alone. In this paper, we extend the testing of this same hypothesis to the use of two other tasks that Mitake et al. (2000) show to grasp the same IC ability; the Antisaccade and Stop signal tasks. If Stroop's performance was capturing the impact of the presence of others on CI abilities, the effect would generalize to performance on these tasks. This hypothesis was only generally supported by stop signal task performance; those in the presence condition were significantly more efficient than those in the alone conditions. For the Antisaccade tasks, evidence shows that higher levels of interference occurs in the presence of others condition for participants' fastest responses We discuss how this evidence contributes to the literature suggesting that the two tasks may index different constructs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alexandre Fernandes
- William James Center of Research, ISPA-Instituto Universitário, Lisbon, Portugal
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17
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Rocabado F, Duñabeitia JA. Assessing Inhibitory Control in the Real World Is Virtually Possible: A Virtual Reality Demonstration. Behav Sci (Basel) 2022; 12:444. [PMID: 36421740 PMCID: PMC9687711 DOI: 10.3390/bs12110444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Executive functions are the key ingredient for behaviour regulation. Among them, inhibitory control is one of the main exponents of executive functions, and in the last decades, it has received a good amount of attention thanks to the development of chronometric tasks associated with paradigms that allow exploring human behaviour when the inhibitory component is needed. Among the different paradigms typically used, the Simon and flanker tasks are probably the most popular ones. These have been subjected to modifications in order to assess inhibitory control from different perspectives (e.g., in different samples or in combination with different research techniques). However, its use has been relegated to classical presentation modalities within laboratory settings. The accessibility of virtual reality (VR) technology has opened new research avenues to investigate inhibition control with a high ecological validity while retaining tightly controlled lab conditions and good measurement accuracy. We present two cutting-edge modifications of the standard Simon and flanker tasks that have been adapted to real-world settings using VR and human-like avatars as target stimuli. Our findings show that virtual reality is a credible tool for testing inhibitory control with a high degree of transferability and generalizability to the real world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Rocabado
- Centro de Investigación Nebrija en Cognición (CINC), Facultad de Lenguas y Educación, Universidad Nebrija, 28248 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jon Andoni Duñabeitia
- Centro de Investigación Nebrija en Cognición (CINC), Facultad de Lenguas y Educación, Universidad Nebrija, 28248 Madrid, Spain
- AcqVA Aurora Center, Department of Languages and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
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18
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Jensen DA, Lundervold AJ, Stubberud J, Halmøy A, Haavik J, Sørensen L. Goal management training improves executive control in adults with ADHD: an open trial employing attention network theory to examine effects on attention. BMC Psychol 2022; 10:207. [PMID: 36028907 PMCID: PMC9414421 DOI: 10.1186/s40359-022-00902-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) typically experience poorer attentional control. According to the attention network theory, attentional control relies on three interacting networks of alerting, orienting, and executive control. In ADHD, it is mainly the alerting and executive control networks that are suggested and found to be compromised. Methods In the current study, we investigated if a group-based metacognitive remediation program (Goal Management Training [GMT]) in adults with ADHD would enhance attentional control using an experimental measure of the attention network theory. We expected that GMT would specifically enhance the executive control and alerting networks. Results Data from post- and follow up-assessments of 21 adults (age: 39.05 [11.93]) with ADHD who had completed GMT were included. Linear mixed-effects modeling revealed significant improvements in the functioning of the executive control network for the majority of the participants, although a small subset of participants showed a negative development following the intervention. Results also showed an improvement in the orienting network at follow up, but no change in the alerting network. Conclusion The results may indicate that improvements in the functioning of the executive control network are central to the positive effects of GMT reported in disorders characterized by impaired attentional control. Trial registration: The study was retrospectively registered in the ISRCTN (Identifier: ISRCTN91988877) on the 18/01/2021. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-022-00902-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Jensen
- Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway. .,Division of Mental Health, Betanien Hospital, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Astri J Lundervold
- Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Jan Stubberud
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Research, Lovisenberg Diaconal Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anne Halmøy
- Division of Psychiatry, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Jan Haavik
- Division of Psychiatry, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Lin Sørensen
- Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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19
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Draheim C, Pak R, Draheim AA, Engle RW. The role of attention control in complex real-world tasks. Psychon Bull Rev 2022; 29:1143-1197. [PMID: 35167106 PMCID: PMC8853083 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-021-02052-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Working memory capacity is an important psychological construct, and many real-world phenomena are strongly associated with individual differences in working memory functioning. Although working memory and attention are intertwined, several studies have recently shown that individual differences in the general ability to control attention is more strongly predictive of human behavior than working memory capacity. In this review, we argue that researchers would therefore generally be better suited to studying the role of attention control rather than memory-based abilities in explaining real-world behavior and performance in humans. The review begins with a discussion of relevant literature on the nature and measurement of both working memory capacity and attention control, including recent developments in the study of individual differences of attention control. We then selectively review existing literature on the role of both working memory and attention in various applied settings and explain, in each case, why a switch in emphasis to attention control is warranted. Topics covered include psychological testing, cognitive training, education, sports, police decision-making, human factors, and disorders within clinical psychology. The review concludes with general recommendations and best practices for researchers interested in conducting studies of individual differences in attention control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Draheim
- Department of Psychology, Lawrence University, Appleton, WI, USA.
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Richard Pak
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Amanda A Draheim
- Department of Psychology, Lawrence University, Appleton, WI, USA
| | - Randall W Engle
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
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20
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Clark K, Birch-Hurst K, Pennington CR, Petrie ACP, Lee JT, Hedge C. Test-retest reliability for common tasks in vision science. J Vis 2022; 22:18. [PMID: 35904797 PMCID: PMC9344221 DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.8.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Research in perception and attention has typically sought to evaluate cognitive mechanisms according to the average response to a manipulation. Recently, there has been a shift toward appreciating the value of individual differences and the insight gained by exploring the impacts of between-participant variation on human cognition. However, a recent study suggests that many robust, well-established cognitive control tasks suffer from surprisingly low levels of test-retest reliability (Hedge, Powell, & Sumner, 2018b). We tested a large sample of undergraduate students (n = 160) in two sessions (separated by 1-3 weeks) on four commonly used tasks in vision science. We implemented measures that spanned a range of perceptual and attentional processes, including motion coherence (MoCo), useful field of view (UFOV), multiple-object tracking (MOT), and visual working memory (VWM). Intraclass correlations ranged from good to poor, suggesting that some task measures are more suitable for assessing individual differences than others. VWM capacity (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.77), MoCo threshold (ICC = 0.60), UFOV middle accuracy (ICC = 0.60), and UFOV outer accuracy (ICC = 0.74) showed good-to-excellent reliability. Other measures, namely the maximum number of items tracked in MOT (ICC = 0.41) and UFOV number accuracy (ICC = 0.48), showed moderate reliability; the MOT threshold (ICC = 0.36) and UFOV inner accuracy (ICC = 0.30) showed poor reliability. In this paper, we present these results alongside a summary of reliabilities estimated previously for other vision science tasks. We then offer useful recommendations for evaluating test-retest reliability when considering a task for use in evaluating individual differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kait Clark
- University of the West of England, Department of Social Sciences, Bristol, UK
- https://go.uwe.ac.uk/kaitclark
| | - Kayley Birch-Hurst
- University of the West of England, Department of Social Sciences, Bristol, UK
- https://go.uwe.ac.uk/kayleybirchhurst
| | - Charlotte R Pennington
- University of the West of England, Department of Social Sciences, Bristol, UK
- Aston University, School of Psychology, College of Health & Life Sciences, Birmingham, UK
- https://research.aston.ac.uk/en/persons/charlotte-rebecca-pennington
| | - Austin C P Petrie
- University of the West of England, Department of Social Sciences, Bristol, UK
- University of Sussex, School of Psychology, Sussex, UK
| | - Joshua T Lee
- University of the West of England, Department of Social Sciences, Bristol, UK
| | - Craig Hedge
- Aston University, School of Psychology, College of Health & Life Sciences, Birmingham, UK
- Cardiff University, School of Psychology, Cardiff, UK
- https://research.aston.ac.uk/en/persons/craig-hedge
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21
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Spontaneous mind-wandering tendencies linked to cognitive flexibility in young adults. Conscious Cogn 2022; 102:103335. [DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2022.103335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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22
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Inconsistent flanker congruency effects across stimulus types and age groups: A cautionary tale. Behav Res Methods 2022:10.3758/s13428-022-01889-2. [PMID: 35768744 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-022-01889-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The flanker task is a common measure of selective attention and response competition across populations, age groups, and experiential contexts. Adapting it for different uses often involves changing methodological features that are rarely empirically compared with the previous design. This paper presents an example of how typical methodological changes can differentially elicit congruency effects across age groups. We compared two flanker tasks, using direction stimuli on a laptop versus color stimuli on a tablet, in young children (2-7 years; Experiment 1), older children (6-10 years; Experiment 2a), and adults (19-23 years; Experiment 2b). Young children showed the expected congruency effects in the direction task, and one year later a subset of the sample completed the color task, also showing congruency effects. Longitudinal comparisons showed no difference in the congruency effect across tasks, but nearly half of the sample was excluded due to high error rates. To avoid excluding children with few correct trials, we modified a new measure, signed residual time, to incorporate correctness and reaction time per trial. With the larger sample, this measure showed no difference in congruency effects across tasks. To compare these tasks when completed within the same session, we tested older children and young adults in both tasks and found congruency effects in the direction task but not the color task. These results raise concern that tasks adapted for young children may not perform comparably in other samples, and we caution researchers to anticipate this possibility when modifying cognitive tasks.
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23
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Papastergiou A, Pappas V, Sanoudaki E. The executive function of bilingual and monolingual children: A technical efficiency approach. Behav Res Methods 2022; 54:1319-1345. [PMID: 34508285 PMCID: PMC9170628 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01658-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This paper introduces a novel approach to evaluate performance in the executive functioning skills of bilingual and monolingual children. This approach targets method- and analysis-specific issues in the field, which has reached an impasse (Antoniou et al., 2021). This study moves beyond the traditional approach towards bilingualism by using an array of executive functioning tasks and frontier methodologies, which allow us to jointly consider multiple tasks and metrics in a new measure; technical efficiency (TE). We use a data envelopment analysis technique to estimate TE for a sample of 32 Greek-English bilingual and 38 Greek monolingual children. In a second stage, we compare the TE of the groups using an ANCOVA, a bootstrap regression, and a k-means nearest-neighbour technique, while controlling for a range of background variables. Results show that bilinguals have superior TE compared to their monolingual counterparts, being around 6.5% more efficient. Robustness tests reveal that TE yields similar results to the more complex conventional MANCOVA analyses, while utilising information in a more efficient way. By using the TE approach on a relevant existing dataset, we further highlight TE's advantages compared to conventional analyses; not only does TE use a single measure, instead of two principal components, but it also allows more group observations as it accounts for differences between the groups by construction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Eirini Sanoudaki
- School of Languages, Literatures, Linguistics and Media, Bangor University, Bangor, UK
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24
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Luk G, Rothman J. Experience-based individual differences modulate language, mind and brain outcomes in multilinguals. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2022; 228:105107. [PMID: 35339040 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2022.105107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason Rothman
- UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Norway; Universidad Nebrija, Spain.
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25
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Anokhin AP, Luciana M, Banich M, Barch D, Bjork JM, Gonzalez MR, Gonzalez R, Haist F, Jacobus J, Lisdahl K, McGlade E, McCandliss B, Nagel B, Nixon SJ, Tapert S, Kennedy JT, Thompson W. Age-related changes and longitudinal stability of individual differences in ABCD Neurocognition measures. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2022; 54:101078. [PMID: 35123342 PMCID: PMC9019835 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2022.101078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Temporal stability of individual differences is an important prerequisite for accurate tracking of prospective relationships between neurocognition and real-world behavioral outcomes such as substance abuse and psychopathology. Here we report age-related changes and longitudinal test-retest stability (TRS) for the Neurocognition battery of the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, which included the NIH Toolbox (TB) Cognitive Domain and additional memory and visuospatial processing tests administered at baseline (ages 9-11) and two-year follow-up. As expected, performance improved significantly with age, but the effect size varied broadly, with Pattern Comparison and the Crystallized Cognition Composite showing the largest age-related gain (Cohen's d:.99 and.97, respectively). TRS ranged from fair (Flanker test: r = 0.44) to excellent (Crystallized Cognition Composite: r = 0.82). A comparison of longitudinal changes and cross-sectional age-related differences within baseline and follow-up assessments suggested that, for some measures, longitudinal changes may be confounded by practice effects and differences in task stimuli or procedure between baseline and follow-up. In conclusion, a subset of measures showed good stability of individual differences despite significant age-related changes, warranting their use as prospective predictors. However, caution is needed in the interpretation of observed longitudinal changes as indicators of neurocognitive development.
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26
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Luteijn PJ, van der Wurff ISM, Singh AS, Savelberg HHCM, de Groot RHM. The Acute Effects of Standing on Executive Functioning in Vocational Education and Training Students: The Phit2Learn Study. Front Psychol 2022; 13:810007. [PMID: 35369155 PMCID: PMC8968320 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.810007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Research suggests that sedentary behavior (SB) is negatively associated with cognitive outcomes. Interrupting prolonged sitting has been shown to improve cognitive functions, including executive functioning (EF), which is important for academic performance. No research has been conducted on the effect of standing on EF in VET students, who make up a large proportion of the adolescent population and who are known to sit more than other students of this age. In this study, we investigated the acute effects of reducing SB by short time standing on EF in vocational education and training (VET) students. In a randomized crossover study, 165 VET students were first taught for 15 min in seated position. After this, they performed while seated the Letter Memory Test for updating, and the Color Shape Test for shifting and inhibition. Students were randomly assigned to a sitting or standing condition. All students were taught again for 15 min and then took the same tests in the condition they were allocated to, respectively, standing or seated. After 1 week, the test procedure was repeated, in which students switched conditions. Mixed model analyses showed no significant effect of sitting or standing on updating, shifting, or inhibition. Also, no significant differences were found for the order of condition on updating, shifting, or inhibition. Our results suggest that 40 min of standing does not significantly influence EF among VET students.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra J. Luteijn
- Faculty of Educational Sciences, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Petra J. Luteijn,
| | | | | | - Hans H. C. M. Savelberg
- Department of Nutritional and Movement Sciences, NUTRIM, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism and SHE, School of Health Professions Education, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Renate H. M. de Groot
- Faculty of Educational Sciences, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, Netherlands
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27
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Burgoyne AP, Mashburn CA, Tsukahara JS, Engle RW. Attention control and process overlap theory: Searching for cognitive processes underpinning the positive manifold. INTELLIGENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2022.101629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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28
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Loyant L, Waller BM, Micheletta J, Joly M. Validation of a battery of inhibitory control tasks reveals a multifaceted structure in non-human primates. PeerJ 2022; 10:e12863. [PMID: 35186469 PMCID: PMC8840138 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Inhibitory control, the ability to override an inappropriate prepotent response, is crucial in many aspects of everyday life. However, the various paradigms designed to measure inhibitory control often suffer from a lack of systematic validation and have yielded mixed results. Thus the nature of this ability remains unclear, is it a general construct or a family of distinct sub-components? Therefore, the aim of this study was first to demonstrate the content validity and the temporal repeatability of a battery of inhibitory control tasks. Then we wanted to assess the contextual consistency of performances between these tasks to better understand the structure of inhibitory control. We tested 21 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta, 12 males, nine females) in a battery of touchscreen tasks assessing three main components of inhibitory control: inhibition of a distraction (using a Distraction task), inhibition of an impulsive action (using a Go/No-go task) and inhibition of a cognitive set (using a Reversal learning task). All tasks were reliable and effective at measuring the inhibition of a prepotent response. However, while there was consistency of performance between the inhibition of a distraction and the inhibition of an action, representing a response-driven basic form of inhibition, this was not found for the inhibition of a cognitive set. We argue that the inhibition of a cognitive set is a more cognitively demanding form of inhibition. This study gives a new insight in the multifaceted structure of inhibitory control and highlights the importance of a systematic validation of cognitive tasks in animal cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Loyant
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Hampshire, United Kingdom
| | - Bridget M. Waller
- Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Jérôme Micheletta
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Hampshire, United Kingdom
| | - Marine Joly
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Hampshire, United Kingdom
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29
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Abstract
Measuring selective attention in a speeded task can provide valuable insight into the concentration ability of an individual, and can inform neuropsychological assessment of attention in aging, traumatic brain injury, and in various psychiatric disorders. There are only a few tools to measure selective attention that are freely available, psychometrically validated, and can be used flexibly both for in-person and remote assessment. To address this gap, we developed a self-administrable, mobile-based test called “UCancellation” (University of California Cancellation), which was designed to assess selective attention and concentration and has two stimulus sets: Letters and Pictures. UCancellation takes less than 7 minutes to complete, is automatically scored, has multiple forms to allow repeated testing, and is compatible with a variety of iOS and Android devices. Here we report the results of a study that examined parallel-test reliability and convergent validity of UCancellation in a sample of 104 college students. UCancellation Letters and Pictures showed adequate parallel test reliability (r = .71–.83, p < 0.01) and internal consistency (ɑ = .73–.91). It also showed convergent validity with another widely used cancellation task, d2 Test of Attention (r = .43–.59, p < 0.01), and predicted performance on a cognitive control composite (r = .34–.41, p < 0.05). These results suggest that UCancellation is a valid test of selective attention and inhibitory control, which warrants further data collection to establish norms.
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Inhibition and Calendar Age Explain Variance in Game Performance of Youth Soccer Athletes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19031138. [PMID: 35162155 PMCID: PMC8834799 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19031138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The assessment of core executive functions (EFs; i.e., inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility) has often been presented as a diagnostic tool for evaluating cognitive functions in recent publications. For example, EFs are essential in soccer because players must quickly adapt, change strategies, and inhibit responses in rapidly changing game situations. Previous research has shown relations between (subjectively rated) game performance and the EFs of soccer players. Nevertheless, the previous studies' samples were heterogeneous in their performance level (experts vs. amateurs), and the ratings were rather unsystematic (no validated rating protocol). Therefore, the current study aimed to predict soccer players' game performance (i.e., systematically rated by coaches) with the help of EF performance. Therefore, we assessed the game performance (small-sided game, Game Performance Assessment Instrument [GPAI]) and EFs (inhibition: flanker task; working memory: 3-back task; cognitive flexibility: number-letter task) of 94 male soccer players (12-19 years old) from Germany's highest competitive level. Multiple regression model results indicate that inhibition (i.e., flanker effect) and calendar age explain ~18% of players' game performance variance. Results have to be interpreted with regard to the age-dependency of game performance and EFs. In conclusion, even though the results are based on a cross-sectional study, it appears that calendar age needs to be considered when assessing EFs.
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Schuch S, Philipp AM, Maulitz L, Koch I. On the reliability of behavioral measures of cognitive control: retest reliability of task-inhibition effect, task-preparation effect, Stroop-like interference, and conflict adaptation effect. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2021; 86:2158-2184. [PMID: 34921344 PMCID: PMC8683338 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-021-01627-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the reliability (retest and split-half) of four common behavioral measures of cognitive control. In Experiment 1 (N = 96), we examined N – 2 task repetition costs as a marker of task-level inhibition, and the cue-stimulus interval (CSI) effect as a marker of time-based task preparation. In Experiment 2 (N = 48), we examined a Stroop-like face-name interference effect as a measure of distractor interference control, and the sequential congruency effect (“conflict adaptation effect”) as a measure of conflict-triggered adaptation of cognitive control. In both experiments, the measures were assessed in two sessions on the same day, separated by a 10 min-long unrelated filler task. We observed substantial experimental effects with medium to large effect sizes. At the same time, split-half reliabilities were moderate, and retest reliabilities were poor, for most measures, except for the CSI effect. Retest reliability of the Stroop-like effect was improved when considering only trials preceded by congruent trials. Together, the data suggest that these cognitive control measures are well suited for assessing group-level effects of cognitive control. Yet, except for the CSI effect, these measures do not seem suitable for reliably assessing interindividual differences in the strength of cognitive control, and therefore are not suited for correlational approaches. We discuss possible reasons for the discrepancy between robustness at the group level and reliability at the level of interindividual differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Schuch
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Jaegerstrasse 17/19, 52066, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Andrea M Philipp
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Jaegerstrasse 17/19, 52066, Aachen, Germany
| | - Luisa Maulitz
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Jaegerstrasse 17/19, 52066, Aachen, Germany
| | - Iring Koch
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Jaegerstrasse 17/19, 52066, Aachen, Germany.
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Bruce SL, Wilkerson GB. Whole-Body Reactive Agility Metrics to Identify Football Players With a Core and Lower Extremity Injury Risk. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:733567. [PMID: 34746776 PMCID: PMC8564038 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.733567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical prediction models are useful in addressing several orthopedic conditions with various cohorts. American football provides a good population for attempting to predict injuries due to their relatively high injury rate. Physical performance can be assessed a variety of ways using an assortment of different tests to assess a diverse set of metrics, which may include reaction time, speed, acceleration, and deceleration. Asymmetry, the difference between right and left performance has been identified as a possible risk factor for injury. The purpose of this study was to determine the whole-body reactive agility metrics that would identify Division I football players who were at elevated risk for core, and lower extremity injuries (CLEI). This cohort study utilized 177 Division I football players with a total of 57 CLEI suffered who were baseline tested prior to the season. Single-task and dual-task whole-body reactive agility movements in lateral and diagonal direction reacting to virtual reality targets were analyzed separately. Receiver operator characteristic (ROC) analyses narrowed the 34 original predictor variables to five variables. Logistic regression analysis determined the three strongest predictors of CLEI for this cohort to be: lateral agility acceleration asymmetry, lateral flanker deceleration asymmetry, and diagonal agility reaction time average. Univariable analysis found odds ratios to range from 1.98 to 2.75 for these predictors of CLEI. ROC analysis had an area under the curve of 0.702 for any combination of two or more risk factors produced an odds ratio of 5.5 for risk of CLEI. These results suggest an asymmetry of 8-15% on two of the identified metrics or a slowed reaction time of ≥0.787 s places someone at increased risk of injury. Sixty-three percent (36/57) of the players who sustained an injury had ≥2 positive predictors In spite of the recognized limitation, these finding support the belief that whole-body reactive agility performance can identify Division I football players who are at elevated risk for CLEI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott L Bruce
- Masters of Athletic Training Program, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR, United States
| | - Gary B Wilkerson
- Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN, United States
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Loyant L, Waller BM, Micheletta J, Joly M. Heterogeneity of performances in several inhibitory control tasks: male rhesus macaques are more easily distracted than females. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:211564. [PMID: 34849250 PMCID: PMC8611350 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.211564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Inhibitory control, the ability to override a dominant response, is crucial in many aspects of everyday life. In animal studies, striking individual variations are often largely ignored and their causes rarely considered. Hence, our aims were to systematically investigate individual variability in inhibitory control, to replicate the most common causes of individual variation (age, sex and rank) and to determine if these factors had a consistent effect on three main components of inhibitory control (inhibition of a distraction, inhibition of an action, inhibition of a cognitive set). We tested 21 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in a battery of validated touchscreen tasks. We first found individual variations in all inhibitory control performances. We then demonstrated that males had poorer performances to inhibit a distraction and that middle-aged individuals exhibited poorer performance in the inhibition of a cognitive set. Hence, the factors of age and sex were not consistently associated with the main components of inhibitory control, suggesting a multi-faceted structure. The rank of the subjects did not influence any inhibitory control performances. This study adopts a novel approach for animal behaviour studies and gives new insight into the individual variability of inhibitory control which is crucial to understand its evolutionary underpinnings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Loyant
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, King Henry Building, Portsmouth PO1 2DY, UK
| | - Bridget M. Waller
- Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - Jérôme Micheletta
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, King Henry Building, Portsmouth PO1 2DY, UK
| | - Marine Joly
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, King Henry Building, Portsmouth PO1 2DY, UK
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The role of inhibitory control and ADHD symptoms in the occurrence of involuntary thoughts about the past and future: An individual differences study. Conscious Cogn 2021; 95:103208. [PMID: 34601354 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2021.103208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
In everyday life, people often experience involuntary thoughts about their personal past and future events in response to incidental cues in the environment. Yet, despite the abundance of such cues, our consciousness is not constantly flooded by these involuntary autobiographical memories (IAMs) and involuntary future thoughts (IFTs). The main goal of the present study was to further investigate the possibility that cognitive inhibitory control keeps these involuntary cognitions at bay. To test this inhibition hypothesis, we conducted a large-scale study (n = 157) in which groups of participants with different levels of inhibitory control (low, medium, high) and individuals with ADHD spectrum symptoms were engaged in a laboratory vigilance task in which the frequency of IFTs and IAMs was assessed. Contrary to predictions, although participants across groups differed significantly in terms of their individual inhibitory control capacity, the number of IFTs and IAMs reported during the vigilance task was comparable. In addition, individuals with the ADHD spectrum symptoms did not report more spontaneous thoughts compared to other groups. Together, these findings lend little support for the idea that inhibition is a key mechanism that regulates the occurrence of IAMs and IFTs in everyday life. Other possible mechanisms and avenues for future research are discussed.
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Schröder R, Baumert PM, Ettinger U. Replicability and reliability of the background and target velocity effects in smooth pursuit eye movements. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 219:103364. [PMID: 34245980 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
When we follow a slowly moving target with our eyes, we perform smooth pursuit eye movements (SPEM). Previous investigations point to significantly and robustly reduced SPEM performance in the presence of a stationary background and at higher compared to lower target velocities. However, the reliability of these background and target velocity effects has not yet been investigated systematically. To address this issue, 45 healthy participants (17 m, 28 f) took part in two experimental sessions 7 days apart. In each session, participants were instructed to follow a horizontal SPEM target moving sinusoidally between ±7.89° at three different target velocities, corresponding to frequencies of 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 Hz. Each target velocity was presented once with and once without a stationary background, resulting in six blocks. The blocks were presented twice per session in order to additionally explore potential task length effects. To assess SPEM performance, velocity gain was calculated as the ratio of eye to target velocity. In line with previous research, detrimental background and target velocity effects were replicated robustly in both sessions with large effect sizes. Good to excellent test-retest reliabilities were obtained at higher target velocities and in the presence of a stationary background, whereas lower reliabilities occurred with slower targets and in the absence of background stimuli. Target velocity and background effects resulted in largely good to excellent reliabilities. These findings not only replicated robust experimental effects of background and target velocity at group level, but also revealed that these effects can be translated into reliable individual difference measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekka Schröder
- Department of Psychology, University of Bonn, Kaiser-Karl-Ring 9, 53111 Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Ulrich Ettinger
- Department of Psychology, University of Bonn, Kaiser-Karl-Ring 9, 53111 Bonn, Germany.
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von Bastian CC. Are there Reliable Qualitative Individual Differences in Cognition? Probably Not. J Cogn 2021; 4:52. [PMID: 34514323 PMCID: PMC8396134 DOI: 10.5334/joc.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rouder and Haaf (2021, this issue) propose a focus shift toward qualitative individual differences in cognition and present a research toolkit for doing so. In this invited commentary, I will argue that the observation of qualitative individual differences may be no more than an indicator that more theoretical and empirical work needs to be done to identify the mechanisms and abilities underlying these individual differences in directionality. I will then move on to discuss how the toolkit can be used though to investigate one of the currently most central current topics in cognitive differential psychology, that is, the question over the existence of true quantitative individual differences in attentional control experimental effects. I conclude that, while highly valuable, no toolkit can save us from facing the challenging theoretical and conceptual questions in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia C. von Bastian
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Cathedral Court, 1 Vicar Lane, Sheffield S1 1HD, UK
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Shokrkon A, Nicoladis E. Absence of a bilingual cognitive flexibility advantage: A replication study in preschoolers. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0255157. [PMID: 34351985 PMCID: PMC8341632 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Some studies have found a bilingual advantage in children's executive function and some failed to find a bilingual advantage. For example, the results of a previous study by Bialystok & Martin (2004) indicated that Chinese-English bilingual preschool children outperformed English monolingual children in solving the dimensional change card sort (DCCS). The goal of our study was to replicate this study using the same dimensional change card sort task. We also tested our participants on vocabulary and digit span. Our participants were 40 English monolingual and 40 Mandarin-English bilingual children and were within the same age range as the children in Bialystok & Martin's (2004) study. Our results showed no difference between bilinguals and monolinguals. Both groups of children in the present study performed better than those in Bialystok and Martin (2004), but the bigger difference was between the two groups of monolinguals. These results suggest that it could be important to attend to monolingual children's performance, in addition to bilinguals', when testing for a bilingual advantage. Our replication study is important because it helps with clarifying the validity of studies finding a bilingual advantage and to help future researchers know whether to build on their findings or not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anahita Shokrkon
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Elena Nicoladis
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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Learning from atypical development: A systematic review of executive functioning in children and adolescents with the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2021.100962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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A revised instrument for the assessment of empathy and Theory of Mind in adolescents: Introducing the EmpaToM-Y. Behav Res Methods 2021; 53:2487-2501. [PMID: 33948924 PMCID: PMC8613142 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01589-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Empathy and Theory of Mind (ToM) are two core components of social understanding. The EmpaToM is a validated social video task that allows for independent manipulation and assessment of the two capacities. First applications revealed that empathy and ToM are dissociable constructs on a neuronal as well as on a behavioral level. As the EmpaToM has been designed for the assessment of social understanding in adults, it has a high degree of complexity and comprises topics that are inadequate for minors. For this reason, we designed a new version of the EmpaToM that is especially suited to measure empathy and ToM in youths. In experiment 1, we successfully validated the EmpaToM-Y on the original EmpaToM in an adult sample (N = 61), revealing a similar pattern of results across tasks and strong correlations of all constructs. As intended, the performance measure for ToM and the control condition of the EmpaToM-Y showed reduced difficulty. In experiment 2, we tested the feasibility of the EmpaToM-Y in a group of teenagers (N = 36). Results indicate a reliable empathy induction and higher demands of ToM questions for adolescents. We provide a promising task for future research targeting inter-individual variability of socio-cognitive and socio-affective capacities as well as their precursors and outcomes in healthy minors and clinical populations.
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Santarnecchi E, Momi D, Mencarelli L, Plessow F, Saxena S, Rossi S, Rossi A, Mathan S, Pascual-Leone A. Overlapping and dissociable brain activations for fluid intelligence and executive functions. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2021; 21:327-346. [PMID: 33900569 PMCID: PMC9094637 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-021-00870-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive enhancement interventions aimed at boosting human fluid intelligence (gf) have targeted executive functions (EFs), such as updating, inhibition, and switching, in the context of transfer-inducing cognitive training. However, even though the link between EFs and gf has been demonstrated at the psychometric level, their neurofunctional overlap has not been quantitatively investigated. Identifying whether and how EFs and gf might share neural activation patterns could provide important insights into the overall hierarchical organization of human higher-order cognition, as well as suggest specific targets for interventions aimed at maximizing cognitive transfer. We present the results of a quantitative meta-analysis of the available fMRI and PET literature on EFs and gf in humans, showing the similarity between gf and (i) the overall global EF network, as well as (ii) specific maps for updating, switching, and inhibition. Results highlight a higher degree of similarity between gf and updating (80% overlap) compared with gf and inhibition (34%), and gf and switching (17%). Moreover, three brain regions activated for both gf and each of the three EFs also were identified, located in the left middle frontal gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule, and anterior cingulate cortex. Finally, resting-state functional connectivity analysis on two independent fMRI datasets showed the preferential behavioural correlation and anatomical overlap between updating and gf. These findings confirm a close link between gf and EFs, with implications for brain stimulation and cognitive training interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiliano Santarnecchi
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Department of Neurology, Unit of Cognitive Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Davide Momi
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Department of Neurology, Unit of Cognitive Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Siena Brain Investigation & Neuromodulation Lab (Si-BIN Lab), Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience, Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology Section, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Lucia Mencarelli
- Siena Brain Investigation & Neuromodulation Lab (Si-BIN Lab), Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience, Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology Section, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Franziska Plessow
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Department of Neurology, Unit of Cognitive Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Neuroendocrine Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sadhvi Saxena
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Department of Neurology, Unit of Cognitive Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Simone Rossi
- Siena Brain Investigation & Neuromodulation Lab (Si-BIN Lab), Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience, Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology Section, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Siena Robotics and Systems Lab (SIRS-Lab), Engineering and Mathematics Department, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Human Physiology Section, Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Alessandro Rossi
- Siena Brain Investigation & Neuromodulation Lab (Si-BIN Lab), Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience, Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology Section, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
- Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience Department, University of Siena School of Medicine, Siena, Italy
| | | | - Alvaro Pascual-Leone
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Department of Neurology, Unit of Cognitive Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Tsukahara JS, Engle RW. Is baseline pupil size related to cognitive ability? Yes (under proper lighting conditions). Cognition 2021; 211:104643. [PMID: 33713877 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There has been some controversy as to whether baseline pupil size is related to individual differences in cognitive ability. Previously, we had shown that a larger baseline pupil size was associated with higher cognitive ability and that the correlation to fluid intelligence was larger than that to working memory capacity (Tsukahara, Harrison, & Engle, 2016). However, other researchers have not been able to replicate our findings - though they only measured working memory capacity and not fluid intelligence. Many of the studies showing no relationship had major methodological issues, namely small baseline pupil size values - down to the physiological minimum - that resulted in reduced variability on baseline pupil size. We conducted two large-scale studies to investigate how different lighting conditions affect baseline pupil size values and the correlation with cognitive abilities. We found that fluid intelligence, working memory capacity, and attention control did correlate with baseline pupil size except in the brightest lighting conditions. We showed that a reduced variability in baseline pupil size values is due to the monitor settings being too bright. Overall, our findings demonstrated that the baseline pupil size - working memory capacity relationship was not as strong or robust as that with fluid intelligence or attention control. Our findings have strong methodological implications for researchers investigating individual differences in task-free or task-evoked pupil size. We conclude that fluid intelligence does correlate with baseline pupil size and that this is related to the functional organization of the resting-state brain through the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system.
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Cyr AA, Romero K, Galin-Corini L. Web-Based Cognitive Testing of Older Adults in Person Versus at Home: Within-Subjects Comparison Study. JMIR Aging 2021; 4:e23384. [PMID: 33522972 PMCID: PMC8081157 DOI: 10.2196/23384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Web-based research allows cognitive psychologists to collect high-quality data from a diverse pool of participants with fewer resources. However, web-based testing presents unique challenges for researchers and clinicians working with aging populations. Older adults may be less familiar with computer usage than their younger peers, leading to differences in performance when completing web-based tasks in their home versus in the laboratory under the supervision of an experimenter. Objective This study aimed to use a within-subjects design to compare the performance of healthy older adults on computerized cognitive tasks completed at home and in the laboratory. Familiarity and attitudes surrounding computer use were also examined. Methods In total, 32 community-dwelling healthy adults aged above 65 years completed computerized versions of the word-color Stroop task, paired associates learning, and verbal and matrix reasoning in 2 testing environments: at home (unsupervised) and in the laboratory (supervised). The paper-and-pencil neuropsychological versions of these tasks were also administered, along with questionnaires examining computer attitudes and familiarity. The order of testing environments was counterbalanced across participants. Results Analyses of variance conducted on scores from the computerized cognitive tasks revealed no significant effect of the testing environment and no correlation with computer familiarity or attitudes. These null effects were confirmed with follow-up Bayesian analyses. Moreover, performance on the computerized tasks correlated positively with performance on their paper-and-pencil equivalents. Conclusions Our findings show comparable performance on computerized cognitive tasks in at-home and laboratory testing environments. These findings have implications for researchers and clinicians wishing to harness web-based testing to collect meaningful data from older adult populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrée-Ann Cyr
- Department of Psychology, Glendon Campus, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Kristoffer Romero
- Department of Psychology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - Laura Galin-Corini
- Department of Psychology, Glendon Campus, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
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43
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Bakun Emesh T, Garbi D, Kaplan A, Zelicha H, Yaskolka Meir A, Tsaban G, Rinott E, Meiran N. Retest Reliability of Integrated Speed-Accuracy Measures. Assessment 2021; 29:717-730. [PMID: 33522278 DOI: 10.1177/1073191120985609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive tasks borrowed from experimental psychology are often used to assess individual differences. A cardinal issue of this transition from experimental to correlational designs is reduced retest reliability of some well-established cognitive effects as well as speed-accuracy trade-off. The present study aimed to address these issues by examining the retest reliability of various methods for speed-accuracy integration and by comparing between two types of task modeling: difference scores and residual scores. Results from three studies on executive functions show that (a) integrated speed-accuracy scoring is generally more reliable as compared with nonintegrated methods: mean response time and accuracy; and (b) task modeling, especially residual scores, reduced reliability. We thus recommend integrating speed and accuracy, at least for measuring executive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dror Garbi
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Alon Kaplan
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Hila Zelicha
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | | | - Gal Tsaban
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel.,Soroka University Medical Center, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Ehud Rinott
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
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44
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Clark SV, Semmel ES, Aleksonis HA, Steinberg SN, King TZ. Cerebellar-Subcortical-Cortical Systems as Modulators of Cognitive Functions. Neuropsychol Rev 2021; 31:422-446. [PMID: 33515170 DOI: 10.1007/s11065-020-09465-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Over the past few decades, research has established that the cerebellum is involved in executive functions; however, its specific role remains unclear. There are numerous theories of cerebellar function and numerous cognitive processes falling under the umbrella of executive function, making investigations of the cerebellum's role in executive functioning challenging. In this review, we explored the role of the cerebellum in executive functioning through clinical and cognitive neuroscience frameworks. We reviewed the neuroanatomical systems and theoretical models of cerebellar functions and the multifaceted nature of executive functions. Using attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and cerebellar tumor as clinical developmental models of cerebellar dysfunction, and the functional magnetic resonance imaging literature, we reviewed evidence for cerebellar involvement in specific components of executive function in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. There is evidence for posterior cerebellar contributions to working memory, planning, inhibition, and flexibility, but the heterogeneous literature that largely was not designed to study the cerebellum makes it difficult to determine specific functions of the cerebellum or cerebellar regions. In addition, while it is clear that cerebellar insult in childhood affects executive function performance later in life, more work is needed to elucidate the mechanisms by which executive dysfunction occurs and its developmental course. The limitations of the current literature are discussed and potential directions for future research are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah V Clark
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, GA, 30303, Atlanta, USA
| | - Eric S Semmel
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, GA, 30303, Atlanta, USA
| | - Holly A Aleksonis
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, GA, 30303, Atlanta, USA
| | | | - Tricia Z King
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, GA, 30303, Atlanta, USA. .,Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, GA, 30303, Atlanta, USA.
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Segal D, Prior A, Gollan TH. Do All Switches Cost the Same? Reliability of Language Switching and Mixing Costs. J Cogn 2021; 4:3. [PMID: 33506169 PMCID: PMC7792451 DOI: 10.5334/joc.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study examined the reliability and consistency of switching and mixing costs in the language and the color-shape tasks in three pre-existing data sets, to assess whether they are equally well suited for the study of individual differences. Specifically, we considered if the language task is as reliable as the color-shape task - an important question given the wide use of language switching tasks but little information available to address this question. Switching costs had low to moderate reliability and internal consistency, and these were similar for the language and the color-shape tasks. Mixing costs were more reliable in the language task than in the color-shape task when tested twice on the same day and trended in the same direction when tested a week apart. In addition, mixing costs were larger and more consistent than switching costs in all data sets and they were also were more reliable than switching costs in the language task when tested on the same day. These results reveal the language task to be as good as the color-shape task for measuring switching and mixing ability. Low variability of switching costs may decrease their reliability and consistency, in turn interfering with the chance of detecting cross task correlations. We advocate for exploring procedures to increase the variability of switching costs, which might increase reliability and consistency of these measures, and improve the ability to determine if bilingual language use relies on cognitive mechanisms that overlap with those underlying nonlinguistic multi-tasking.
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Attention control: The missing link between sensory discrimination and intelligence. Atten Percept Psychophys 2020; 82:3445-3478. [PMID: 32514663 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-020-02044-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Intelligence is correlated with the ability to make fine sensory discriminations. Although this relationship has been known since the beginning of intelligence testing, the mechanisms underlying this relationship are still unknown. In two large-scale structural equation-modelling studies, we investigated whether individual differences in attention control abilities can explain the relationship between sensory discrimination and intelligence. Across these two studies, we replicated the finding that attention control fully mediated the relationships of intelligence/working-memory capacity to sensory discrimination. Our findings show that attention control plays a prominent role in relating sensory discrimination to higher-order cognitive abilities.
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Abstract
Recent work in attentional control has suggested that conflict effects measured across different tasks are not reliable and by extension unrelated. The lack of correlation between these conflict effects is in juxtaposition not only to theoretical predictions of a domain-general attentional control mechanism but also to a large body of individual differences research that has used these tasks to show evidence for an attentional control construct and its relatedness to other psychological constructs. In an effort to address this, we fit hierarchical models to each task that modeled trial-to-trial variability in response times to assess the extent to which the parameter estimates for the conflict effect correlated across tasks. We compared this method of assessing shared variance to more traditional summed difference score estimates of the conflict effect by analyzing data from a large-scale individual differences experiment, in which N = 582 subjects completed a Stroop, Flanker, and Simon task. Across tasks, we found that while the reliability of the conflict was sufficiently high and the between-task conflict effect significantly correlated, the magnitude of the between-task correlation was low. We discuss the implications of these results as providing more support for a domain-specific than domain-general attentional control mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gene A Brewer
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, AZ, USA
| | - Chris Blais
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, AZ, USA
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48
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Burgoyne AP, Engle RW. Attention Control: A Cornerstone of Higher-Order Cognition. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/0963721420969371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
For years, psychologists have wondered why people who are highly skilled in one cognitive domain tend to be skilled in other cognitive domains, too. In this article, we explain how attention control provides a common thread among broad cognitive abilities, including fluid intelligence, working memory capacity, and sensory discrimination. Attention control allows us to pursue our goals despite distractions and temptations, to deviate from the habitual, and to keep information in mind amid a maelstrom of divergent thought. Highlighting results from our lab, we describe the role of attention control in information maintenance and disengagement and how these functions contribute to performance in a variety of complex cognitive tasks. We also describe a recent undertaking in which we developed new and improved attention-control tasks, which had higher reliabilities, stronger intercorrelations, and higher loadings on a common factor than traditional measures. From an applied perspective, these new attention-control tasks show great promise for use in personnel selection assessments. We close by outlining exciting avenues for future research.
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Mason LA, Zimiga BM, Anders-Jefferson R, Paap KR. Autism Traits Predict Self-reported Executive Functioning Deficits in Everyday Life and an Aversion to Exercise. J Autism Dev Disord 2020; 51:2725-2750. [PMID: 33043413 PMCID: PMC8254704 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04741-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Are Autism Quotient (AQ) scores related to executive functioning (EF)? We sampled 200 students of normal intelligence and examined the relationship between AQ scores and: (a) 5 self-ratings of EF, (b) 5 performance-based measures of EF, and (c) 5 types of activities or experiences that are assumed to recruit EF and sometimes enhance EF. Our findings reveal that as AQ scores increase, self-rated EF ability decreases. AQ scores and self-reported EF measures do not correlate with objective EF task performance. Furthermore, AQ scores were shown to be negatively associated with many specific types of physical activity. As AQ scores increase, individuals report fewer positive reasons for exercise and more rationalizations for not engaging in more exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A. Mason
- San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA USA
- Present Address: Department of Psychology, Tufts University, 490 Boston Ave., Medford, MA 02155 USA
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Kałamała P, Szewczyk J, Chuderski A, Senderecka M, Wodniecka Z. Patterns of bilingual language use and response inhibition: A test of the adaptive control hypothesis. Cognition 2020; 204:104373. [PMID: 32585471 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Given prior studies that provided inconsistent results, there is an ongoing debate on the issue of whether bilingualism benefits cognitive control. We tested the Adaptive Control Hypothesis, according to which only the intense use of different languages in the same situation without mixing them in single utterances (called dual-language context) confers a bilingual advantage in response inhibition. In a large-scale correlational study, we attempted to circumvent several pitfalls of previous research on the bilingual advantage by testing a relatively large sample of participants and employing a more reliable and valid measurement of constructs (i.e., latent variable approach accompanied by Bayesian estimation). Our results do not support the Adaptive Control Hypothesis' prediction: the intensity of the dual-language context experience was unrelated to the efficiency of response inhibition in bilinguals. The results suggest that the Adaptive Control Hypothesis is not likely to account for the inconsistent results regarding the bilingual advantage hypothesis, at least in the case of the response-inhibition mechanism. At the same time, the study points to the problem of measuring the response-inhibition construct at the behavioral level. No evidence for a robust response-inhibition construct adds to the growing skepticism on this issue in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrycja Kałamała
- Psychology of Language and Bilingualism Lab, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Ingardena 6, 30-060 Krakow, Poland.
| | - Jakub Szewczyk
- Psychology of Language and Bilingualism Lab, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Ingardena 6, 30-060 Krakow, Poland; Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, United States of America
| | - Adam Chuderski
- Institute of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Grodzka 52, 31-044 Krakow, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Senderecka
- Institute of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Grodzka 52, 31-044 Krakow, Poland.
| | - Zofia Wodniecka
- Psychology of Language and Bilingualism Lab, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Ingardena 6, 30-060 Krakow, Poland.
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