Embodied cognition in neurodegenerative disorders: What do we know so far? A narrative review focusing on the mirror neuron system and clinical applications

Differences in embodied cognition between the arrow-orientation and the arrow-position recognition tasks: evidence from event-related potentials

Embodied cognition is known to play a role in verbal semantic processing. However, its involvement in nonverbal semantic elements, such as arrows, is less understood. Two spatial recognition tasks, specifically arrow-orientation recognition and arrow-position recognition, were employed using directional arrows in various spatial arrangements as visual stimuli. Stimuli were categorized into congruent (where orientation and position align), incongruent 1 (where orientation and position are directly opposing), and incongruent 2 (where orientation and position are unrelated) groups for both tasks. To investigate neural processes, event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded and analyzed during task performance. Additionally, standardized low-resolution electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA) was utilized to examine brain electrical activity during ERP intervals. The analysis revealed significant ERP component differences between congruent and incongruent conditions across both spatial tasks, highlighting a Stroop-like interference effect. Notably, the arrow-orientation task showed marked enhancements in P3 and N400 components, as well as heightened brain activity in the frontal lobe, anterior cingulate cortex, and insula, compared with the arrow-position task. These findings suggest that embodied cognition is involved in both spatial arrow recognition tasks. The unique role of embodied cognition in these contexts is primarily reflected in the modulation of the P3-N400 complex, indicating differentiated cognitive processing.

Altered Resting-State Brain Entropy in Cerebral Small Vessel Disease Patients with Cognitive Impairment

Objective: Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is a primary vascular disease of cognitive impairment. Previous studies have predominantly focused on brain linear features. However, the nonlinear measure, brain entropy (BEN), has not been elaborated. Thus, this study aims to investigate if BEN abnormalities could manifest in CSVD patients with cognitive impairment. Methods: Thirty-four CSVD patients with cognitive impairment and 37 healthy controls (HCs) were recruited. Analysis of gray matter approximate entropy (ApEn) and sample entropy (SampEn) which are two indices of BEN was calculated. To explore whether BEN can provide unique information, we further performed brain linear methods, namely, amplitude of low frequency fluctuation (ALFF) and regional homogeneity (ReHo), to observe their differences. The ratios of BEN/ALFF and BEN/ReHo which represent the coupling of nonlinear and linear features were introduced. Correlation analysis was conducted between imaging indices and cognition. Subsequently, the linear support vector machine (SVM) was used to assess their discriminative ability. Results: CSVD patients exhibited lower ApEn and SamEn values in sensorimotor areas, which were correlated with worse memory and executive function. In addition, the results of BEN showed little overlap with ALFF and ReHo in brain regions. Correlation analysis also revealed a relationship between the two ratios and cognition. SVM analysis using BEN and its ratios as features achieved an accuracy of 74.64% (sensitivity: 86.49%, specificity: 61.76%, and AUC: 0.82439). Conclusion: Our study reveals that the reduction of sensorimotor system complexity is correlated with cognition. BEN exhibits distinctive characteristics in brain activity. Combining BEN and the ratios can be new biomarkers to diagnose CSVD with cognitive impairment. Impact Statement Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is regarded as the most important vascular disease of cognitive impairment. However, conventional brain imaging fails to adequately elucidate the pathogenesis of cognitive disorder related to CSVD. In this regard, exploring brain entropy (BEN) based on resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) represents a relatively novel and unexplored approach in the context of CSVD. This approach provides novel insights into the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and rehabilitation of cognitive disorder associated with CSVD.

Improving engineering students' understanding of classical physics through visuo-haptic simulations

Introduction: The teaching process plays a crucial role in the training of professionals. Traditional classroom-based teaching methods, while foundational, often struggle to effectively motivate students. The integration of interactive learning experiences, such as visuo-haptic simulators, presents an opportunity to enhance both student engagement and comprehension. Methods: In this study, three simulators were developed to explore the impact of visuo-haptic simulations on engineering students' engagement and their perceptions of learning basic physics concepts. The study used an adapted end-user computing satisfaction questionnaire to assess students' experiences and perceptions of the simulators' usability and its utility in learning. Results: Feedback from participants suggests a positive reception towards the use of visuo-haptic simulators, highlighting their usefulness in improving the understanding of complex physics principles. Discussion: Results suggest that incorporating visuo-haptic simulations into educational contexts may offer significant benefits, particularly in STEM courses, where traditional methods may be limited. The positive responses from participants underscore the potential of computer simulations to innovate pedagogical strategies. Future research will focus on assessing the effectiveness of these simulators in enhancing students' learning and understanding of these concepts in higher-education physics courses.

Effects of square dance exercise on cognitive function in elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment: the mediating role of balance ability and executive function

BACKGROUND

Square dancing is a kind of aerobic fitness exercise without environmental restrictions that yields many benefits for physical and mental health; this exercise is popular among middle-aged and elderly people in China and in these populations in other countries. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of square dance exercise on the overall cognitive function of elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and to research its mechanisms.

METHODS

A total of 60 elderly people with MCI (60-69 years old) without square dance experience were selected and randomly divided into an experimental group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 30). The experimental group participated in square dance exercise for 12 weeks, while the control group maintained their original lifestyle habits. One week before and after the intervention period, the overall cognitive function, physical fitness, and executive function of both groups were measured.

RESULTS

According to the results, square dance exercise directly improved the overall cognitive function of elderly individuals with MCI and indirectly affected overall cognitive function through the mediating effects of balance ability and executive function.

CONCLUSIONS

Square dance exercise represents a nonpharmacological intervention for the prevention and treatment of MCI. Importantly, it is best to combine this exercise with other forms of physical exercise and comprehensive treatment programs such as cognitive training, social interaction, and psychological intervention to realize its maximum effect.

Does neck flexion improve performance? Effects on reaction time depend on whether responses are expected

This research investigates the limitations of the apparent paradox in which neck flexion, which is associated with poor inhibition and neck pain, seems to facilitate performance in some tasks. We compared the effect of a flexed neck on performance in a reaction time and go-nogo task using a novel method of fixing neck posture. We hypothesize that using a flexed neck posture speeds response time for tasks with high prepotency (when participants are biased toward responding), but not for tasks with low prepotency (when participants are more likely to withhold a response). Previous findings demonstrated the effect of neck flexion on reaction time with a harness. In this study, participants complete both simple reaction time and go-nogo tasks with neck angles fixed in neutral or forward positions with tape. We found that simple reaction times were 10 ms faster in the forward neck position than in neutral; this facilitation was not seen in the go-nogo task. We conclude that using tape to induce a flexed neck posture facilitates reaction time during tasks that always require a response and does not affect reaction time on a task which may require withholding a response.

Fading boundaries between the physical and the social world: Insights and novel techniques from the intersection of these two fields

This review focuses on the subtle interactions between sensory input and social cognition in visual perception. We suggest that body indices, such as gait and posture, can mediate such interactions. Recent trends in cognitive research are trying to overcome approaches that define perception as stimulus-centered and are pointing toward a more embodied agent-dependent perspective. According to this view, perception is a constructive process in which sensory inputs and motivational systems contribute to building an image of the external world. A key notion emerging from new theories on perception is that the body plays a critical role in shaping our perception. Depending on our arm's length, height and capacity of movement, we create our own image of the world based on a continuous compromise between sensory inputs and expected behavior. We use our bodies as natural "rulers" to measure both the physical and the social world around us. We point out the necessity of an integrative approach in cognitive research that takes into account the interplay between social and perceptual dimensions. To this end, we review long-established and novel techniques aimed at measuring bodily states and movements, and their perception, with the assumption that only by combining the study of visual perception and social cognition can we deepen our understanding of both fields.

The Arrival of the Metaverse in Neurorehabilitation: Fact, Fake or Vision?

The metaverse is a new technology thought to provide a deeper, persistent, immersive 3D experience combining multiple different virtual approaches in a full continuum of physical–digital interaction spaces. Different from virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), the metaverse has a service-oriented solid model with an emphasis on social and content dimensions. It has widely been demonstrated that motor or cognitive deficits can be more effectively treated using VR/AR tools, but there are several issues that limit the real potential of immersive technologies applied to neurological patients. In this scoping review, we propose future research directions for applying technologies extracted from the metaverse in clinical neurorehabilitation. The multisensorial properties of the metaverse will boost the embodied cognition experience, thus influencing the internal body representations as well as learning strategies. Moreover, the immersive social environment shared with other patients will contribute to recovering social and psychoemotional abilities. In addition to the many potential pros, we will also discuss the cons, providing readers with the available information to better understand the complexity and limitations of the metaverse, which could be considered the future of neurorehabilitation.