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Dugues P, Abe E, Etting I, Nguyen AH, Edel Y, Alvarez JC, Larabi IA. Consommation de cannabinoïdes de synthèse (CS) en région parisienne : profil d’un consommateur de 9 CS dérivés indoles et indazoles et premières données de la littérature. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2022.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
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2
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Xu D, Ji J, Xiang P, Yan H, Zhang W, Shen M. Determination of 5 synthetic cannabinoids in hair by Segmental analysis using UHPLC-MS/MS and its application to eight polydrug abuse cases. Forensic Sci Int 2023; 346:111611. [PMID: 36931106 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2023.111611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, an increasing number of new synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) have appeared in the drug trade market. A UPLC-MS/MS method was developed to simultaneously identify five synthetic cannabinoids in 1 cm segment hair samples. The method was fully validated and confirmed to have good selectivity, accuracy, and precision, as well as satisfactory linearity within the calibrated range. The limit of quantification (LOD) was 0.5 pg/mg, and the lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) was 1 pg/mg, with intraday and interday accuracies (bias) ranging from - 9.6-13.7%. The validated method was successfully used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of five SCs in authentic hair samples of eight SC abusers. SCs were detected in 8 cases at concentrations ranging from 1.5 to 632.9 pg/mg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duoqi Xu
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Jiaojiao Ji
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai 200063, China; Department of Forensic Medicine of Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, 138 Medical College Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Hui Yan
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Wenfang Zhang
- Forensic Science Service of Beijing Public Security Bureau. Key Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing 100192, China.
| | - Min Shen
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai 200063, China.
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Musiał J, Czarny J, Gadzała-Kopciuch R. Overview of analytical methods for determining novel psychoactive substances, drugs and their metabolites in biological samples. Crit Rev Toxicol 2022; 52:239-258. [PMID: 36040410 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2022.2091424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed a growing in interest in psychoactive substances, particularly those available in e-commerce. These have led to an increase in the number of drug-related poisonings, deaths, and road accidents. Illegal drugs are available on an unprecedented scale and cause previously unknown adverse effects, which creates a challenge for analysts to find rapid methods for identifying these substances and taking appropriate action in the shortest possible time. New psychoactive substances (NPSs) can be lethal at very low concentrations, which give particularly serious cause for concern. These drugs are easily accessible and often regarded (or claimed) to be safe, which encourages many people, in particular young people, to try them. The widespread use of these substances is compounded by the awareness that they are difficult to detect with the existing rapid screening tests. Simple, fast, sensitive, and specific methods for determining the largest possible number of black-market psychoactive substances and their metabolites are therefore essential. Such methods will facilitate treatment and increase the effectiveness of measures aiming to reduce drug addiction. The objective of this review article was to critically compare the most commonly used analytical methods for determining NPS and their metabolites in biological material, with special emphasis on the sample preparation process, and to highlight the possibilities offered by the existing analytical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jadwiga Musiał
- Institute of Forensic Genetics, Bydgoszcz, Poland.,Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Jakub Czarny
- Institute of Forensic Genetics, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Renata Gadzała-Kopciuch
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
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4
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Florou D, Boumba VA. Hair analysis for New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): Still far from becoming the tool to study NPS spread in the community? Toxicol Rep 2021; 8:1699-1720. [PMID: 34646750 PMCID: PMC8501677 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review article, we performed an overview of extraction and chromatographic analysis methods of NPS in hair from 2007 to 2021, evaluating the limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), limit of reporting (LOR), and limit of identification (LOI) values reported for each NPS. Our review aimed to highlight the limitations of modern hair analytical techniques, and the prerequisites for the proper evaluation and use of analytical results in relation to the objectives of NPS hair analysis. In the selected studies the detection of a total of 280 NPS was reported. The detected NPS belonged to seven classes: synthetic cannabinoids with 109 different substances, synthetic opioids with 58, cathinones with 50, phenethylamines with 34, other NPS with 15, tryptamines with ten, and piperazines with four substances. The NPS hair analysis of real forensic/ clinical cases reported the detection of only 80 NPS (out of the 280 targeted), in significantly higher levels than the respective LODs. The analytical protocols reviewed herein for NPS hair analysis showed continuously growing trends to identify as many NPS as possible; the extraction methods seem to have a limited potential to improve, while the various mass spectroscopic techniques and relevant instrumentation provide an enormous field for development and application. Hair is a biological indicator of the past chronic, sub-chronic, and, even, in certain cases, acute exposure to xenobiotics. Therefore, future research in the field could progress NPS hair analysis and aim the monitoring of NPS expansion and extent of use in the community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitra Florou
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, University Campus, 45110 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Vassiliki A. Boumba
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, University Campus, 45110 Ioannina, Greece
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5
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Coccini T, De Simone U, Lonati D, Scaravaggi G, Marti M, Locatelli CA. MAM-2201, One of the Most Potent-Naphthoyl Indole Derivative-Synthetic Cannabinoids, Exerts Toxic Effects on Human Cell-Based Models of Neurons and Astrocytes. Neurotox Res 2021; 39:1251-1273. [PMID: 33945101 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-021-00369-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Considering the consequences on human health, in general population and workplace, associated with the use of new psychoactive substances and their continuous placing on the market, novel in vitro models for neurotoxicology research, applying human-derived CNS cells, may provide a means to understand the mechanistic basis of molecular and cellular alterations in brain. Cytotoxic effects of MAM-2201, a potent-naphthoyl indole derivative-synthetic cannabinoid, have been evaluated applying a panel of human cell-based models of neurons and astrocytes, testing different concentrations (1-30 µM) and exposure times (3-24-48 h). MAM-2201 induced toxicity in primary neuron-like cells (hNLCs), obtained from transdifferentiation of mesenchymal stem cells derived from human umbilical cord. Effects occurred in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. The lowest concentration affecting cell viability, metabolic function, apoptosis, morphology, and neuronal markers (MAP-2, NSE) was 5 μM, and even 1 μM induced apoptosis. Effects appeared early (3 h) and persisted after 24 and 48 h. Similar behavior was evidenced for human D384-astrocytes treated with MAM-2201. Differently, human SH-SY5Y-neurons, both differentiated and undifferentiated, were not sensitive to MAM-2201. On D384, the different altered endpoints were reversed, attenuated, or not antagonized by AM251 indicating that CB1 receptors may partially mediate MAM-2201-induced cytotoxicity. While in hNLCs, all toxic effects caused by MAM-2201 were apparently unrelated to CB-receptors since they were not evidenced by immunofluorescence. The present in vitro findings demonstrate the cytotoxicity of MAM-2201 on human primary neurons (hNLCs) and astrocytes cell line (D384), and support the use of these cellular models as species-specific in vitro tools suitable to clarify the neurotoxicity mechanisms of synthetic cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Coccini
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Toxicology, and Poison Control Centre and National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, Via Maugeri 10, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
| | - U De Simone
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Toxicology, and Poison Control Centre and National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, Via Maugeri 10, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - D Lonati
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Toxicology, and Poison Control Centre and National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, Via Maugeri 10, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - G Scaravaggi
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Toxicology, and Poison Control Centre and National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, Via Maugeri 10, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - M Marti
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Center, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.,Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Rome, Italy
| | - C A Locatelli
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Toxicology, and Poison Control Centre and National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, Via Maugeri 10, 27100, Pavia, Italy
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6
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Li J, Zhang Y, Zhou Y, Feng XS. Cannabinoids: Recent Updates on Public Perception, Adverse Reactions, Pharmacokinetics, Pretreatment Methods and Their Analysis Methods. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2021; 52:1197-1222. [PMID: 33557608 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2020.1864718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoids (CBDs) have been traditionally used as a folk medicine. Recently, they have been found to exhibit a high pharmacological potential. However, they are addicted and are often abused by drug users, thereby, becoming a threat to public safety. CBDs and their metabolites are usually found in trace levels in plants or in biological matrices and, are therefore not easy to be detected. Advances have been made toward accurately analyzing CBDs in plants or in biological matrices. This review aims at elucidating on the consumption of CBDs as well as its adverse effects and to provide a comprehensive overview of CBD pretreatment and detection methods. Moreover, novel pretreatment methods such as microextraction, Quick Easy Cheap Effective Rugged Safe and online technology as well as novel analytic methods such as ion-mobility mass spectrometry, application of high resolution mass spectrometry in nontarget screening are summarized. In addition, we discuss and compare the strengths and weaknesses of different methods and suggest their future prospect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Li
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yu Zhou
- Department of Pharmacy, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Xue-Song Feng
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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7
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Recent bionalytical methods for the determination of new psychoactive substances in biological specimens. Bioanalysis 2020; 12:1557-1595. [PMID: 33078960 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2020-0148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the problems associated with the consumption of new psychoactive substances is that in most scenarios of acute toxicity the possibility of quick clinical action may be impaired because many screening methods are not responsive to them, and laboratories are not able to keep pace with the appearance of new substances. For these reasons, developing and validating new analytical methods is mandatory in order to efficiently face those problems, allowing laboratories to be one step ahead. The goal of this work is to perform a critical review regarding bionalytical methods that can be used for the determination of new psychoactive substances (phenylethylamines, cathinones, synthetic cannabinoids, opioids, benzodiazepines, etc), particularly concerning sample preparation techniques and associated analytical methods.
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8
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Larabi IA, Riffi M, Fabresse N, Etting I, Alvarez JC. Validation of an UPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of sixteen synthetic cannabinoids in human hair. Application to document chronic use of JWH-122 following a non-fatal overdose. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2019.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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9
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Larabi IA, Fabresse N, Etting I, Nadour L, Pfau G, Raphalen JH, Philippe P, Edel Y, Alvarez JC. Prevalence of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) and conventional drugs of abuse (DOA) in high risk populations from Paris (France) and its suburbs: A cross sectional study by hair testing (2012-2017). Drug Alcohol Depend 2019; 204:107508. [PMID: 31670189 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of the present study is to describe the prevalence of NPS and conventional DOA in Paris and its suburbs over a six-year period using hair testing approach. METHOD Hair was sampled in patients admitted to different departments of Paris hospitals between 2012 and 2017. Two high-risk populations were mainly considered: 1) drug-dependent and 2) acutely intoxicated patients. Segmental hair analysis was performed by validated LC-MS/MS method to screen for DOA and 83 NPS. RESULTS 480 patients (280 M/200 F, 15-70 years) were included. 141 patients tested positive for NPS (99 M/42 F; median age: 33). NPS prevalence was 29%, that of amphetamines, cocaine and opioids were 32%, 38.5% and 52%, respectively. 27 NPS were identified, 4-MEC and mephedrone (number of cases n = 24 each) were the most detected cathinones. JWH-122 (n = 1) was the only detected synthetic cannabinoid while ketamine (n = 104) was present in numerous NPS users (67%). 3-fluorofentanyl (n = 1), furanylfentanyl (n = 1), N-ethylpentylone (n = 2), pentedrone (n = 2), mexedrone (n = 1), methcathinone (n = 3), 6-APDB (n = 2), TFMPP (n = 2), 2-CE (n = 1), 3,4-MD-αPHP (n = 1) and dextromethorphan (n = 27) were identified for the first time in hair. Users were found to have more than one NPS in 53% of cases, mostly in combination with conventional DOA. The number of detected NPS rose from 5 in 2012 to 42 in 2017. A broad range of hair concentrations (0.001-318 ng/mg) was found, but the low median concentrations seem to show an occasional exposure more than chronic use. CONCLUSION NPS screening should be assessed in routine clinical practice, especially in high-risk populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- I A Larabi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Inserm U-1173, Raymond Poincaré Hospital, AP-HP, 104, Raymond Poincaré Blvd., 92380 Garches, France
| | - N Fabresse
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Inserm U-1173, Raymond Poincaré Hospital, AP-HP, 104, Raymond Poincaré Blvd., 92380 Garches, France
| | - I Etting
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Inserm U-1173, Raymond Poincaré Hospital, AP-HP, 104, Raymond Poincaré Blvd., 92380 Garches, France
| | - L Nadour
- Talan Solutions, 21 Dumont d'Urville Street, 75016, Paris, France
| | - G Pfau
- Addiction Clinic, Pitié Salpétrière Hospital, AP-HP, 47-83 Boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
| | - J H Raphalen
- Intensive Care Unit, AP-HP, Necker Hospital, 149 Sèvres Street, 75015 Paris, France
| | - P Philippe
- Intensive Care Unit, AP-HP, Necker Hospital, 149 Sèvres Street, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Y Edel
- Addiction Clinic, Pitié Salpétrière Hospital, AP-HP, 47-83 Boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
| | - J C Alvarez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, Inserm U-1173, Raymond Poincaré Hospital, AP-HP, 104, Raymond Poincaré Blvd., 92380 Garches, France.
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10
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Kernalléguen A, Enjalbal C, Alvarez JC, Belgacem O, Léonetti G, Lafitte D, Pélissier-Alicot AL. Synthetic cannabinoid isomers characterization by MALDI-MS3 imaging: Application to single scalp hair. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1041:87-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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11
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Carlier J, Wohlfarth A, Salmeron BD, Scheidweiler KB, Huestis MA, Baumann MH. Pharmacodynamic Effects, Pharmacokinetics, and Metabolism of the Synthetic Cannabinoid AM-2201 in Male Rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2018; 367:543-550. [PMID: 30266766 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.118.250530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel synthetic cannabinoids are appearing in recreational drug markets worldwide. Pharmacological characterization of these new drugs is needed to inform clinicians, toxicologists, and policy makers who monitor public health. [1-(5-Fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl](1-naphthyl)methanone (AM-2201) is an abused synthetic cannabinoid that was initially created as a research tool for investigating the endocannabinoid system. Here we measured the pharmacodynamic effects of AM-2201 in rats, and simultaneously determined plasma pharmacokinetics for the parent drug and its metabolites. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were fitted with surgically implanted temperature transponders and indwelling jugular catheters under pentobarbital anesthesia. One week later, rats received subcutaneous injection of AM-2201 (0.1, 0.3, and 1.0 mg/kg) or its vehicle, and serial blood specimens were withdrawn via catheters. Core temperatures and catalepsy were measured just prior to each blood withdrawal, and plasma was assayed for drug and metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. We found that AM-2201 produced dose-related hypothermia and catalepsy that peaked at 2 hours and lasted up to 8 hours. AM-2201 plasma concentrations rose linearly with increasing dose and ranged from 0.14 to 67.9 µg/l. Concentrations of three metabolites, AM-2201 N-(4-hydroxypentyl) (≤0.17 µg/l), naphthalen-1-yl-(1-pentylindol-3-yl)methanone (JWH-018) N-(5-hydroxypentyl) (≤1.14 µg/l), and JWH-018 N-pentanoic acid (≤0.88 µg/l) were detectable but much lower. Peak AM-2201, JWH-018 N-(5-hydroxypentyl), and JWH-018 N-pentanoic acid concentrations occurred at 1.3, 2.4, and 6.5 hours, respectively. Concentrations of AM-2201, JWH-018 N-(5-hydroxypentyl), and JWH-018 N-pentanoic acid were negatively correlated with body temperature, but, given the low concentrations of metabolites detected, AM-2201 is likely the major contributor to pharmacodynamic effects under our experimental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Carlier
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism (J.C., A.W., K.B.S., M.A.H.) and Designer Drug Research Unit (B.D.S., M.H.B.), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Ariane Wohlfarth
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism (J.C., A.W., K.B.S., M.A.H.) and Designer Drug Research Unit (B.D.S., M.H.B.), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Bonita D Salmeron
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism (J.C., A.W., K.B.S., M.A.H.) and Designer Drug Research Unit (B.D.S., M.H.B.), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Karl B Scheidweiler
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism (J.C., A.W., K.B.S., M.A.H.) and Designer Drug Research Unit (B.D.S., M.H.B.), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism (J.C., A.W., K.B.S., M.A.H.) and Designer Drug Research Unit (B.D.S., M.H.B.), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism (J.C., A.W., K.B.S., M.A.H.) and Designer Drug Research Unit (B.D.S., M.H.B.), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland
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12
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Synthetic cannabinoids in biological specimens: a review of current analytical methods and sample preparation techniques. Bioanalysis 2018; 10:1609-1623. [PMID: 30226077 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2018-0150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids are a new class of chemical drugs capable of modifying human behavior. These products do not contain cannabis, but produce similar effects after consumption. The fact that they are easily accessed, and are many times considered to be harmless, justifies their widespread use among young people. This fact, together with the difficulty in their detection by routine drug tests, makes it extremely important to develop new procedures able to detect and monitor their consumption. The aim of this work is to perform a critical review regarding the human biological samples that can be used for the determination of synthetic cannabinoids, paying special attention to analytical methods and sample preparation techniques. The reviewed articles deal with the determination of synthetic cannabinoids in the context of forensic and toxicological analysis.
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13
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The ongoing challenge of novel psychoactive drugs of abuse. Part I. Synthetic cannabinoids (IUPAC Technical Report). PURE APPL CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1515/pac-2017-0605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In the past decade, the world has experienced a large increase in the number of novel compounds appearing on the illicit drug market for recreational purposes. Such substances are designed to circumvent governmental regulations; the illegal drug manufacturers take a known psychoactive compound reported in the scientific literature and slightly modify its chemical structure in order to produce analogues that will mimic the pharmacological activity of the original substance. Many of these novel substances are sold via the Internet. Among the various chemical classes, synthetic cannabinoid receptor modulators, commonly referred to as “synthetic cannabinoids” have been at the forefront, as demonstrated by the frequency of drug seizures, numerous severe toxic effects, and fatalities associated with some of these substances. This review presents the chemical structures of relevant synthetic cannabinoids and describes their mechanism of action, pharmacological features, metabolic pathways, and structure-activity relationships. It illustrates the approaches used in forensic testing, both for bulk analysis (drug seizures) and for analytical toxicology (biological matrices) and discusses aspects of regulation surrounding this drug class. This report is intended to provide pertinent information for the purposes of informing scientific, medical, social, and governmental bodies about this ever-evolving recreational drug class and the challenges it poses worldwide.
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14
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Synthetic cannabinoids are substrates and inhibitors of multiple drug-metabolizing enzymes. Arch Pharm Res 2018; 41:691-710. [PMID: 30039377 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-018-1055-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids, a new class of psychoactive substances, are potent agonists of cannabinoid receptors, which mimic the psychoactive effects of the principal psychoactive component of cannabis, ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Despite governmental scheduling as illicit drugs, new synthetic cannabinoids are being produced. The abuse of synthetic cannabinoids with several drugs containing different chemical groups has resulted in large numbers of poisonings. This has increased the urgency for forensic and public health laboratories to identify the metabolites of synthetic cannabinoids and apply this knowledge to the development of analytical methods and for toxicity prediction. It is necessary to determine whether synthetic cannabinoids are involved in drug-metabolizing enzyme-mediated drug-drug interactions. This review describes the metabolic pathways of 13 prevalent synthetic cannabinoids and various drug-metabolizing enzymes responsible for their metabolism, including cytochrome P450 (CYP), UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), and carboxylesterases. The inhibitory effects of synthetic cannabinoids on CYP and UGT activities are also reviewed to predict the potential of synthetic cannabinoids for drug-drug interactions. The drug-metabolizing enzymes responsible for metabolism of synthetic cannabinoids should be characterized and the effects of synthetic cannabinoids on CYP and UGT activities should be determined to predict the pharmacokinetics of synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoid-induced drug-drug interactions in the clinic.
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15
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Franz F, Jechle H, Angerer V, Pegoro M, Auwärter V, Neukamm MA. Synthetic cannabinoids in hair - Pragmatic approach for method updates, compound prevalences and concentration ranges in authentic hair samples. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1006:61-73. [PMID: 30016265 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Since the first detection of synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) in so-called 'legal high' products (e.g. 'Spice') sold as legal alternatives to marihuana, the rapid development of this class of designer drugs poses a great challenge for analytical laboratories. The aim of this study was the comprehensive validation of an up-to-date LC-MS/MS method for detection of SCs in human hair for the purpose of drug abstinence testing and evaluation of a pragmatic re-validation approach for frequent method adaption. The validation demonstrated low quantification limits (0.5-5.0 pg mg-1) and acceptable selectivity, linearity, accuracy, and precision for 72 SCs. High matrix effects have been taken into consideration as a major limitation of the method. The partial re-validation approach proved to be an appropriate compromise between reduced validation effort and sufficient control of the method performance enabling analysts to keep pace with the dynamics of the drug market. The analysis of 294 authentic samples resulted in 163 positive samples and showed a broad concentration range (<1.0-5,700 pg mg-1) for 52 SCs in hair with up to 17 different compounds detected in a single hair sample. Periods of detection between one and 58 months were observed for single compounds in hair. Regarding the interpretation of analytical findings semi-quantitative concentrations were considered sufficient for a rough classification of the intensity of drug exposure in (i) passive exposure or exposure in the distant past (lower pg mg-1 range), (ii) more intense exposure (elevated concentration range, >20 pg mg-1 (upper 25th-percentile)), and (iii) heavy/recent exposure (>150 pg mg-1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Franz
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany; Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Hebelstraße 27, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Hanna Jechle
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Verena Angerer
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany; Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Hebelstraße 27, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Melanie Pegoro
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Merja A Neukamm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany.
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Kyriakou C, Pellegrini M, García-Algar O, Marinelli E, Zaami S. Recent Trends in Analytical Methods to Determine New Psychoactive Substances in Hair. Curr Neuropharmacol 2018; 15:663-681. [PMID: 27834146 PMCID: PMC5771044 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666161111112545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 05/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) belong to several chemical classes, including phenethylamines, piperazines, synthetic cathinones and synthetic cannabinoids. Development and validation of analytical methods for the determination of NPS both in traditional and alternative matrices is of crucial importance to study drug metabolism and to associate consumption to clinical outcomes and eventual intoxication symptoms. Among different biological matrices, hair is the one with the widest time window to investigate drug-related history and demonstrate past intake. The aim of this paper was to overview the trends of the rapidly evolving analytical methods for the determination of NPS in hair and the usefulness of these methods when applied to real cases. A number of rapid and sensitive methods for the determination of NPS in hair matrix has been recently published, most of them using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Hair digestion and subsequent solid phase extraction or liquid-liquid extraction were described as well as extraction in organic solvents. For most of the methods limits of quantification at picogram per milligram hair were obtained. The measured concentrations for most of the NPS in real samples were in the range of picograms of drug per milligram of hair. Interpretation of the results and lack of cut-off values for the discrimination between chronic consumption and occasional use or external contamination are still challenging. Methods for the determination of NPS in hair are continually emerging to include as many NPS as possible due to the great demand for their detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrystalla Kyriakou
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology (UoFT), Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336 (00185) Rome. Italy
| | - Manuela Pellegrini
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanita, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome. Italy
| | - Oscar García-Algar
- Department of Pediatrics, Group of Research on Childhood and Environment (GRIE), Institute Hospital del Mar of Medical Research (IMIM), Hospital del Mar, 08003 Barcelona, Spain. Spain
| | - Enrico Marinelli
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology (UoFT), Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336 (00185) Rome. Italy
| | - Simona Zaami
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology (UoFT), Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 336 (00185) Rome. Italy
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Sim J, Kim E, Yang W, Woo S, In S. An LC–MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of 15 antipsychotics and two metabolites in hair and its application to rat hair. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 274:91-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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19
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Protti M, Rudge J, Sberna AE, Gerra G, Mercolini L. Dried haematic microsamples and LC–MS/MS for the analysis of natural and synthetic cannabinoids. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1044-1045:77-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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20
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Kong TY, Kim JH, Choi WG, Lee JY, Kim HS, Kim JY, In MK, Lee HS. Metabolic characterization of (1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(4-methyl-1-naphthalenyl)-methanone (MAM-2201) using human liver microsomes and cDNA-overexpressed cytochrome P450 enzymes. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 409:1667-1680. [PMID: 27924364 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-0113-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2016] [Revised: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
MAM-2201 is a synthetic cannabinoid that is increasingly found in recreational drug abusers and cases of severe intoxication. Thus, characterization of the metabolic pathways of MAM-2201 is necessary to predict individual pharmacokinetics and toxicity differences, and to avoid toxic drug-drug interactions. Collectively, 19 phase 1 metabolites of MAM-2201 were identified using liquid chromatography-Orbitrap mass spectrometry following human liver microsomal incubations in the presence of NADPH: 7 hydroxy-MAM-2201 (M1-M7), 4 dihydroxy-MAM-2201 (M8-M11), dihydrodiol-MAM-2201 (M12), N-(5-hydroxypentyl)-MAM-2201 (M13), hydroxy-M13 (M14), N-dealkyl-MAM-2201 (M15), 2 hydroxy-M15 (M16, M17), MAM-2201 N-pentanoic acid (M18), and hydroxy-M18 (M19). On the basis of intrinsic clearance values in human liver microsomes, hydroxy-MAM-2201 (M1), N-(5-hydroxypentyl)-MAM-2201 (M13), and hydroxy-M13 (M14) were the major metabolites. Based on an enzyme kinetics study using human cDNA-expressed cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes and an immunoinhibition study using selective CYP antibodies in human liver microsomes, CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 enzymes were responsible for MAM-2201 metabolism. The CYP3A4 enzyme played a prominent role in MAM-2201 metabolism, and CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, and CYP2C9 enzymes played major roles in the formation of some metabolites. MAM-2201 is extensively metabolized by multiple CYP enzymes, indicating that MAM-2201 and its metabolites should be used as markers of MAM-2201 abuse and toxicity. Graphical abstract In vitro metabolic pathways of MAM-2201 were characterized in human liver microsomes and recombinant CYPs using LC-HRMS analysis. Total 19 phase I metabolites were identified with predominant contribution of CYP3A4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Yeon Kong
- College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, 43 Jibong-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 14662, Republic of Korea
| | - Ju-Hyun Kim
- College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, 43 Jibong-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 14662, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Gu Choi
- College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, 43 Jibong-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 14662, Republic of Korea
| | - Joo Young Lee
- College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, 43 Jibong-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 14662, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Seung Kim
- Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Forensic Science Division, Supreme Prosecutor's Office, 157 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Young Kim
- Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Forensic Science Division, Supreme Prosecutor's Office, 157 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon Kyo In
- Forensic Chemistry Laboratory, Forensic Science Division, Supreme Prosecutor's Office, 157 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06591, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Suk Lee
- College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, 43 Jibong-ro, Wonmi-gu, Bucheon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 14662, Republic of Korea.
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Thevis M, Geyer H, Tretzel L, Schänzer W. Sports drug testing using complementary matrices: Advantages and limitations. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 130:220-230. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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22
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Mercolini L, Protti M. Biosampling strategies for emerging drugs of abuse: towards the future of toxicological and forensic analysis. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 130:202-219. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.06.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Montesano C, Vannutelli G, Massa M, Simeoni MC, Gregori A, Ripani L, Compagnone D, Curini R, Sergi M. Multi-class analysis of new psychoactive substances and metabolites in hair by pressurized liquid extraction coupled to HPLC-HRMS. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:798-807. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Montesano
- Department of Chemistry; Sapienza University of Rome; 00185 Rome Italy
| | | | - Maristella Massa
- Department of Chemistry; Sapienza University of Rome; 00185 Rome Italy
| | - Maria Chiara Simeoni
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment; University of Teramo; 64023 Mosciano Sant'Angelo TE Italy
| | - Adolfo Gregori
- Department of Scientific Investigation (RIS); Carabinieri; 00191 Rome Italy
| | - Luigi Ripani
- Department of Scientific Investigation (RIS); Carabinieri; 00191 Rome Italy
| | - Dario Compagnone
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment; University of Teramo; 64023 Mosciano Sant'Angelo TE Italy
| | - Roberta Curini
- Department of Chemistry; Sapienza University of Rome; 00185 Rome Italy
| | - Manuel Sergi
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment; University of Teramo; 64023 Mosciano Sant'Angelo TE Italy
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Carlier J, Scheidweiler KB, Wohlfarth A, Salmeron BD, Baumann MH, Huestis MA. Quantification of [1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl](naphthalene-1-yl)methanone (AM-2201) and 13 metabolites in human and rat plasma by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1451:97-106. [PMID: 27208987 PMCID: PMC4886661 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
AM-2201 is a popular synthetic cannabinoid first synthesized in 2000. AM-2201 pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data are scarce, requiring further investigation. We developed a sensitive method for quantifying AM-2201 and 13 metabolites in plasma to provide a tool to further metabolic, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies. Analysis was performed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Chromatographic separation was performed by gradient elution on a biphenyl column with 0.1% formic acid in water/0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile:methanol 50:50 (v/v) mobile phase. Sample preparation (75μL) consisted of an enzymatic hydrolysis and a supported liquid extraction. The method was validated with human plasma with a 0.025 or 0.050-50μg/L working range, and cross-validated for rat plasma. Analytical recovery was 88.8-110.1% of target concentration, and intra- (n=30) and inter-day (n=30) imprecision<11.9% coefficient of variation. Method recoveries and matrix effects ranged from 58.4-84.4% and -62.1 to -15.6%, respectively. AM-2201 and metabolites were stable (±20%) at room temperature for 24h, at 4°C for 72h, and after three freeze-thaw cycles, and for 72h in the autosampler after extraction. The method was developed for pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic studies with controlled administration in rats but is applicable for pre-clinical and clinical research and forensic investigations. Rat plasma specimen analysis following subcutaneous AM-2201 administration demonstrated the suitability of the method. AM-2201, JWH-018 N-(5-hydroxypentyl), and JWH-018 N-pentanoic acid concentrations were 4.8±1.0, 0.15±0.03, and 0.34±0.07μg/L, respectively, 8h after AM-2201 administration at 0.3mg/kg (n=5).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Carlier
- Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics Research Branch, Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), 251 Bayview Boulevard Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Karl B Scheidweiler
- Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics Research Branch, Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), 251 Bayview Boulevard Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Ariane Wohlfarth
- Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics Research Branch, Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), 251 Bayview Boulevard Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Bonita D Salmeron
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), 333 Cassell Drive Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), 333 Cassell Drive Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics Research Branch, Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), 251 Bayview Boulevard Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Aldlgan AA, Torrance. HJ. Bioanalytical methods for the determination of synthetic cannabinoids and metabolites in biological specimens. Trends Analyt Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2016.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Metabolites of synthetic cannabinoids in hair—proof of consumption or false friends for interpretation? Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:3445-52. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9422-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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28
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Jang M, Kim J, Han I, Yang W. Simultaneous determination of LSD and 2-oxo-3-hydroxy LSD in hair and urine by LC–MS/MS and its application to forensic cases. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2015; 115:138-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Debruyne D, Le Boisselier R. Emerging drugs of abuse: current perspectives on synthetic cannabinoids. Subst Abuse Rehabil 2015; 6:113-29. [PMID: 26543389 PMCID: PMC4622447 DOI: 10.2147/sar.s73586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
New psychoactive drugs that have appeared over the last decade are typically dominated by cathinones and synthetic cannabinoids (SCs). SCs have been emerging as recreational drugs because they mimic the euphoria effect of cannabis while still being legal. Sprayed on natural herb mixtures, SCs have been primarily sold as "herbal smoking blends" or "herbal incense" under brand names like "Spice" or "K2". Currently, SCs pure compounds are available from websites for the combination with herbal materials or for the use in e-cigarettes. For the past 5 years, an ever increasing number of compounds, representative of different chemical classes, have been promoted and now represent a large assortment of new popular drugs of abuse, which are difficult to properly identify. Their legal status varies by country with many government institutions currently pushing for their control. The in vitro binding to CB1/CB2 receptors is usually well-known and considerable differences have been found in the CB1 versus CB2 selectivity and potency within the different SCs, with several structure-activity relations being evident. Desired effects by CB1 agonist users are relaxation/recreative, however, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, or psychiatric/neurological side effects are commonly reported. At present there is no specific antidote existing if an overdose of designer drugs was to occur, and no curative treatment has been approved by health authorities. Management of acute toxic effects is mainly symptomatic and extrapolated from experience with cannabis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danièle Debruyne
- Centre for Evaluation and Information on Pharmacodependence - Addictovigilance (CEIP-A), University Hospital Centre Côte de Nacre, Caen, France ; Toxicology and Pharmacology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, University Hospital Centre Côte de Nacre, Caen, France
| | - Reynald Le Boisselier
- Centre for Evaluation and Information on Pharmacodependence - Addictovigilance (CEIP-A), University Hospital Centre Côte de Nacre, Caen, France
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Determination of XLR-11 and its metabolites in hair by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2015; 114:184-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Bertol E, Vaiano F, Di Milia MG, Mari F. In vivo detection of the new psychoactive substance AM-694 and its metabolites. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 256:21-7. [PMID: 26295909 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
AM-694 or 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(2-iodobenzoyl)indole is a synthetic cannabinoid that acts as a selective and a powerful agonist for CB1 receptor, inducing cannabinoid-like effects (euphoria, sedation, hallucinations and anxiety). Its spread, like for other synthetic cannabinoids, has increased in recent years and many web sources freely supply these kinds of new drugs. It can be taken by smoking or through oral consumption. A 25-years-old man was hospitalized at the local hospital following a major trauma after ingestion of alcohol and an unknown pill. Urine and blood samples were sent to our Forensic Toxicology Division to investigate on possible substance abuse. A general unknown screening of biological samples, extracted by liquid-liquid extraction (ethylacetate and dichloromethane) in basic, acidic and neutral conditions, was achieved to verify the presence of drugs of abuse and/or their metabolites, both in gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). For the quantification of AM-694, urine was extracted by solid phase extraction (SPE) on a Bond Elut Certify cartridge; an acidic hydrolysis (HCl 30%, 95°C, 60min) was necessary before liquid-liquid extraction of metabolites. For the detection of benzodiazepines and their metabolites, an enzymatic hydrolysis was applied (β-glucuronidase, pH 4.5, 50°C, 18h). Quantification of AM-694 (internal standard AM-2201), midazolam and α-hydroxymidazolam (internal standard halazepam) were performed by LC-MS/MS analysis in multiple reaction monitoring ([M+H](+): m/z 436→190, 272, AM-694; m/z 360→155, 127, AM-2201; m/z 326→291, 223, midazolam; m/z 342→168, 203, α-hydroxymidazolam; m/z 353→241, 222, halazepam). The general unknown screening revealed the presence of AM-694 (urine sample) and benzodiazepines (urine and blood). The concentration of AM-694, obtained by LC-MS/MS, was 0.084μg/L. Midazolam and α-hydroxymidazolam were detected in urine (0.97 and 74.58μg/L, respectively) and in blood (34.84 and 23.15μg/L, respectively). Qualitative information about the AM-694 metabolites was obtained by LC-MS/MS in selected-ion monitoring for the putative [M+H](+) ions: m/z 448, carboxylated metabolite; m/z 434, defluorinated metabolite; quantification was not possible since reference standards are not available. Our report is the first case of detection of AM-694 and its metabolites in human biological fluids in Italy. For this reason, this case constitutes a first worrisome alarm about the spread of this substance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Bertol
- Department of Health Science, Forensic Toxicology Division, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.
| | - Fabio Vaiano
- Department of Health Science, Forensic Toxicology Division, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Di Milia
- Department of Health Science, Forensic Toxicology Division, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Francesco Mari
- Department of Health Science, Forensic Toxicology Division, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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Castaneto MS, Wohlfarth A, Desrosiers NA, Hartman RL, Gorelick DA, Huestis MA. Synthetic cannabinoids pharmacokinetics and detection methods in biological matrices. Drug Metab Rev 2015; 47:124-74. [PMID: 25853390 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2015.1029635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SC), originally developed as research tools, are now highly abused novel psychoactive substances. We present a comprehensive systematic review covering in vivo and in vitro animal and human pharmacokinetics and analytical methods for identifying SC and their metabolites in biological matrices. Of two main phases of SC research, the first investigated therapeutic applications, and the second abuse-related issues. Administration studies showed high lipophilicity and distribution into brain and fat tissue. Metabolite profiling studies, mostly with human liver microsomes and human hepatocytes, structurally elucidated metabolites and identified suitable SC markers. In general, SC underwent hydroxylation at various molecular sites, defluorination of fluorinated analogs and phase II metabolites were almost exclusively glucuronides. Analytical methods are critical for documenting intake, with different strategies applied to adequately address the continuous emergence of new compounds. Immunoassays have different cross-reactivities for different SC classes, but cannot keep pace with changing analyte targets. Gas chromatography and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry assays - first for a few, then numerous analytes - are available but constrained by reference standard availability, and must be continuously updated and revalidated. In blood and oral fluid, parent compounds are frequently present, albeit in low concentrations; for urinary detection, metabolites must be identified and interpretation is complex due to shared metabolic pathways. A new approach is non-targeted HRMS screening that is more flexible and permits retrospective data analysis. We suggest that streamlined assessment of new SC's pharmacokinetics and advanced HRMS screening provide a promising strategy to maintain relevant assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisol S Castaneto
- Department of Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH , Baltimore, MD , USA
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Jang M, Shin I, Kim J, Yang W. Simultaneous quantification of 37 synthetic cannabinoid metabolites in human urine by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Forensic Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-015-0265-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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