Immunohistochemical analysis of steroid sulfatase in human tissues

Steroid sulfatase in mouse liver and testis: Characterization, ontogeny and localization

Steroid hormones often circulate in the plasma as inactive sulfated forms, such as estrone sulfate and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate. The enzyme steroid sulfatase (STS) converts these steroids into active forms, mainly estrogens, in peripheral tissues. STS is present in most tissues, but it occurs at higher levels in certain organs, notably liver and placenta. In this study, we examined the tissue distribution of STS in a prominent laboratory model, the house mouse (Mus musculus). Tissues included were heart, liver, small intestine, skeletal muscle, and gonads of both sexes. An 3H-estrone-sulfate conversion assay was used to measure STS activity in tissue homogenates and extracts. STS activities were high for hepatic tissue homogenates of both genders. Testicular STS levels were similar to those of liver, while STS activities of ovary, small intestine, heart, and muscle were considerably lower. The specific STS inhibitors, EMATE and STX-64 virtually eliminated STS activity in hepatic microsomes and cytosols, verifying that the observed enzyme activity was due to STS. Enzyme kinetic assays showed Km values of 8.6 µM for liver and 9.1 µM for testis, using E1S as substrate. Hepatic and testicular STS activities, measured in CHAPS-extracted microsome, were low up to 5 weeks of age and were higher through 56 weeks. Western blotting, with a specific STS antibody, confirmed the presence of STS protein (65 Da) in both liver and testis. Immunofluorescence of tissue sections detected the presence of STS protein in hepatocytes, in testicular Leydig cells and in seminiferous tubules (Leydig cells and developing germ cells). These results suggest that STS may have a significant role in testicular function.

Complex roles for sulfation in the toxicities of polychlorinated biphenyls

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent organic toxicants derived from legacy pollution sources and their formation as inadvertent byproducts of some current manufacturing processes. Metabolism of PCBs is often a critical component in their toxicity, and relevant metabolic pathways usually include their initial oxidation to form hydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyls (OH-PCBs). Subsequent sulfation of OH-PCBs was originally thought to be primarily a means of detoxication; however, there is strong evidence that it may also contribute to toxicities associated with PCBs and OH-PCBs. These contributions include either the direct interaction of PCB sulfates with receptors or their serving as a localized precursor for OH-PCBs. The formation of PCB sulfates is catalyzed by cytosolic sulfotransferases, and, when transported into the serum, these metabolites may be retained, taken up by other tissues, and subjected to hydrolysis catalyzed by intracellular sulfatase(s) to regenerate OH-PCBs. Dynamic cycling between PCB sulfates and OH-PCBs may lead to further metabolic activation of the resulting OH-PCBs. Ultimate toxic endpoints of such processes may include endocrine disruption, neurotoxicities, and many others that are associated with exposures to PCBs and OH-PCBs. This review highlights the current understanding of the complex roles that PCB sulfates can have in the toxicities of PCBs and OH-PCBs and research on the varied mechanisms that control these roles.

Structures and Functions of Human Placental Aromatase and Steroid Sulfatase, Two Key Enzymes in Estrogen Biosynthesis

Cytochrome P450 aromatase (AROM) and steroid sulfatase (STS) are the two key enzymes for the biosynthesis of estrogens in human, and maintenance of the critical balance between androgens and estrogens. Human AROM, an integral membrane protein of the endoplasmic reticulum, is a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily. It is the only enzyme to catalyze the conversion of androgens with non-aromatic A-rings to estrogens characterized by the aromatic A-ring. Human STS, also an integral membrane protein of the endoplasmic reticulum, is a Ca²⁺-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of sulfate esters of estrone and dehydroepiandrosterone to the unconjugated steroids, the precursors of the most potent forms of estrogens and androgens, namely, 17β-estradiol, 16α,17β-estriol, testosterone and dihydrotestosterone. Expression of these steroidogenic enzymes locally within organs and tissues of the endocrine, reproductive, and central nervous systems is the key for maintaining high levels of the reproductive steroids. The enzymes have been drug targets for the prevention and treatment of diseases associated with steroid hormone excesses, especially in breast, endometrial and prostate malignancies. Both enzymes have been the subjects of vigorous research for the past six decades. In this article, we review the important findings on their structure-function relationships, specifically, the work that began with unravelling of the closely guarded secrets, namely, the 3-D structures, active sites, mechanisms of action, origins of substrate specificity and the basis of membrane integration. Remarkably, these studies were conducted on the enzymes purified in their pristine forms from human placenta, the discarded and their most abundant source. The purification, assay, crystallization, and structure determination methodologies are described. Also reviewed are their functional quaternary organizations, post-translational modifications and the advancements made in the structure-guided inhibitor design efforts. Outstanding questions that still remain open are summarized in closing.

Structure of human placental steroid sulfatase at 2.0 angstrom resolution: Catalysis, quaternary association, and a secondary ligand site

Human placental estrone (E1)/dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) sulfatase (human placental steroid sulfatase; hSTS) is an integral membrane protein of the endoplasmic reticulum. This Ca²⁺-dependent enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of sulfate esters of E1 and DHEA to yield the respective unconjugated steroids, which then act as precursors for the biosynthesis of 17β-estradiol (E2) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT), respectively, the most potent forms of estrogens and androgens. hSTS is a key enzyme for the local production of E2 and DHT in the breast and the prostate. The enzyme is known to be responsible for maintaining high levels of estrogens in the breast tumor cells. The crystal structure of hSTS purified from human placenta has previously been reported at 2.6 Å resolution. Here we present the structure of hSTS determined at the superior 2.0 Å resolution bringing new clarity to the atomic architecture of the active site. The molecular basis of catalysis and steroid-protein interaction are revisited in light of the new data. We also reexamine the enzyme's quaternary association and its implication on the membrane integration. A secondary ligand binding pocket at the intermolecular interface and adjacent to the active site access channel, buried into the gill of the mushroom-shaped molecule, has been identified. Its role as well as that of a phosphate ion bound to an exposed histidine side chain are examined from the structure-function perspective. Higher resolution data also aids in the tracing of an important loop missing in the previous structure.

The phytochemical curcumin inhibits steroid sulfatase activity in rat liver tissue and NIH-3T3 mouse fibroblast cells

Curcumin is a phytochemical derived from the spice turmeric that is reported to have therapeutic effects. We are studying the enzyme steroid sulfatase (STS), which removes the sulfate group from inactive steroid hormones in peripheral tissues and we were interested in the effect of curcumin on STS activity due to its structural composition (polyphenolic). We sought to determine if curcumin affects STS activity in two model systems, rat liver and NIH-3T3 mouse fibroblast cells. STS assays were performed on tissue extracts of rat liver, and on NIH-3T3 microsomes and cells, with and without curcumin. Male and female rat liver extracts contained substantial amounts of STS activity, with males averaging higher (4-11 %) levels. Estradiol inhibited STS activity in livers of both sexes at 20 and 10 µM. Curcumin acted as a competitive inhibitor of STS activity in rat liver extracts, with a Ki of 19.8 µM in males and 9.3 µM in females. Curcumin also inhibited STS activity in NIH-3T3 microsomes at both 20 µM and 10 µM, and in whole NIH-3T3 cells at 20 µM. These data are the first to demonstrate STS inhibition by curcumin. Inhibition of STS results in lower active steroid hormone (estrogens and androgens) levels in tissues, possibly altering modulation of immune responses by these steroids.

Identification and In Silico Analysis of a Homozygous Nonsense Variant in TGM1 Gene Segregating with Congenital Ichthyosis in a Consanguineous Family

Background and Objectives: Lamellar ichthyosis is a rare skin disease characterized by large, dark brown plate-like scales on the entire body surface with minimum or no erythema. This phenotype is frequently associated with a mutation in the TGM1 gene, encoding the enzyme transglutaminase 1 which plays a catalytic role in the formation of the cornified cell envelop. The present study aimed to carry out clinical and genetic characterization of the autosomal recessive lamellar ichthyosis family from Balochistan. Materials and Methods: A consanguineous family with lamellar ichthyosis was enrolled from Balochistan, Pakistan. PCR amplification of all the exons and splice site junctions of the TGM1 gene followed by Sanger sequencing was performed on the genomic DNA. The identified variant was checked by In silico prediction tools to evaluate the effect of the variant on protein. Results: Sanger sequencing identified a homozygous nonsense variant c.131G >A (p.Trp44*) in the TGM1 gene that segregated in the autosomal recessive mode of inheritance in the family. The identified variant results in premature termination of transcribed mRNA and is predicted to cause a truncated or absent translation product transglutaminase-1 (TGase-1) accompanied by loss of catalytic activity, causing a severe clinical phenotype of lamellar ichthyosis in the patients. Conclusions: Here, we report a consanguineous lamellar ichthyosis family with a homozygous nonsense variant in the TGM1 gene. The variant is predicted as pathogenic by different In silico prediction tools.

Steroid sulfatase in the mouse NIH-3T3 fibroblast cell line: Characterization, and downregulation by glucocorticoids

Steroid hormones often circulate in the blood as inactive sulfated forms, such as estrone sulfate and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate. The enzyme steroid sulfatase (STS) converts these steroids into active forms, mainly estrogens, in peripheral tissues. We have previously characterized STS activity in human and mouse breast and bone tissues, and we have shown that STS can provide estrogens to these tissues from circulating sulfated precursors. This study was designed to characterize STS activity in a mouse fibroblast cell line (NIH-3T3). Using a radioactive estrone sulfate (E1S) conversion assay, we detected STS activity in cultured NIH-3T3 cells. This activity was blocked by the STS inhibitors EMATE and STX-64, indicating authentic STS activity. We also found that microsomes prepared from NIH-3T3 cells had relatively high STS activity and that cytosols had low activity, consistent with the known distribution of this enzyme to the endoplasmic reticulum. Michaelis-Menten analysis of the NIH-3T3 microsomes indicated a Km of 10.9 µM using E1S as substrate. Primary fibroblasts prepared from mouse ears and tails also had measurable STS activity, as indicated by 3H-E1S conversion assay, further supporting the conclusion that fibroblasts possess STS. Furthermore, Western blotting confirmed the presence of immunoreactive STS in NIH-3T3 microsomes. With regard to regulation, treatments of cultured NIH-3T3 cells revealed that cortisol and the synthetic glucocorticoids dexamethasone and prednisolone decreased STS activity, as we have found for cell lines from other tissues. The effect of cortisol was seen at both 10 µM and 1.0 µM but not at 0.1 µM. Western blotting also indicated a decrease in STS immunoreactivity in cortisol-treated microsomes. The reduction in STS activity by dexamethasone in whole cells was reversed by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU-486, indicating that glucocorticoid downregulation of STS activity is receptor mediated. An inhibition assay on NIH-3T3 microsomes revealed that STS activity was inhibited significantly by 10 µM estradiol-17β, a known substrate inhibitor of E1S for STS, but not by 10 µM cortisol. This is consistent with the idea that cortisol inhibits STS in NIH-3T3 cells through a regulatory mechanism rather than by substrate inhibition. Our results could have important implications regarding local estrogen production by STS in fibroblasts, which are the most common connective tissue cells in the body, and on possible regulation of local estrogen levels by cortisol.

Arylsulfatases A and B: From normal tissues to malignant tumors

Arylsulfatases are lysosomal enzymes with important roles in the cell metabolism. Several subtypes of arylsulfatase are known, from A to K. Congenital deficiencies of arylsulfatases, especially A (ARSA) and B (ARSB), can induce metabolic disorders such as metachromatic leucodystrophy (ARSA deficiency) and Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome (ARSB deficiency). ARSA and ARSB pseudodeficiencies were recently described but their exact roles are far to be known. The aim of this review was to synthesize the literature data, combined with personal results, regarding the roles of ARSA and ARSB in non-tumor disorders but also carcinogenesis. Few than 50 published papers regard ARSA and ARSB expression in cancer. They suggest decreased activity of these arylsulfatases in most of carcinomas, compared with normal tissues. However, the clinical impact is still unknown. Further complex studies are necessary to be done, to understand the role of ARSA and ARSB expression in cancer.

Transporter for sulfated steroid hormones in the testis - expression pattern, biological significance and implications for fertility in men and rodents

In various tissues, steroid hormones may be sulfated, glucuronidated or otherwise modified. For a long time, these hydrophilic molecules have been considered to be merely inactive metabolites for excretion via bile or urine. Nevertheless, different organs such as the placenta and breast tissue produce large amounts of sulfated steroids. After the discovery of the enzyme steroid sulfatase, which is able to re-activate sulfated steroids, these precursor molecules entered the focus of interest again as a local supply for steroid hormone synthesis with a prolonged half-life compared to their unconjugated counterparts. The first descriptions of this so-called sulfatase pathway in the placenta and breast tissue (with special regards to hormone-dependent breast cancer) were quickly followed by studies of steroid sulfate production and function in the testis. These hydrophilic molecules may not permeate the cell membrane by diffusion in the way that unbound steroids can, but need to be transported through the plasma membrane by transport systems. In the testis, a functional sulfatase pathway requires the expression of specific uptake carrier and efflux transporters in testicular cells, i.e. Sertoli, Leydig and germ cells. Main focus has to be placed on Sertoli cells, as these cells build up the blood-testis barrier. In this review, an overview of carrier expression pattern in the human as well as rodent testis is provided with special interest towards implications on fertility.

Placental control of drug delivery

The placenta serves as the interface between the maternal and fetal circulations and regulates the transfer of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products. When exogenous substances are present in the maternal bloodstream-whether from environmental contact, occupational exposure, medication, or drug abuse-the extent to which this exposure affects the fetus is determined by transport and biotransformation processes in the placental barrier. Advances in drug delivery strategies are expected to improve the treatment of maternal and fetal diseases encountered during pregnancy.

The Role of Steroid Sulfatase as a Prognostic Factor in Patients with Endometrial Cancer

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was to determine steroid sulfatase (STS) expression in endometrial cancer patients and its correlation with disease prognosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study in 59 patients who underwent surgery with histologically confirmed endometrial cancer from January 2000 to December 2011 at Hanyang University Hospital. Immuno-histochemical staining of STS was performed using rabbit polyclonal anti-STS antibody.

RESULTS

Sixteen of the 59 patients (27.1%) were positive for STS expression. Disease free survival (DFS) was 129.83±8.67 [95% confidence interval (CI): 112.84-146.82] months in the STS positive group (group A) and 111.06±7.17 (95% CI: 97.01-125.10) months in the STS negative group (group B) (p=0.92). Overall survival (OS) was 129.01±9.38 (95% CI: 110.63-147.38) months and 111.16±7.10 (95% CI: 97.24-125.07) months for the groups A and B, respectively (p=0.45). Univariate analysis revealed that FIGO stage and adjuvant therapy are significantly associated with DFS and OS. However, in multivariate analysis, FIGO stage and adjuvant therapy did not show any statistical significance with DFS and OS. STS was also not significantly associated with DFS and OS in univariate and multivariate analysis.

CONCLUSION

STS expression was not significantly associated with DFS and OS, despite positive STS expression in 27% of endometrial cancer patients. Therefore, the role of STS as a prognostic factor in patients with endometrial cancer remains unclear and requires further research.

Steroid sulfatase in the human MG-63 preosteoblastic cell line: Antagonistic regulation by glucocorticoids and NFκB

Steroid sulfatase (STS) converts sulfated steroids into active forms in cells. Preosteoblastic cells possess STS, but its role and regulation in bone are unclear. We examined STS activity and gene expression during differentiation of human MG-63 preosteoblasts. STS activity and gene expression were decreased during differentiation in cells treated with osteogenic supplement containing dexamethasone (DEX). DEX also inhibited STS activity and expression in undifferentiated cells, and the glucocorticoid antagonist RU486 reversed DEX inhibition of STS. These data may have implications for glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. The NFκB activators lipopolysaccharide and phorbol myristate acetate increased STS expression in undifferentiated and differentiated MG-63 cells, while the NFκB inhibitor BAY-11-7082 partially blocked these responses. The antagonistic actions of glucocorticoids and NFkB on STS expression are similar to the regulation of inflammatory response proteins. We propose a model of STS regulation whereby inflammation leads to increased STS, resulting in increased estrogen, which modulates the inflammatory response.

Transport of estradiol-17β-glucuronide, estrone-3-sulfate and taurocholate across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane: evidence for different transport systems

Important reactions of drug metabolism, including UGT mediated glucuronidation and steroidsulfatase mediated hydrolysis of sulfates, take place in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of hepatocytes. Consequently, UGT generated glucuronides, like estradiol-17β-glucuronide, have to be translocated back into the cytoplasm to reach their site of excretion. Also steroidsulfatase substrates, including estrone-3-sulfate, have to cross the ER membrane to reach their site of hydrolysis. Based on their physicochemical properties such compounds are not favored for passive diffusion and therefore likely necessitate transport system(s) to cross the ER membrane in either direction.

The current study aims to investigate the transport of taurocholate, estradiol-17β-glucuronide, and estrone-3-sulfate in smooth (SER) and rough (RER) endoplasmic reticulum membrane vesicles isolated from Wistar and TR⁻ rat liver.

Time-dependent and bidirectional transport was demonstrated for taurocholate, showing higher uptake rates in SER than RER vesicles. For estradiol-17β-glucuronide a fast time-dependent efflux with similar efficiencies from SER and RER but no clear protein-mediated uptake was shown, indicating an asymmetric transport system for this substrate. Estrone-3-sulfate uptake was time-dependent and higher in SER than in RER vesicles. Inhibition of steroidsulfatase mediated estrone-3-sulfate hydrolysis decreased estrone-3-sulfate uptake but had no effect on taurocholate or estradiol-17β-glucuronide transport.

Based on inhibition studies and transport characteristics, three different transport mechanisms are suggested to be involved in the transport of taurocholate, estrone-3-sulfate and estradiol-17β-glucuronide across the ER membrane.

Cognitive, behavioural and psychiatric phenotypes associated with steroid sulfatase deficiency

The enzyme steroid sulfatase (STS) desulfates a variety of steroid compounds thereby altering their activity. STS is expressed in the skin, and its deficiency in this tissue has been linked to the dermatological condition X-linked ichthyosis. STS is also highly expressed in the developing and adult human brain, and in a variety of steroidogenic organs (including the placenta and gonads); therefore it has the potential to influence brain development and function directly and/or indirectly (through influencing the hormonal milieu). In this review, we first discuss evidence from human and animal model studies suggesting that STS deficiency might predispose to neurobehavioural abnormalities and certain psychiatric disorders. We subsequently discuss potential mechanisms that may underlie these vulnerabilities. The data described herein have potential implications for understanding the complete spectrum of clinical phenotypes associated with X-linked ichthyosis, and may indicate novel pathogenic mechanisms underlying psychological dysfunction in developmental disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and Turner syndrome.

The effect of the steroid sulfatase inhibitor (p-O-sulfamoyl)-tetradecanoyl tyramine (DU-14) on learning and memory in rats with selective lesion of septal-hippocampal cholinergic tract

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), is an excitatory neurosteroid synthesized within the CNS that modulates brain function. Effects associated with augmented DHEAS include learning and memory enhancement. Inhibitors of the steroid sulfatase enzyme increase brain DHEAS levels and can also facilitate learning and memory. This study investigated the effect of steroid sulfatase inhibition on learning and memory in rats with selective cholinergic lesion of the septo-hippocampal tract using passive avoidance and delayed matching to position T-maze (DMP) paradigms. The selective cholinergic immunotoxin 192 IgG-saporin (SAP) was infused into the medial septum of animals and then tested using a step-through passive avoidance paradigm or DMP paradigm. Peripheral administration of the steroid sulfatase inhibitor, DU-14, increased step-through latency following footshock in rats with SAP lesion compared to both vehicle treated control and lesioned animals (p<0.05). However, in the DMP task, steroid sulfatase inhibition impaired acquisition in lesioned rats while having no effect on intact animals. These results suggest that steroid sulfatase inhibition facilitates memory associated with contextual fear, but impairs acquisition of spatial memory tasks in rats with selective lesion of the septo-hippocampal tract.

Characterization of steroid sulfatase in the MC3T3-E1 mouse pre-osteoblastic cell line

Regulation of bone density is partly dependent upon steroid hormones, with estrogens playing an important role. Inactive conjugated estrogens may serve as precursors to active estrogens, especially in post-menopausal women, via steroid sulfatase, which converts conjugated estrogens into unconjugated estrogens. The purpose of this study was to characterize steroid sulfatase in the MC3T3-E1 mouse pre-osteoblastic cell line. Enzyme conversion assays were performed on whole MC3T3-E1 cells in culture and on microsomes prepared by differential centrifugation. (3)H-E(1)S and (3)H-DHEAS were used as tracers, and radioinert E(1)S and DHEAS were used as substrate. Whole cells and microsomes exhibited steroid sulfatase activity, which was blocked by the specific inhibitor estrone-3-O-sulfamate (EMATE). The K(m) of steroid sulfatase in microsomes averaged 83 μM when using E(1)S as substrate and 64 μM when using DHEAS. Western blotting of MC3T3-E1 microsomes for steroid sulfatase was performed, after SDS-PAGE, using an antibody generated against a peptide based on a conserved region of steroid sulfatase. Western blotting revealed three bands of cross-reactivity, ranging from 50 to 79 kDa. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), using specific primers, resulted in a single cDNA band of the expected size (100 bp) and sequence, indicating the presence of steroid sulfatase mRNA. Growth assays revealed that the MC3T3-E1 cells were stimulated by estradiol-17β, and also by estrone sulfate and DHEAS, revealing that the cells can use steroid sulfatase to produce active estrogens. Furthermore, growth of these cells in the presence of estradiol, estrone and estrone sulfate was inhibited by the estrogen receptor blocker ICI 182,780, indicating that stimulation of cell growth is mediated by the estrogen receptor. In our studies, four lines of evidence (enzyme activity, immunoassay, RT-PCR and growth assays) demonstrated the presence of steroid sulfatase in mouse MC3T3-E1 bone cells. The existence of steroid sulfatase in these pre-osteoblastic cells, along with the ability of sulfated steroids to promote their growth, suggest the possibility that this enzyme is involved in regulation of bone density in mice.

Steroid sulfatase and estrogen sulfotransferase in human carcinomas

Estrogens are closely involved in the development of hormone-dependent carcinomas. Estrone is locally produced from circulating inactive estrone sulfate by steroid sulfatase (STS), while estrone is inversely inactivated into estrone sulfate by estrogen sulfotransferase (EST). Recent studies suggested importance of this STS pathway in various human carcinomas. Therefore, in this review, we summarized recent results of STS and EST in several estrogen-dependent carcinomas. STS and EST expressions were detected in the breast and endometrial carcinomas, and activation of STS pathway due to increment in STS and/or decrement in EST expressions plays important role in their estrogen-dependent growth. STS expression was also reported in the ovarian and prostate carcinomas. STS/EST status was associated with intratumoral estrogen level in the colon carcinoma, and STS-negative/EST-positive colon carcinoma patients had longer survival. Therefore, STS pathway and estrogen actions may play an important role in the development of these carcinomas, and further investigations are required.

Steroid metabolome in fetal and maternal body fluids in human late pregnancy

Despite the extensive research during the last six decades the fundamental questions concerning the role of steroids in the initiation of human parturition and origin and function of some steroids in pregnancy were not definitely answered. Based on steroid metabolomic data found in the literature and our so far unpublished results, we attempted to bring new insights concerning the role of steroids in the sustaining and termination of human pregnancy, and predictive value of these substances for estimation of term. We also aimed to explain enigmas concerning the biosynthesis of progesterone and its bioactive catabolites considering the conjunctions between placental production of CRH, synthesis of bioactive steroids produced by fetal adrenal, localization of placental oxidoreductases and sustaining of human pregnancy. Evaluation of data available in the literature, including our recent findings as well as our new unpublished data indicates increasing progesterone synthesis and its concurrently increasing catabolism with approaching parturition, confirms declining production of pregnancy sustaining 5β-pregnane steroids providing uterine quiescence in late pregnancy, increased sulfation of further neuroinhibiting and pregnancy sustaining steroids. In contrast to the established concept considering LDL cholesterol as the primary substrate for progesterone synthesis in pregnancy, our data demonstrates the functioning of alternative mechanism for progesterone synthesis, which is based on the utilization of fetal pregnenolone sulfate for progesterone production in placenta. Close relationships were found between localization of placental oxidoreductases and consistently higher levels of sex hormones, neuroactive steroids and their metabolites in the oxidized form in the fetus and in the reduced form in the maternal compartment.

Estrogen and progesterone receptor levels in nonneoplastic breast epithelium of breast cancer cases versus benign breast biopsy controls

BACKGROUND

Previous studies and biological mechanisms of carcinogenesis suggest that the steroid receptor content of benign breast epithelium may be related to breast cancer risk. The objective in this study was to compare the levels of estrogen receptor-alpha (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) in nonneoplastic breast epithelium between breast cancer cases and biopsy controls.

METHODS

Between 1995 and 1997 at two sites (Women's College Hospital in Toronto and Kingston General Hospital), 667 women who were scheduled for diagnostic excisional breast biopsies completed a questionnaire providing personal information and agreed to allow analysis of routinely resected tissue. Histological slides with nonneoplastic epithelium were available for 101 cancer cases and 200 biopsy controls in Toronto and for 105 cancer cases and 119 controls in Kingston. Nonneoplastic epithelium was examined with immunohistochemical assays to determine the percent of epithelial cells staining for ER and PR. Unconditional logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios (OR) stratified by study site.

RESULTS

The ER content of nonneoplastic tissue was higher in cases than biopsy controls in unadjusted analyses; after adjustment for age, however, a weak association remained in only one of the study sites. After adjustment for age, the PR content of nonneoplastic tissue was slightly lower in breast cancer cases than controls in one study site. Furthermore, this inverse association was confined to women with PR negative breast cancer in comparison to the controls. No interaction between ER and PR content of nonneoplastic tissue was observed in relation to the odds of having breast cancer.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study are consistent with only a slight indication of increased ER levels in nonneoplastic tissue in breast cancer cases relative to controls. This study contributes to the understanding of breast cancer by examining both ER and PR in nonneoplastic tissue. Limitations remain, however, such as the necessity of using as controls women with benign breast changes, difficulties in selecting the appropriate tissue for analysis, and tissue sampling concurrent to diagnosis.

Expression of estrogen-metabolizing enzymes and estrogen receptors in cholelithiasis gallbladder

BACKGROUND

Estrogen exposure is a risk factor for gallstone disease (cholelithiasis), which often leads to chronic inflammation (cholecystitis). Studies in various estrogen-sensitive tissues showed that key enzymes involved in the inactivation and activation of estrogens as well as expression of estrogen receptors alpha and beta determine the amount of active estrogen. In estrogen-sensitive tissues, e.g. the female breast, estrone sulfate (E1S), present at high concentrations in the circulation, is converted into the biologically active estrone (E1) by steroid sulfatase (STS) and again reverted into E1S by estrogen sulfotransferase (SULT1E1) providing a local estrogen storage.

AIMS

To assess whether this might also apply for gallbladder epithelia, we determined expression of these two enzymes and of ERalpha and ERbeta in 15 cholelithiasis specimens from tissues with/or without inflammation.

METHODS

Quantitative (Real-time) PCR and immunofluorescence were used as methods.

RESULTS

We demonstrate mRNA expression of SULT1E1, STS, and ERalpha in all specimens with mean enrichment of 3.53- vs. 1.72-fold (n.s.), 3.5- vs. 0.91-fold (n.s.), and 3.04- vs. 1.6-fold (n.s.) in the inflammatory and non-inflammatory groups, respectively. Although high expression levels were seen in many specimens (means 4.88-fold vs. 5.77-fold), ERbeta mRNA was below the detection limit in two specimens from cholecystitis patients. To further investigate this varying expression pattern of ERbeta, immunohistological studies were performed, which indeed showed low expression levels of ERbeta in the damaged mucosa, while in specimens with well preserved mucosa, high ERbeta levels were seen in the cytosol and in the nucleus.

CONCLUSION

The data show expression of an estrogen network of activating STS and inactivating SULT1E1. Together with ERalpha and ERbeta, these enzymes could regulate estrogen concentrations in human gallbladder.

Steroid sulfatase and sulfuryl transferase activities in human brain tumors

Neuroactive steroids (dehydroepiandrosterone, pregnenolone) and their sulfates act as modulators of glutamate and gamma-aminobutyrate type A receptors in the brain The physiological ratio of these neuromodulators is maintained by two enzymes present in the brain, namely, steroid sulfatase (STS) and steroid sulfuryl transferase (SULT). Following previous determination of their activities in monkey brains, their activities were evaluated in human brain tumors. Radioimmunoassay and GC-MS were used for determination of products. Both enzyme activities were measured in the 55 most frequent human brain tumors (glioblastomas, pituitary adenomas, meningiomas, astrocytomas). Significant differences were found in STS activity among investigated types of tumors except the pair of pituitary adenomas-glioblastomas, while significant differences were found in SULT activity among investigated types of tumors. Spontaneous tendency to form clusters was revealed when both enzyme activities were taken as coordinates. Clustering indicated an individual metabolic behavior of glioblastomas and 72.7% of pituitary adenomas. Astrocytomas, meningiomas and remaining 27.3% pituitary adenomas showed similarities in both enzymes' activities. Differences in STS and SULT activity did not depend on the sex or age of subjects.